The Changing Images of Man

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General Editor: Ervin Laszlo
Explorations of World Order
GIARINI, 0. & LOUBERGE, H.
The Diminishing Returns of Technology: an Essay on the Crisis III
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LASZLO, E.
The Inner Limits of Mankind: Heretical Reflections of Today's Values,
Culture and Politics
LASZLO, E. & BIERMAN, J.
Goals in a Global Community
Vol. 1: Studies on the Conceptual Foundations
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MARKLEY, 0. & HARMAN, W.
SAUVANT, K.
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Poverty: Wealth of Mankind
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Edited by
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I <10 not wish to seem overdramatic but I can only conclude
from the information that is available to me as Secretary-General
that the Members of the United Nations have perhaps ten years
left in which to subordinate their ancient quarrels and launch a
global partnership to curb the arms race, to improve the human
environment, to defuse the population explosion, and to supply
the required momentum to development efforts. If such a global
partnership is not forged within the next decade, then I very
much fear that the problems I have mentioned will have reached
such staggering proportions that they will be beyond our capacity
to control.
V Thant (1969)
Awareness of ideal values is the first step in the conscious
creation of images of the future and therefore the creation of
culture, for a value is by definition that which guides toward a
"valued" future ..... Any student of the rise and fall of cultures
cannot fail to be impressed by the role in this historical succession
by the image of the future. The rise and fall of images of the
future precedes or accompanies the rise and fall of cultures ....
In the end, the future may well be decided by the image which
carries the greatest spiritual power.
Fred Polak (1973)
Much advance, both in biological evolution and in psychosocial
evolution, including advance in science, is of course obtained by
adding minute particulars, but at intervals something like crys-
talization from a supersaturated solution occurs, as when science
arrives at an entirely new concept, which then unifies an enor-
mous amount of factual data and ideas, as with Newton or
Darwin. Major advances occur in a series of large steps, from one
form of organization to another. In our psychosocial evolution I
believe we are now in a position to make a new major advance.
Sir Julian Huxley (1968)
v
Acknowledgements
This study was administered by the Urban and Social Systems Division
of Stanford Research Institute, Harvey L. Dixon, Executive Director.
Willis W. Harman, Director of the Center for the Study of Social
Policy, provided overall guidance and o. W. Markley was Project
Director.
An Advisory Panel to the project, which contributed especially help-
ful formative suggestions and constructive critiques, consisted of Rene
Dubos, Henry Margenau, Margaret Mead, and Geoffrey Vickers.
Similarly helpful advice was given by Kent Collins and Winston Frank-
lin of the Charles F. Kettering Foundation.
The core research staff for the study were Duane Elgin, Willis
Harman, Arthur Hastings, O. W. Markley, Dorothy McKinney, and
Brendan O'Regan. Major contributions were made by Joseph Camp-
bell and Floyd Matson, and less extensive ones by Magoroh Maruyama,
Donald Michael, Leslie Schneider, Barbara Pillsbury, and John Platt.
The report was edited by Susan Taylor and Shirley Manning.
Numerous key insights, acknowledged in the text, came from in-
vestigators at other centers. Although the project was essentially a team
effort with various individuals contributing to all chapters of the report,
specific chapters were principally written as follows: Chapter 2-0. W.
Markley, based on contributions from Joseph Campbell, Arthur Hastings
and Floyd Matson; Chapter 3-Duane Elgin; Chapter 4-Brendan
O'Regan; Chapter 5-0. W. Markley and Willis Harman; Chapter
6-0. W. Markley; Chapter 7-Duane Elgin; Chapter 8-Willis Harman.
Acknowledgment is gratefully given to the late John McHale (1970) for
calling attention early on to the importance of the "image of man" as an
area requiring study. His insights, combined with those our staff
developed during an earlier study ("Contemporary Societal Problems,"
also funded by the Charles F. Kettering Foundation), led to the present
study being undertaken.
A draft of this report was reviewed by selected experts to whom we
are very grateful. They are listed on page xv. Final editorial respon-
sibility, however, rests with the SRI staff; therefore no approval of the
report by either the Advisory Panel or the other reviewers is implied
beyond their statements which are contained herein.
Vll
Contents
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll
LIST OF TABLES XIV
REVIEWERS xv
INTRODUCTION TO THE PERGAMON EDITION XVll
INTRODUCTION TO THE SRI REPORT XXI
1. IMAGES OF MAN IN A CHANGING SOCIETY 1
Images and social policy 1
A working definition of "image of man" 2
The relevance of images to modern society 3
2. SOME FORMATIVE IMAGES OF MAN-IN-THE-
UNIVERSE . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Selected historical and modern images of man 17
Early images of man .... 17
The human as separate from God and Nature-early
Near-Eastern views 22
The Knower-Gnostic view . 23
The individual-Greek views 24
Empire and Christianity-the Roman catalyst 26
The age of faith-and contention 26
Man over things-the New Empire . 27
The human as beast-the Darwinian, Freudian, and
ethological views . 28
The human as mechanism-the view of modern
behaviorism. . 29
The human as person-the view of humanism
and humanistic psychology . 30
The human as evolving holon-the view of modern
systems theory. . . . . 32
The human as spirit-the VIew of the perennial
philosophy . . 33
IX
x Contents
"The American Creed" 35
Underlying issues and dimensions 37
3. ECONOMIC MAN: SERVANT TO INDUSTRIAL
METAPHORS 45
Sources of the economic image of man 45
The image of economic man in the contern porary setting 49
The poverty of our abundance 50
The present mismatch between premises and societal
realities 52
Going beyond: in search of image/society resolution 56
The power of the industrial state 57
The control of the industrial state 58
The growing impotence of the economic image 62
Conclusion-prospects for the future . 63
4. INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE ON THE "IMAGE OF
MAN" 67
Characteristics and limitations of classical science 68
Paradigms in transmutation 68
Limitations of the scientific process itself 72
Crucial frontiers in scientific inquiry 75
Modern physics and cosmology 75
Other physical sciences 78
Consciousness research 88
Parapsychology and psychic research 95
General systems theory and cybernetics 100
Sources and characteristics of a possible new paradigm 103
Interactions between science and society 103
Characteristics of a possibly emergent paradigm 108
5. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ADEQUATE IMAGE OF
HUMANKIND 113
A holistic sense of perspective 114
Ecological ethic 114
Self-realization ethic 115
Multi-dimensional, multi-faceted, and integrative 117
Balancing and coordinating satisfactions along many
dimensions . 119
Experimental and open-ended 120
Contents xi
6. THE FEASIBILITY OF AN INTEGRATIVE, EVOLU-
TIONARY IMAGE OF MAN 125
Conceptual feasibility of a new image of man 125
Elements of a new image 125
The gradient 126
The self 133
Examining the new image for conceptual feasibility 138
Operational feasibility of a new image of man 141
Evolutionary transformation in response to crisis 142
Cultural transformations 142
Conceptual revolutions in science . 144
Similarities between scientific and cultural revitalization 145
Mythic transformations 146
Personal transformations 147
Synthesis and inference 148
Institutional and personal change 152
Imagining makes it so 152
New paradigms from old 156
Considerations of operational feasibility 157
7. SOCIETAL CHOICES AND CONSEQUENCES OF
CHANGING IMAGES 163
Contrasting future trends and images 164
Societal consequences of a technological extrapolationist
Image 166
Societal consequences of an evolutionary trans-
formationalist image 171
Individual and social goals 173
Institutions 175
Summary 177
8. GUIDELINES AND STRATEGIES FOR TRANSFOR-
MATION 183
Some premises for the present discussion 183
Comparison of basic strategies 186
Salient characteristics of the transformation 190
Nature of the fundamental anomaly 190
Essential conditions for resolution of the fundamental
anomaly . '. 191
Difficulty of achieving a non-disruptive transition 194
Elements of a strategy for a non-catastrophic transition 195
xu
SUMMARY
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Contents
201
205
207
A. An alternative view of history, the spiritual dimension of
the human person, and a third alternative image of
humanness (Elise Boulding) 219
B. Information systems and social ethics (Geoffrey Vickers) 223
c. A view of modified reductionism (Henry Margenau) 229
D. Scientific images of man and the man in the street (Rene
Dubos and David Cahoon) . . . . . . 233
E. Some projects suited to government or foundation support 235
F. The basic paradigm of a future socio-cultural system
(Virginia H. Hine) 239
INDEX 249
List of Illustrations
1. Hypothesized time/phase relationship between images and
social/cultural development 5
2. The growth of human numbers 9
3. Urbanization in the United States 10
4. Selected world population, wealth, and consumption trends 11
5. Depletion of world reserves of commercial grade ores if
world population had U.S. living standard 12
6. Two contrasting epochs of human history 12
7. Levels of description useful in analyzing social change 14
8. Hypothesized interaction between the economic man and
society 49
9. Complementarity of various images as they might fit in a
proposed composite image of the person 126
10. Various aspects of consciousness/function in the personality 130
11. Stages of moral development 131
12. A metaphorical image of the personal and transpersonal
aspects of consciousness 134
13. A personal-transpersonal mind/body model 135
14. Two of "N" possible dimensions of an integrative image of
the person 136
15. Transcendent-immanent aspects added to the personal-
transpersonal aspects of an integrative image of the
person 136
16. Composite metaphor of an integrative, evolutionary image
of the person for the future 137
17. U.S. one-dollar bill 185
Xlll
xu
SUMMARY
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Contents
201
205
207
A. An alternative view of history, the spiritual dimension of
the human person, and a third alternative image of
humanness (Elise Boulding) 219
B. Information systems and social ethics (Geoffrey Vickers) 223
C. A view of modified reductionism (Henry Margenau) 229
D. Scientific images of man and the man in the street (Rene
Dubos and David Cahoon) . . . . 233
E. Some projects suited to government or foundation support 235
F. The basic paradigm of a future socio-cultural system
(Virginia H. Hine) 239
INDEX 249
List of Illustrations
1. Hypothesized time/phase relationship between images and
social/cultural development 5
2. The growth of human numbers 9
3. Urbanization in the United States 10
4. Selected world population, wealth, and consumption trends 11
5. Depletion of world reserves of commercial grade ores if
world population had U.S. living standard 12
6. Two contrasting epochs of human history 12
7. Levels of description useful in analyzing social change 14
8. Hypothesized interaction between the economic man and
society 49
9. Complementarity of various images as they might fit in a
proposed composite image of the person 126
10. Various aspects of consciousness/function in the personality 130
11. Stages of moral development 131
12. A metaphorical image of the personal and transpersonal
aspects of consciousness 134
13. A personal-transpersonal mind/body model 135
14. Two of "N" possible dimensions of an integrative image of
the person 136
15. Transcendent-immanent aspects added to the personal-
transpersonal aspects of an integrative image of the
person 136
16. Composite metaphor of an integrative, evolutionary image
of the person for the future 137
17. U.S. one-dollar bill 185
Xlll
List of Tables
1. Indications that perceptions and behavior are influenced by
~ a g ~ 4
2. Selected successes and associated problems of the tech-
nological/industrial era 6
3. Dominant images of humankind throughout history 18
4. Attributes of the dominant image in contemporary United
States 39
5. Elements of an historical analogy for exploring the feasi-
bility of a new scientific paradigm 106
6. Three dimensions on a "gradient of awareness" 128
7. Stages of crisis resolution in myth, culture, science, psy-
chotherapy, and essential creativity 149
8. Historical roots of the technological extrapolationist image 166
9. Historical roots of the evolutionary transformationalist
image 167
10. Illustrative contrasts between alternative images 168
XIV
Reuieuiers"
Elise Boulding
Institute of Behavioral Science
University of Colorado
G. David Cahoon
Department of Secondary Education
California State University
San Francisco
Joseph Campbell
New York, New York
Rene Dubos'
Rockefeller University
Edgar S. Dunn, Jr.
Resources for the Future, Inc.
Washington, D.C.
James Fadiman
Counseling Center
Stanford University
Roland Fischer
Maryland Psychiatric Research Center
Baltimore, Maryland
Luther Gerlach
Department of Anthropology
University of Minnesota
Charles Hampden-Turner
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Stanley Krippner
Maimonides Medical Center, Brooklyn,
New York
Ervin Laszlo
Department of Philosophy
State University of New York
George C. Lodge
Graduate School of Business Administration
Harvard University
Henry Margenau'
Department of Physics
Yale University
Michael Marien
World Institute
New York, New York
Magoroh Maruyama
Department of Systems Science
Portland State University
Portland, Oregon
Margaret Mead!
American Museum of Natural History
New York, New York
Ralph Metzner
Los Angeles Star Center
Carl R. Rogers
Center for Studies of the Person
La Jolla, California
B. F. Skinner
Department of Psychology
Harvard University
Robert A. Smith, III
Huntsville, Alabama
Sir Geoffrey Vickers'
Reading, Berkshire, England
Anthony F. C. Wallace
Department of Anthropology
University of Pennsylvania
John White
Institute of Noetic Sciences
Palo Alto, California
Institutional affiliations of Reviewers are as of 1973, many of which have now changed.
t Member of the Advisory Panel.
Selected comments of Reviewers are included as footnotes and appendices to the text
which follows.
xv
Introduction to the Pergamon Edition
Changing Images of Man is an unusual work, one that enthuses some,
displeases others, and leaves few neutral.
It was undertaken for a specific purpose: to chart, insofar as possible,
what changes in the conceptual premises underlying Western society
would lead to a desirable future. Obviously a research objective con-
taining many value-laden assumptions!
Thus it is perhaps not surprising that a number of questions about
the background of this study have been asked by students in classes at
the dozen or so colleges and universities that have used Changing Images of
Man as a text.
The most common questions concern the study's origins. Why was it
undertaken? Who supported it? What kinds of researchers wrote it?
Additionally, most have wanted to know how it is viewed now, some 7
years later, by the researchers who wrote it. And what it may have led to
by way of social change.
The purpose of this introduction to the Pergamon edition is to
answer some of these questions.
In 1968 the U.S. Office of Education launched two research centers in
an ambitious undertaking to "investigate alternative future possibilities
for the society and their implications for educational policy." One of
these Educational Policy Research Centers, or EPRCs as they were
called, was established at Syracuse University, the other at SRI Inter-
national (then known as the Stanford Research Institute). The SRI
center, after assessing available methodologies, chose to develop a
totally new approach. First, we attempted to identify and assess the
plausibility of a truly vast number of future possibilities for society. We
next followed a method of analysis that determined which sequences of
possible futures (that is, which "alternate future histories") appeared to
be most plausible in light of human history and to most usefully
serve the needs of policy research and development. Lastly,
we derived a variety of policy implications, some of which dealt with
how best to continue this type of inquiry (Harman, Markley, and
Rhyne, 1973; Rhyne, 1974).
From this exercise a surprising-and very sobering-conclusion
emerged. Of some fifty highly plausible future histories, only a handful
were by usual standards at all desirable (Harman, 1969). The reasons
why this was so are now, a decade later, familar to serious students of
Cl M _ B XVll
XVlll Introduction to the Pergamon Edition
the future. (They involve the interconnected issues and problems of
population growth, resource depletion, pollution, and so forth,
variously termed "the world macro-problem," "le problernatique," or
"the crises of crises.") Other investigators soon came to similar con-
clusions using different methodological approaches (see, for example,
Meadows et al., 1972; or Salk, 1973).
In the research on the "world macro-problem" that followed, a second
sobering conclusion emerged: that an essential requirement for realizing
any of the more desirable alternative future paths would likely require
fundamental changes in the way our industrial culture is organized. Laws,
attitudes, ethics-even the very way we conceptualize the nature of
humankind-may require reform if they are to "fit with" and ap-
propriately guide the complex interrelated political and social systems that
have come to dominate modern life (Markley, Curry and Rink, 1971). As
the inimitable Pogo said in the comics, "We have met the enemy and he is
us!"
Finding it difficult to apply the implications of findings such as these,
the Office of Education in 1972 shifted the mission of the EPRCs
toward inquiry into educational-policy problems having more im-
mediate concern to them, such as on education for the disadvantaged,
competency-based teacher education and so forth. In order to continue
the long-range implications of the line of inquiry we had begun, we
created a second research activity at SRI-the Center for the Study of
Social Policy.
In choosing the research agenda of the new center, we reasoned
that the job of alerting society to the world macro-problem
ahead was well underway. The policy-research task that now (in 1972)
seemed most in need of doing (although perhaps least susceptible to
conventional research methods) was the development of a plausible
vision of the future in which democratic methods survive, major prob-
lems are managed successfully if not resolved, and the unfolding of the
human potential continues to expand. In other words, the postulation
of a "desirable future" including feasible paths to its realization-the
world macro-problem notwithstanding.
About this same time the Charles F. Kettering Foundation was
looking for "high leverage" ideas-possibly risky approaches to social
policy research and development in which a relatively small amount of
support might, if successful, lead to a beneficial effect on society that is
relatively large. In discussion with Winston O. Franklin and Kent
Collins at Kettering about the implications of a study they had earlier
commissioned us to do on contemporary societal problems, we con-
sidered a variety of ways in which further research on desirable future
paths involving transformation of fundamental cultural characteristics
Introduction to the Pergamon Edition
XIX
might be usefully done. Although it was tempting, we decided that it
would be premature to immediately attempt analysis and description of
the "transformed future" we had by this time come to believe was
urgently needing to be envisioned. Rather it seemed a more ap-
propriate task to assess insofar as feasible, the conceptual foundations
of thinking and doing that might support a benign transition to such a
future, choosing as our research focus to concentrate on "images of
nature of man in relationship with the universe;" how past images have
led to our present industrialized society with its crisis-level problems;
and what types of images appear to be needed as we move into a
post-industrial future. The rest of the rationale underlying the study is
set forth in the "Introduction to the SRI Report" that follows.
The research study leading to this book was done by a multidis-
ciplinary team, most of whom had not worked together before, in
about 8 months. The researchers came from a variety of backgrounds
ranging from the humanities and social sciences to engineering and
physics. Most had proficiency in at least two specialized disciplines as
well as having a generalist orientation-a definite advantage in an
interdisciplinary inquiry such as this-and all brought with them a
deep appreciation for the profound ways in which myths and images
affect the perceptions and actions of humankind in the universe where
we now find ourselves.
From the outset, all of us involved in the project realized that the
subject of our inquiry-the societal consequences of changing images
of humankind-was a sensitive one; further, that no study of this type
would seem adequate, certainly not one done in the short time we had
available, and that it would not be possible to cover all the topics and
points of view that we would like. Nevertheless, we agreed that due to
the subject-matter involved, we should f o l l o ~ where the inquiry led,
even if it meant getting into areas that are unconventional, allowing
feedback from our advisory panel and from other reviewers to serve as
a check on our results.
As to how its authors now view Changing Images of Man and as to
what the study has led, several generalizations will have to suffice.
Although the authors are still in fundamental agreement with
what we wrote almost a decade ago, there are several ways in that
in retrospect we would like to have done it differently. One change
would be to present our analysis and findings in a more objective way.
Although we continue to believe that inquiries of this sort should avoid
the appearance of "value neutrality," much of the study has a certain
tone of preaching that although representative of the earnestness in
which the research was undertaken, we now find less than desirable in
a research report. Another change would have been to explore more
xx Introduction to the Pergamon Edition
deeply the enormous significance that emerging changes in psychosexual
norms and premises have for the future society.
It is difficult-perhaps even inappropriate-to assess the direct im-
pact that the research report Changing Images of Man may have had on
society. One reason is that the study was not published promptly, hence
it did not enter the standard bibliographic reference systems that can
be used for such assessments. (Interestingly, until Ervin Laszlo and
Pergamon Press initiated their Explorations of World Order Series, the
study was judged unsuitable for commercial publication because it did
not fall into any of the marketing categories that publishers con-
ventionally use.) A second, and more significant, obstacle to assessing
the impact of the book stems from an increasing recognition since it
was first released-that the emerging transformation of society seems
to be proceeding by way of a diffuse network of interrelated influences,
no one of which seeks to be a "central project" (see, for example, the
article "The Basic Paradigm of a Future Socio-cultural System" by
Virginia Hine included here as Appendix F). Certainly many of the
ideas contained in Changing Images of Man are being debated and
extended in a variety of settings throughout the society. Two recent
books, New Age Politics (Satin, 1978) and the Aquarian Conspiracy
(Ferguson, 1980), describe much of this activity from a proponent's
point of view.
With very few changes, the Pergamon edition is essentially the same
as Changing Images of Man, Research Report No.4, issued May 1974 by
the Center for the Study of Social Policy, SRI International. For those
who want to compare the Pergamon edition with the SRI report,
specific changes (other than minor editing) are (1) the reordering of
materials in Chapter 1, adding back in a section on the role-of myth in
society by Joseph Campbell that was contained in the original draft but
not in the final version of the report; (2) the modification of Chapter
2, page 23 to reflect Sir Geoffrey Vickers' comments regarding the
Christian Image of Mankind as a brotherhood, members one of an-
other; (3) the addition of a short section in Chapter 2, page 30 in
response to Carl Rogers' urging that the contribution of humanistic
psychology be acknowledged as having positive characteristics needed
by the future image of mankind, and finally (4) the addition of a
cartoon at the end of each chapter.
The glossary and the index are also additions of the Pergamon
report.
O. W. Markley
Studies of the Future Program
University of Houston at Clear Lake City
Willis W. Harman
Institute of Noetic Sciences
and SRI International
Introduction to the SRI Report
How does one study a priori conceptions which, by definition, are
fundamental to and lie beyond the rules of inquiry of any .particular
discipline? There is a principle that is made explicit in Gestalt psy-
chology which states that "without contrast, there can be no per-
ception; without perceived similarity, there can be no common
meaning."
In this study we attempt to discern fundamental and usually un-
recognized influences on our societal problems, on our social policies,
and on our hopes for the future. Since our aim is to break out of set
patterns of thinking (and hence recognize useful new ways of thinking
and imaging), we have not attempted to follow the research methods
associated with any particular academic or applied methodology.
Rather we have tried to follow the course of inquiry wherever it would
lead-within definite limitation of time, resources, and the nature of
conclusions which were required of the study-contrasting different
conceptions held at different times in different places, recognizing
patterns and similarities between divergent modes of thought, and
seeking creative syntheses wherever possible.
The approach used in this study is perhaps best described by the
anthropologist Levi-Strauss's term "bricolage:"
This is a work for which we have no proper English equivalent. The "bricoleur" is a
do-it-yourself man, who draws on a stock of miscellaneous materials and whatever
tools come to hand to do his odd jobs. He is not the meticulous craftsman who insists
on the precise tool for the precise job.
(Dorothy Emmet, 1969, p. 47)
In Levi-Strauss' conception, bricolage thinking conveys a message,
but the message is not so much the conclusion of a story (though a
story, as with myths, is generally being told); rather bricolage thinking
is primarily to exhibit relationships which are important to recognize,
although it is necessary to make recourse to the level of metaphor in
order to do so. '*'
"I find the bricolage approach very useful ... necessary to get out of the mode-lock our
thinking usually falls within. However it seems to me that your report is more analogical
than metaphorical, seeking (and finding) useful isomorphic relationships between diverse
areas of knowledge which somehow need to be brought together-although, as you
suggest, the task in its initial stages cannot be very precise."-Luther Gerlach
XXI
XXll
Introduction to the SRI Report
Images and fundamental conceptions of human nature and poten-
tialities can have enormous power in shaping the values and actions in
a society. We have attempted in this study to:
1. Illuminate ways our present society, its citizens, and institutions have been shaped by
the underlying myths and images of the past and present.
2. Explore the deficiencies of currently held images of humankind and to identify needed
characteristics of future images.
3. Identify high-leverage activities that could facilitate the emergence of new images
and new policy approaches to the resolution of key problems in society.
In seeking to fulfill the above three objectives within the practical
constraints of the study, we chose to focus on the challenges and
opportunities facing Western man, and particularly American man.
While we tried to view the American situation in a planetary context, it
was not possible to deal adequately with the very different situations
facing different peoples of the modern world. Also we had to omit a
number of important and relevant topics. Most notable are modern art,
literature, theology, and mass movements as activities which will con-
tinue to influence strongly the image human beings hold of themselves
and their world. We have instead chosen to focus on those aspects
most involved in the rise and potential transformation of industrialism
as the dominant way of life in modern Western culture. In particular
we focus on the limitations of current economics and science, and on
the potential that an integrative and evolutionary image of man might
have to reunite what C. P. Snow termed "the two cultures" (the
sciences and the humanities) in order to forge a more appropriate
policy paradigm for our society.
In addition to the three main goals above, this project is also a
somewhat informal experiment in "network development," the pur-
pose of which is to demonstrate the relevance and interrelatedness of
conclusions reached by workers in different areas of specialized
research vis-a-vis these goals; and also to foster an increase in inter-
disciplinary communication between these workers, agency staffs which
support such research, and other members of the public.
"The only thing I miss in the document is a recognition of the possible role of the arts,
not simply as agents 'depicting a positive future,' but as openers of the way to delight
and a sense of fulfillment, not in some future, but now. I don't recall that we ever
talked about the arts except in terms of the history of art. Their role in the enrichment
and harmonization of life, and the part that they might play, in this role in the
enrichment and harmonization of life, and the part that they might play, in this role, in
the structuring of any future civilization, is a topic, I think, that could be given
consideration. "-Joseph Campbell
In retrospect, we also overlooked the enormous implications that the modern feminist
movement has for a new, and hopefully less sexist image. of humankind.
Introduction to the SRI Report XXlll
Thus, as noted in the Acknowledgments, a discussion draft of this
report was circulated to a wide variety of learned and expert persons
for their critique and original contributions. Their briefer comments
are presented in footnotes throughout the report, and several, more
inclusive statements are presented in the appendices. In general, com-
ments of praise from such reviewers are not presented in this report
unless they happen to balance related, but less happy remarks.
ORGANIZATION OF THIS STUDY
In Chapter 1 we survey the role of images in contemporary society.
Any image of humankind implies normative values and goals, which
are turned by the society into operating rules for social policies. This
"conversion" is illustrated throughout Chapter 2 which is a selective
historical survey of images and societies that have particular relevance
to the current and possible future images held by our society.
Chapter 3 then explores in detail the development of "economic
man," an image that has prevailed throughout the industrial era but
now must be questioned in terms of its inadequacies for a society
passing beyond that era.
In Chapter 4, our particular concern is with the conceptual-empirical
input from scientific research and its influence on our images of
humankind. At various times in history, man's image of himself was
shaped by mythology, philosophy, and religion. In our contemporary
culture, science has added a dominant formative contribution to our
conception of the nature of the human being-through biology and life
sciences, physics, psychology, brain research, evolutionary theory, and
the growing investigation of consciousness states and parapsychological
phenomena. '*'
The heart of the study is to be found in Chapter 5-"Characteristics
of an Adequate Image of Humankind." Whether these characteristics
prove to be attractive or as adequate as we believe them to be and
whether they (or others like them) emerge in our culture remains to be
seen. At this time, we can only explore the feasibility (Chapter 6) of the
integrative, evolutionary image of humankind that we postulate as an
adequate image.
In Chapter 7, we explore some of the possible methods, stresses, and
consequences of changing images as our society moves into the post-
Rene Dubos does not agree that the images of man have been profoundly influenced
by science. See his comment in Appendix D.
XXIV Introduction to the SRI Report
industrial era. This chapter concludes that:
We can either involve ourselves in the recreative self- and societal-discovery of an
image of humankind appropriate for our future, with attendant societal and personal
consequences, or we can choose not to make any choice, and, instead, adapt to
whatever fate, and the choices of others, bring along.
Finally, in Chapter 8, we attempt to derive guidelines for action by
foundations, corporations, government agencies, and voluntary asso-
ciations. These guidelines are predicated on the desirability of the
transformation defined in preceding portions of the report, which
involves both the dominant image of man in the society, and major
social institutions.
Appendices present longer comments from reviewers and more
specific project suggestions.
CHAPTER 1
Images of Man 'In a Changing Society
Man is a symbol-forming organism. He has constant need of a meaningful inner
formulation of self and world in which his own actions, and even his impulses, have
some kind of "fit" with the "outside" as he perceives it.
Robert Jay Lifton, in The Development and Acquisition of Values (1968)
Symbolic thinking is not the exclusive privilege of the child, of the poet or of the
unbalanced mind; it is consubstantial with human existence, it comes before lan-
guage and discursive reason. The symbol reveals certain aspects of reality-the
deepest aspects-which defy any other means of knowledge. Images, symbols, and
myths are not irresponsible creations of the psyche; they respond to a need and
fulfill a function, that of bringing to light the most hidden modalities of being.
Consequently, the study of them enables us to reach a better understanding of man.
Mircea Eliade, in Myths and Symbols (1952)
IMAGES AND SOCIAL POLICY
In this study we attempt to identify and assess the "images of man"
that are fundamental organizing principles of (1) our society and/or (2)
of key civilizations that have contributed to it. All public and private
policy decisions necessarily embody some view (or compromise of
views) about the nature of man, society, and universe. The kinds of
educational systems and goals a society sets up, the ways in which it
approaches the problems of material distribution (poverty and wealth),
how it treats the welfare of its citizens, the priorities it gives to various
human needs-all these aspects and many more are affected by the
image of humankind that dominates the society. Precisely how we
cannot say with detailed accuracy-which is why metaphors, myths,
allegories, theories (all of which attempt to express an image) are
useful. But in a very real way, all policy issues are issues relating to
fundamental assumptions about the nature of man and his concerns:"
"All policy issues are also issues relating to fundamental assumptions about the nature
of man's institutions and how they interact with man. "-Michael Marien
2 Changing Images of Man
If we see ourselves as separate from or superior to nature, then an exploitation ethic
can be fostered more easily.
If we see ourselves as a part of or one with nature, then an ecological ethic can be
fostered more easily.
If we view human beings (e.g. in medicine, employment, architecture) as animated
machines of physical parts, then non-physical aspects of our existence are likely to be
ignored.
If we view humans as solely spiritual rather than physical beings, then material
aspects of our existence are likely to be ignored, e.g. in public health, employment
opportunities, housing.
If human nature is seen as complete and fixed, then our task is to adapt ourselves
and our institutions to enhance that development.
A WORKING DEFINITION OF "IMAGE OF MAN"
We use "image of man" (or of humankind-in-the-universe) to refer to
the set of assumptions held about the human being's origin, nature, abilities
and characteristics, relationships with others, and place in the universe. A
coherent image might be held by any individual or group, a political
system, a church, or a civilization. It would consist of beliefs as to
whether we are basically good or evil, whether our will is free or is
determined by external forces, whether we are cooperative or com-
petitive, whether we are essentially equal, and so on. It includes both
what man (woman) "is" and what he (she) "ought to be."t Most
societies have a reasonably coherent image of what it means to be
"human," defining, for example, the ideal social nature of a person.
But different societies may assume exactly opposite social charac-
teristics. Hopi culture, for instance, sees people as ideally cooperative
while "mainstream" American culture usually sees competitive
"By using 'man, mankind, men, he, and his' all through, you unconsciously convey
the old image of the noble masterful male once more out to rescue the human race ....
Here is the vocabulary you must use if the new image of man is not to be sexist as the
old: 'humankind, humanity, human being, humans, persons, individuals', etc. For this
century, at least, until our thought habits have been reformed, the use of 'man' as an
inclusive term is out .. " You can't stick in a sentence on women's lib and adequately
transform the concept 'human' thereby."-Elise Boulding
In the present version of this report, we have followed Dr. Boulding's advice with which
we fully agree, whenever the structure of the phrase and thought allow it, only adding
"we" or "our" to her suggested vocabulary, and putting the phrase "image of man" in
quotes where its use seemed not feasible to avoid.
t What we mean by "image of man" or by the preferable but more awkward phrase "image
of humankind in the universe" is something that by definition lies at the boundary
between the conscious, and unconscious part of our minds. Because such imagery exists at
a preverbal level of consciousness, it is hard to define satisfactorily. Readers who still feel
uncertain or confused what we mean by those (and related) phrases after reading this
section may want to read the glossary and page 69 (starting with paragraph 3) before
continuing.
Images of Man in a Changing Society 3
achievement as the ideal. If the successful or ideal adult is assumed to
be competitive, then children as they grow up are encouraged to be
competitive, games are based on competition, success in competition is
rewarded, and competition becomes a dominant motive, thus validating
the assumption contained in the image. The same is true, in a similar
manner, if a society's image defines the ideal person as cooperative, as
independent, or as having any other of the many possible social attitudes.
An "image of (the nature of) man" is thus a Gestalt perception of
humankind, both individual and collective, in relation to the self,
others, society, and the cosmos. It may contain many levels and face
contradictions and paradoxes-as does the living human being-and
still be experienced as an organic whole.
However, any image is necessarily selective, not only as to what
categories of human attributes are included, but also as to the facts
which are asserted to be true of them. Some images are narrow,
ignoring many possibilities; others are more comprehensive, embracing
more of the person's potential being. Each, however, selects which
attributes and qualities are to be considered real and which are to be
developed, admired, accepted, despised or otherwise attended to.
These images are held at varying degrees of an awareness by persons
and by societies. For some (e.g. the "True Believers" described by Eric
Hoffer, 1951), images are likely to be in the forefront of awareness,
seen as reality and used consciously in perceiving the world and in
making decisions. For most, however, assumptions about the nature of
human beings are held beneath the conscious level of awareness. Only
when these hidden assumptions are recognized and brought into
awareness is an "image of man" discovered and/or constructed. Then
the image can be examined carefully and with perspective, to be
retained, discarded, or changed.
Furthermore, no one knows the total potentiality of humankind. Our
awareness of human "nature" is selective, shaped by our symbolic and
presymbolic images. From the total possibilities-nature, abilities, and
characteristics that make up the human potential-our images of
humankind reflect those aspects we are "in touch" with, or that are
defined as real by the knowledge, social norms, cultural assumptions,
and myths.
THE RELEVANCE OF IMAGES TO MODERN SOCIETY
The power of an image to bring about change is not easily demon-
strated for two reasons: first, because of the intangibility of images
themselves and, second, because the prevailing views in science have
not yet readily accepted the evidence suggesting the power of images.
However, there are numerous indications that a person's or a society's
images can strongly affect perceptions, and therefore actions (see Table
1).
While it is obviously important that our underlying images and
beliefs be good maps of the reality in which we live, we probably do
well not to pay them overmuch attention as long as the continuing
welfare of society and its citizens seems secure. Many of our present
images appear to have become dangerously obsolescent, however.
An image may be appropriate for one phase in the development of a
Table I
INDICATIONS THAT PERCEPTIONS AND BEHAVIOR
ARE INFLUENCED BY IMAGES
Clinical data from psychotherapy indicating the life-shaping effect of an individual's
self-image
Anecdotal data relating to behavior changes induced by self-image change following
plastic surgery
Studies of effects of experimenter expectations in research with both animal and
human subjects
Studies of effects of teacher expectations on student performance
Research on expectancy set, experimenter beliefs, and placebo effect in studies of
hypnotic phenomena, psychotropic drugs, sensory deprivation, etc.
Anthropological studies indicating that perceptions of self, others, and the
environment are highly influenced by cultural images and expectations
Research on visual perception indicating the extent to which what is perceived
depends on past orderings of perceptions (e.g. the Ames demonstrations), on felt
needs, on expectations, and on the influence of important others (e.g. the Asch
experiments)
Studies of authoritarianism and prejudice, indicating the extent to which other
persons are seen in terms of stereotypes
Examples from the history of science indicating how new conceptualizations have
resulted in new ways of perceiving the world
Research on the role of self-expectations in limiting academic achievement of
underperforming children
Hypnosis research demonstrating the influence of suggestion-induced images and
expectations
Athletic coaching practices utilizing deliberate alteration of expectations and self-
image
Expectation-performance relationships in studies of conquered peoples, prison-
camp populations, etc.
Anecdotal data from executive development courses based on the alteration of
self-image and self-expectations through autosuggestion
The sociological theorem of W. I. Thomas: "If men define situations as real, they
are real in their consequences."
Research of the Nancy school of psychology (Emile Coue, C. Baudouin, C. H.
Brooks et at.) on the power of imagining
Esoteric religious teachings, East and West, on the power of belief, images, and
prayer, e.g. Matthew 17: 20: "For truly, I say to you, if you have faith as a grain of
mustard seed, you will say to this mountain, 'Move hence to another place,' and it
will move."
Images of Man in a Changing Society
5
society, but once that stage is accomplished, the use of the image as a
continuing guide to action will likely create more problems than it
solves. (Figure 1 illustrates, in a highly simplified way that will be
further developed in Chapter 3, the interaction between "changing
images of man" and a changing society.) While earlier societies' most
difficult problems arose from natural disasters such as pestilence,
famine, and floods (due to an inability to manipulate the human's
environment and ourselves in unprecedented ways, and from our
failure to ensure wise exercising of these "Faustian" powers-as Spengler
termed the term).
Science, technology, and economics have made possible really
significant strides toward achieving such basic human goals as physical
development
/-
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Fig. 1. Hypothesized time/phase relationship between images and social/cultural develop-
ment.
When images "lead" social development they are anticipatory, and provide direction for
social change. When images are in this relation to society they exert what Polak (1973) has
termed a "magnetic pull" toward the future. By their attractiveness and meaning they
reinforce each movement which takes the society toward them, and thus they influence the
social decisions which will bring them to realization.
As society moves toward achievement of the goals inherent in the image, the congruence
increases between the image and the development of man and society: the promise of the
image is explored, needs are satisfied. Then, as with paradigms and myths, there may come a
period in which the evolution of the society goes beyond the adequacies of the image. Policies
based on the dominant image then become consequently faulty, even counterproductive,
precipitating a period of frustration, cultural disruption, or social crisis and the stage is set
for basic changes in either the image of man or the organization of society.
6
safety and security, material comfort, and better health. But as Table 2
illustrates, many of these successes have brought with them problems
of being "too successful"-problems that themselves seem insoluble
within the set of societal value premises that led to their emergence. >II:
Improved health, for example, has caused population increases which
exacerbate problems of social organization, food distribution, and
resource depletion. Our highly developed system of technology leads to
a higher vulnerability to breakdowns. Indeed, the range and inter-
connected impact of societal problems that are now emerging pose a
serious threat to our civilization.
Table 2
SELECTED SUCCESSES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL/INDUSTRIAL ERA
Successes
Reducing infant and adult
mortality rates
Highly developed science and
technology
Machine replacement of manual
and routine labor
Advances in communication and
transportation
Efficient production systems
Affluence, material growth
Satisfaction of basic needs
Expanded power of human
choice
Expanded wealth of developed
nations; pockets of affluence
Problems resulting from
being "too successful"
Regional overpopulation; problems of
the aged
Hazard of mass destruction through
nuclear and biological weapons; vul-
nerability of specialization; threats
to privacy and freedoms (e.g. sur-
veillance technology, bioengineering)
Exacerbated unemployment
Increasing air, noise, and land pollu-
tion; "information overload;" vulner-
ability of a complex society to break-
down; disruption of human biological
rhythms
Dehumanization of ordinary work
Increased per capita consumption of
energy and goods, leading to pollution
and depletion of the earth's resources
Worldwide revolutions of "rising ex-
pectations;" rebellion against non
meaningful work
Unanticipated consequence of technolog-
ical applications; management break-
down as regards control of these
Increasing gap between "have" and
"have-not" nations; frustration of the
revolutions of rising expectations;
exploitation; pockets of poverty
"I strongly disagree with the last four societal premises in this greatly over-simplified
table. We are moving from an era of perceived affluence to an era of scarcity. When the
quality of goods is considered, in addition to the costs that we do not include in our
GNP calculations, we are not as affluent as we think. Moreover, basic needs have not
been satisfied for some, and this problem may worsen very soon. The expanded power
of human choice is problematic, as is the expanded wealth of developed nations-it
simply depends on definition."-Michael Marien
Additionally, it appears that although some of our images and needs
have come to be served most adequately by what we now term the
industrial state, others have fared more poorly. From studies of
mythology and past civilizations done by Joseph Campbell, at least five
functions stand out as needing to somehow be fulfilled by images,
rituals, and institutions of a society. They are the mystical, the cos-
mological, the sociological, the pedagogical or psychological, and the
editorial functions.
The mystical function inspires in the individual a sense of the mystery,
the profound meaning of the universe and of his own existence in it. What
are the origins and the densityof humankind? Howisexistence maintained
and why? These are questions whose answers-however adequate they
mayor may not be-as experientially realized by an individual serve the
mystical function.
The cosmological function is to form and present images of the
universe and world in accord with local knowledge and experience. The
structure of the universe is described and the forces of nature identified,
such that humans may more adequately picture what their world is like.
The sociological function is to validate, support, and enforce the local
social order, representing it as in accord with the sensed nature of the
universe. For example, myths, rituals, and social structure from hunt-
ing cultures emphasize men as the bearers of power whereas those
from planter cultures usually emphasize women as bearers of life.
Medieval European culture emphasized the central importance of the
Church, and our own, the legitimacy of the modified free-market
economy and pluralistic body-politic.
The pedagogical or psychological function is that of guiding each
member of the culture through the stages of life, teaching ways of
understanding oneself and others, and presenting desirable responses
to life's challenges and trials. Rites of passage, councils of elders,
psychotherapy, and education all serve this function.
In its editorial function, the myths and images of a culture define
some aspects of reality as important and credible, hence to be attended
to, while other aspects are seen as unimportant or incredible, hence to
be ignored and culturally not seen. For example, the anthropologist
Malinowski reported that the Trobriand Islanders believe that a child
inherits his physical characteristics only from his father. Hence, the
Trobriands simply do not observe or notice any resemblance between
the child and his mother, although to Malinowski, such similarities
were quite evident.
Two additional functions-the political and the magical-are also
noteworth. The political, as distinct from the strictly sociological, func-
tion appears wherever a myth or institution of society is deliberately
employed to represent the claim to privilege and authority of some
special person, race, social class, nation or civilization; and the magical,
wherever prayers, rituals or other "extraordinary" techniques are used
for special benefit, such as for rain, good crops, war-winning.
How well do our current "myths" fulfill these functions which stand
out in importance from the perspective of history? Mythology, at least
among most "educated" people, is now relegated to the status of mere
superstition, as is anything that sounds "mystical." The mystical
function of inspiring in the individual a sense of the profound meaning
of the universe has been neglected almost entirely, as synagogues and
churches, the traditional servants of this role, have become increasingly
concerned with social justice. Science now performs the cosmological
function, but its successes in this regard have become so complex that
the average person has little comprehension of how scientific know-
ledge defines the world, other than by consuming the products that
science and technology have made possible. Bureaucrats and other civil
servants, who make no claim to understanding or even seeking any
larger picture of reality, now carry out the sociological function of
enforcing the local social order. The pedagogical function of guiding
each individual through life's stages has been-except for those who
can affort psychotherapy-taken over by an institution of education
which (at least until very recently) deals almost solely with preparation
for work in an industrialized society. The editorial function in Western
Culture was dominated first by the Church (which emphasized a very
specific image of man and associated ideology) and more recently by
science (which emphasizes another limited image). It appears now in
the process of being taken over by the funding agencies (government
legislatures and departments of program planning, foundations, and so
forth) who also represent special interests in the selection of which
aspects of reality should be collectively ignored and which attended to.
Furthermore, there is no indication that our society, operating under
its currently dominant guiding images and values premises, will not
continue to create vexing problems at an increasing rate. Researchers
at the Hudson Institute have identified what they call "The Basic
Long-term Multifold Trend of Western Culture" that represents a
cluster of social forces similar to those causing the "successes" noted in
Table 2. The Multifold Trend includes developments such as:
1. Increasing sensate (empirical, this-wordly, secular, humanistic, pragmatic, manipu-
lative, explicitly rational, utilitarian, contractual, empicurean, hedonistic, etc.) cul-
tures.
2. Bourgeois, bureaucratic, and meritocratic elites.
3. Centralization and concentration of economic and political power.
4. Accumulation of scientific and technical knowledge.
5. Institutionalization of technological change, especially research, development, in-
novation, and diffusion.
6. Increasing military capability.
7. Westernization, modernization, and industrialization.
8. Increasing affluence and (recently) leisure.
9. Population growth.
10. Urbanization, recently suburbanization and "urban sprawl"-soon the growth of
megalopolises.
11. Decreasing importance of primary and (recently) secondary and tertiary occupations;
increasing importance of tertiary and (recently) quaternary occupations.
12. Increasing literacy and education and (recently) "knowledge industry" ana in-
creasing role of intellectuals.
13. Innovative and manipulative social engineering-i.e. rationality increasingly ap-
plied to social, political, cultural, and economic worlds as well as to shaping and
exploiting the material world-increasing problems of ritualistic, incomplete, or
pseudo rationality.
14. Increasingly universality of the multifold trend.
15. Increasing tempo of change in all the above. (Kahn and Bruce-Briggs, 1972)
The impact and likely consequences (for better and for worse) of
continuing with this societal trajectory can be inferred from a study of
Fig. 2 through 5. If such projections of the future prove correct, we can
expect the problems associated with the multifold trend will become
more serious, more universal, and occur much more rapidly than will
growth of the trend itself."
6
Stone 5000 2000 I AD
Age . 62 mil 125 250 1650 1850
~
, o m l l mil mil 05bill.lblllion .. 1960
2 biltton rbillio" 2 0 0 0 ~
6.1 billion
Hundreds of thousands 40years
of years .
Modern:
times :
New Stone Age Bronze
Age
Old Stone Age
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000
Iron Age
Fig. 2. The growth of human numbers. (Source: McHale, 1972.)
"It should be noted that those (1972) figures reflect trends that preceded the OPEC oil
blockade, energy price increases, and the host of trend-changing events that have since
occurred. These figures are included in this 1980 edition, both for historical reasons
(since they led to studies like this one) and since they still illustrate the policy
implications of the traditional images and premises of Western Culture."-O. W.
Markley
CIM - C
300
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1850 1870 1890 1910 1 9 ~ 1950 1980 2000
Fig. 3. Urbanization in the United States. (Source: McHale, 1972.)
But the multifold trend (essentially, rampant industrialization and
consumption), with all its associated problems, need not prove to be the
dominant characteristic of our future society. As Fig. 2 through 5
imply, for most of human history the growth of man's population was
slow and its impact on Earth ecology relatively small. Humans lived close
to the soil in widely dispersed communities, such that the actions of one
community had relatively little impact on most others not near by. But
now society grows ever more complex, specialized and interconnected,
and the production and distribution of essential goods and services is
increasingly dependent on the continued integrity of human in-
stitutional systems. Human systems, however, depend on trust,
agreement, and political law rather than on unchanging "natural" law,
hence they are inherently less stable in times of rapid cultural change
than are "natural" systems. They are particularly sensitive to break-
downs caused by war, terrorism and simplistic attempts at societal
reform.
Images of Man in a Changing Society
11
World population and wealth
10..-----------------, 10,------------------,
-
I I
1990 1995 2000
Populotio n\
I I I
1975 1980 1985
1
1970
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World energy consumption and population
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Fig. 4. Selected world population, wealth, and consumption trends. (Source: McHale,
1972.)
Salk (1973) has suggested a simple graphical way of comprehending
these changes and the corresponding level of changes that need to take
place during the decades to come. As portrayed on Fig. 6, the past and
future history of mankind can be represented as comprising two
phases. Salk calls the first phase, which includes all mankind's past
12
Abundance
in earth's crust
Iron
Aluminum
Parts per million
81,300
50,000
20,900
200
80
69
70
16
220
40
15
0.5
0.1
Tinplate for cans
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Abrasion resistance
Hardening steel
Ch lorine producti
Storage batteries
Galvanized steel
Electrical wire
Zinc
Tin
Tungsten
Copper
Lead
Molybdenu
Mercury
Si Iver
Nickel
rvlagnesrum
Chromium
12 24 36 48 60 72
Yea r s to dep letion
Fig. 5. Depletion of world reserves of commercial grade ores if world population had
U.S. living standard. (Source: Gough and Eastland, 1969, based on data from U.S.
Bureau of Mines.)
----
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Epoch "A"
Past Prese nt
Epoch "B"
Future
Fig. 6. Two contrasting epochs of human history (Jonas Salk).
history, Epoch A-an epoch in which (for the above reasons) the
survival of the human species depended on essentially individual
actions, on the survival of the fittest, and on successful competition with
other life forms. He calls the second phase, which must characterize
any desirable future, Epoch B-a future in which humankind limits the
growth of those activities that undermine the welfare of the ecology;
hence where the survival of the species will depend more on the
behavior of the whole species than of its individuals, on cooperation
rather than competition, and emphasizing the survival, not of the
physically fittest, but of the wisest.
While it is perhaps unrealistic to expect that the United States and
other industrial nations would voluntarily limit their own consumption
of physical resources and share their wealth more equitably with less
affluent nations, it may be equally unrealistic to think that we will not be
forced into making just that choice. With only 6 percent of the world's
population, the United States currently uses about half of the world's
resource output. And this standard of living that we enjoy is the growth
goal of most developing nations-most of whose citizens are under-
nourished and undereducated.
As the late Prime Minister of Canada, Lester Pearson, observed,
No planet can survive half slave, half free; half engulfed in misery, half careening
along toward the supposed joys of an almost unlimited consumption..... Neither
ecology nor our morality could survive such contrasts.....
While not all researchers agree that such an epochal transition is
facing mankind, most agree that the developed nations of Earth now
face a series of fundamental dilemmas. By more adequately under-
standing the nature of these dilemmas, how they have emerged, and
how they might be resolved, it should be possible to see new pos-
sibilities for a better future. As a concise statement of why the role of
images is crucial to such an understanding, four different types or
"levels" of societal problems are delineated below (Markley et al., 1971):
1. Substantive problems lie at an applied or operational level, and are usually identified
as immediate targets for corrective attention or increased allocation of money or
other resources.
2. Process (or Procedural) problems are those that impede the process of collectively
setting priorities and strategies to solve the substantive problems.
3. Normative problems concern the appropriateness and effectiveness of a people's
values, preferences, goals, and so forth, that are the basis of planning and priority
setting.
4. Conceptual problems are difficulties that seem to be intrinsic to the way we think, the
words we use-in short, to the particular vision or understanding of reality that is
dominant in a culture-thus affecting our ways of perceiving and doing, and also
affecting the formation of our normative values.
These four categories can be thought of as referring to four levels of
(1) the state of society, (2) behavior, (3) motivations, and (4) basic values
and perceptions (see Fig. 7).
State of society
~
Behavior
Motivations
~ .
Levels of
description
Basic values
Perceptions
.............. & .......... AA4 .... ", .. A ...... ""' ...... 4.-A,
q -......J' , ~
~ o . .. .
o 0
Fig. 7. Levels of description useful in analyzing social change.
The importance of distinguishing the above four aspects is evidenced
by the fact that most informed persons agree on what the crucial
substantive problems of our time are: inflation, unemployment, pollu-
tions, world hunger, threat of war, and so forth. Most of the visible
disagreement-at least in the United States-occurs at the process level,
in the assignment of priorities and in the choice of strategies: for
example, in the supposed tradeoff between "environment and jobs," or
in the choice whether to develop social policies that are future-oriented
rather than those that are politically expedient, but short-sighted. But
the third and fourth categories, normative and conceptual social prob-
lems, have been almost totally ignored to date." With the extensive
changes brought by the accelerating "manifold trend" discussed ear-
lier, however, obsolescent values and inappropriate conceptions may be
precisely that which keeps us from finding satisfactory resolutions to
the gripping social problems that increasingly confront us.
Our image of ourself and our universe has become fragmented and
we have lost the guiding "sense of the whole" that earlier civilizations
seem to have had. At present our society goes from crisis to crisis, with
piecemeal responses being made to ameliorate each, and with the
measures taken to relieve one crisis invariably making another problem
worse, so interwoven is our social system. There has been little effort,
"During the eight years since the first release of this report in 1973, a small, but increasing
amount of attention has been and continues to be focused on normative and conceptual
concerns. For example, the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National
Science Foundation have jointly sponsored a continuing extramural research program on
'Values in Science and Technology'; a major research institute, the Hastings Center has
been established to examine questions involving social ethics; and a variety of books and
reports are appearing that examine the possibility of conceptual and organizational
transformation in various levels of society."-O. W. Markley
and less success, in searching out deeper strata of social forces-the
basic images of our nature and our future, and the associated premises
which underlie the behaviors that lead to societal problems. Might it be
possible that a more adequate image of humankind could lead to a
renewed sense of wholeness and to better behavior-both individual
and collective?
By addressing ourselves to such questions we hope to help elevate
the level of debate regarding the future of our nation and future of
humankind generally, thereby creating new understandings through
which societal problems that previously looked irresolvable may
become increasingly tractable.
.....
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..... I_h.. . r ... -J.t "" : ;, .,;.( I (0.
, ... _ .,c:"71I1rIl(." .... tM'\
Reproduced by permission of Newspaper Enterprises Association, Inc., New York.
CHAPTER 2
Some Formative Images of Man-in-the- Universe *
As intercultural commerce, warfare, "forced conversion," and other
modes of cultural diffusion have operated through the millennia of
human history, an incredible variety of images on man have
developed-some remaining relatively pure, most blending with others.
We do not attempt an exhaustive survey of this diversity, but rather
focus only on a select few of the relatively "purer" types of image that
fulfill one or more of the following three criteria:
1. It shows how the image of humankind-in relation to other forces-can influence
the way in which a culture develops.
2. The image has significantly shaped or affected the development of our culture in
directions that need reexamination.
3. It offers unrealized potential for moderating the problems that are unique to our
time.
This brief survey should therefore not be read as a complete history
of human images. Certainly most of the images portrayed are neces-
sarily oversimplified, but they may nevertheless provide useful insights
for our time. These images are summarized in Table 3.
After the brief survey we note some underlying dimensions along
which the various images of humankind can be compared. We then
estimate what images seem currently dominant in the United States,
and portray what the "center of gravity" or composite image of man in
this country seems to be.
SELECTED HISTORICAL AND MODERN IMAGES OF MAN
Early Images of Man
It is significant that we have come to equate the rise of civilization in
the Old World with the emergence of the first literate societies in which
small elitist groups hold the keys to a kind of esoteric knowledge which
A much more scholarly and complete survey of the images that have shaped Western
civilization (especially of judeo-Christian contributions) is contained in Fred Polak's
classic treatise Die Teokomst Is Verledon Tijd (W. Haan, 1958). Translated from the Dutch
into English by Elise Boulding as The Image of the Future, it is available both in a
two-volume unabridged version (Oceana Publications, 1961) and an abridged volume
(Elsevier, 1973). Both are currently out of print, but can often be borrowed through an
inter-library loan.
17
Table 3
-
DOMINANT IMAGES OF HUMANKIND THROUGHOUT HISTORY
00
Cultures in which
Source Approximate image is at Significance for
period date Dominant image present active post-industrial era
Middle 250,000- The hunter, focus of the male- Few cultures in its Jeopardizes cross-
Paleolithic 40,000 B.C. dominated culture field of the pure form; most cultural peace; may be
"Great Hunt" in its militaristic necessary for police
equivalent operations, however
Upper 30,000- Including sense of spiritual affin- Various American Has relevance for a
Paleolithic 15,000 B.C. ity between beasts and man, of Indian cultures renewed sense of part-
Q
which totemism is an expression with traditions nership with other life
~
intact forms on the planet
~
~
Neolithic After The planter, the child of the God- Hindu and certain Has possible relevance ;.
9000 B.C. dess; woman the giver of life other cultures for balancing male- ~
emphasis of Western
~
culture
~
Sumerian 3500 B.C. The human civilized through sub- Most cultures Has relevance as his-
~
mission to seasonal variations and torical analogy: shows
c..,
ruling elites "political function" of ~
new images
~
Semite 2350 B.C. The human as a mere creature fash- Orthodox Jewish, Stands in its present
ioned of clay to serve the gods, Christian, Islamic form as an obstacle to
~
or some god, as a slave; but faiths emergence of new eco-
superior to and having dominion logical understandings
over nature. Notion of "chosen
people"
Zoroastrian 1200 B.C. The human having free will, having All Western cul- Presents a basic polar-
to choose between good and evil, tures, in a secu- ity needing to be dia-
mythology of individual salvation lar form lectically transcended/
synthesized
Age of the 500 B.C. India: one deluded by maya; the Hindu/Buddhist Could contribute to a
Polis Buddha representing the absolute new "self-realization
fulfillment of the Indian image of ethic" for our culture
~
~
('::>
~
~
a
~ .
('::>
~
~
~
<;"
~
~
~
I
;;.
I
So
('::>
I
....-
c.o
~
~ .
('::>
~
('::>
if incorporated into a
larger synthesis
Has relevance to coun-
terbalancing the "tech-
nological ethic"
(1) A dominant image that
needs to be incorporated
into a larger synthesis;
(2) Could contribute to
a new "self-realization
ethic" for our culture
if incorporated into a
larger synthesis
Could contribute to a
new "ecological ethic"
for our culture if in-
corporated into a larger
synthesis
Possible to see ecologi-
cal requirements in this
light
Could provide a guiding
image for personal!
societal transformation
in time of crisis
Could contribute to de-
emphasizing material
overconsumption and
ecological understand-
ing
None in which
dominant
(1) Traditional (1)
Judeo/Christian/
Muslim cultures;
(2) Most cultures
as an underground
view
All cultures, but
never very visible
Oriental cultures
Some forms of
Islam, Christian-
ity
Most Western cul-
tures to some
degree
Levant: as a slave, submissive to
God in the image of a despot
Greece: Mystery religions, the
person becomes so attached to the
material things of this world that
he/she has lost touch with his/her
own true nature which is not of these
things, but of spirit-himself the
very being and model of that Spirit
of which each is but a particle
Greece: science and objective
knowledge as aesthetic rather than
utilitarian activity; naturalistic
emphasis in science, art, and
philosophy
Two contrary images/(1) following
the Semite and Zoroastrian tradi-
tions, God's servant-obey or be
dammed; (2) that of the Gnostics
similar to the image of the Greek
mystery religions, the person
"saved" by self-knowledge
Greece: Aeschylus and image of
human as tragic hero
man as yogi released from the
wheel of karma, death and rebirth.
Intrinsic divinity of humankind
realizable through own efforts
China: Confucius and the paradigm
of the "superior man" as politi-
cally and socially concerned sage
Early 100 A.D.
Christian
(and Muslim) 622 A.D.
Table 3 (Cont.)
DOMINANT IMAGES OF HUMANKIND THROUGHOUT HISTORY
t..o
o
Source
period
Approximate
date Dominant image
Cultures in which
image is at
present active
Significance for
post-industrial era
Industrial 1500 A.D.
Revolution/
Enlighten-
ment
Modern 1900 A.D.
Social
Science
Modern 1913 A.D.
Behavioral
Science
Modern 1945 A.D.
Transdis-
ciplinary
Science
Various
times and
places from
circa 1500
B.C. to the
present
"Economic man"-individualistic,
materialistic, rationalistic;
objective knowledge, utilitarian/
economic values coming into
dominance
Human as "beast"-instinctual drives
predominant, a "creature of evolu-
tion" whose survival depends on
competitive adaptation and/or sup-
pression of base instincts
Human as "mechanism"-to be under-
stood in ways found successful by
nineteenth-century physics
Human as a "goal-directed, adaptive
learning system"
Human as "Spirit"-the "philosophia
perennis" view of man and the
universe as essentially conscious-
ness in manifest form
Most modern in-
dustrial nations
Most modern indus-
trial nations
Primarily United
States
Image has not yet
reached "takeoff
point"
Most cultures, in
various degrees of
purity
Likely inappropriate for
transition to post-
industrial era
An image needing to be
incorporated into a
larger synthesis
Promoted as providing
the most appropriate
basis for' man's next
era, perhaps now itself
needing to be incorpora-
ted into larger synthesis
Provides a possible con-
ceptual basis for inte-
grating most other images
of man in an evolutionary
frame of reference
Could contribute to
needed synthesis of
"opposing" images as it
sees apparent opposites
as differing aspects of
the same underlying
reality
9
~
~
~
;.
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
Some Formative Images of Man-in-the- Universe 21
gave them power over their fellow men. As far as we know, this first
occurred in the Mesopotamian valley about 3500 B.C.
From their observations of repeated heavenly movements which were
correlated with times of planting, reaping, etc., a professional priest-
hood discovered the arts of precise astronomical observation, mathe-
matical reckoning, and writing. The priestly watchers of the skies had
become aware of something most remarkable and exciting, completely
unknown before, namely, the mathematical regularity, precisely
measurable, of the passages of the moon, the sun, and the five visible
planets. With that discovery came a completely new conception of the
universe and of the human place within it. No longer were the
determinants of the image of one's self in the world to be the animals
which one hunted or the plants of a lush environment self-renewed
through death, but an ever-increasing factual knowledge of the natural
order of the universe. Moreover-and possibly because this new type of
knowledge could not be extended to the entire community-there
developed abruptly at this time a clear distinction between governing
and governed classes.
Although the ideas and forms of a literate civilization probably took
root in India and China as early as 2500 B.C. and 1500 B.C. respec-
tively, their impact on these societies, and hence on the "image of man"
in relation to the universe, took a very different form from the
developments west of the Indus Valley. Perhaps as a result of their
geographical isolation both from each other and the rest of the civilized
world, they retained undamaged the old Bronze Age image of an
impersonal principle or power immanent in a universe of forms ever
disappearing and returning through measured cycles of infinite time.
According to this image, nothing is to be gained, either for the universe
or for man, through individual originality and effort. The individual,
rather, is to play the role into which he has been born-as do the sun
and the moon, the various plant and animal species, the waters, rocks
and stars. Also, he should try to order his mind so as to identify its
consciousness with the inhabiting principle of the whole. In India this
aspiration came to be symbolized by the mystic seer, Yogi, who above
all else practiced the discipline of renunciation from the "maya"-
illusory entrapment-of worldly concern; in China, a different view
developed with the Confucian symbol of the politically engaged wise sage,
who seeks to act in accord with the Tao, both inwardly and outwardly. *
.. "The unspoken assumption here seems to be that 'spiritual' is opposed to 'physical'
and 'material'; and furthermore, to be 'spiritual' means a denial of the flesh, a flight
from social activities and engagement in social affairs, practice of painful austerities,
etc. The really revered religious teachers and enlightened masters-Jesus, Buddha,
etc were deeply involved in the affairs of the world ... I think that the alleged
opposition between 'spiritual' and 'material' is a false dichotomy-not the view held by
those spiritual masters to whom you tacitly refer."-John White (cont. on p. 22)
22
Although both India and China are today well into differing modes
of modernization, and have each at least partially overthrown their
traditional images of humankind (China apparently more than India),
these images hold potential relevance for the ethical needs of our
present culture. Aspects of the image of the sage and Taoistic philoso-
phy generally could greatly contribute to an "ecological ethic;" the yogi
image and philosophy of Vendanta could equally contribute to a
"self-realization ethic," as these are set forth in Chapter 5. Both would
bring a welcome contrast to the exploitative tendencies of a civilization
driven by the profit motive.
The Human as Separate from God and Nature-Early Near-Eastern Views
From the Near-East came two systems of thought-those of the
Semites and the Zoroastrians-whose images of man-in-the-universe
have significantly shaped this culture.
The first distinguishing characteristic of Semitic mythology, which
arose after 3000 B.C., was its radical separation of Man from God, the
first step of a "mythic dissociation" that has perhaps been completed
only with the full flowering of objective science in modern times. The
Semitic God was seen as a male Being "out there," an image that closes
the inward way of mysticism, since what is to be found within oneself is
not divinity (as in India and the Far East) but only one's "soul," which
mayor may not be found in a proper relationship to God. A proper
relationship can be achieved only by obedience to God's command-
ments and membership in God's favored tribe. Not as a free individual,
but only as a member of the High God's "chosen race" (or church, in
later versions) is one effectively in God's care. In this view the human
was seen as a servant, created to serve the One God by having
dominion over all other forms of earthly creation.
If all humankind was the servant of the One God, so also, according
to Semitic mythology, was one race the servant of the others. Genesis,
chapter 9, recounts the story of Ham, the son of Noah and father of
Canaan, who because he had seen his father's nakedness and left him
uncovered was cursed by Noah:
Cursed by Canaan-a servant of servants shall he be to his brothers.... Blessed be the
Lord God of Shem, and Canaan shall be his servant. God shall enlarge Japheth, and he
shall dwell in the tents of Shem-and Canaan shall be their servant. (Genesis 9: 25-27)
(Cont. from p. 21)
The contrast here is not between "spiritual" and "material" but rather between two
"ideal types" which have been extensively explored in the past. In the last section of
Chapter 4 and in Chapter 6 we try to show how these two may be usefully synthesized in
our own cultural matrix.
Some Formative Images of Man-in-the- Universe
23
Traditional interpretation of these scriptures sees the descendants of
Ham as comprising of black peoples of African nations to the south of
Egypt. Thus the racist image of peoples of color being the "proper"
servants of other ironically arose from the mythology of the Jews-one
of the most persecuted peoples of history.
Complementing the master/servant aspects of the Semitic image of
humankind was the notion of "man as the brother of other men" by
virtue of their common creation; as required and able, by this created
nature to carry responsibility for each other.
This image of brotherhood was a key element in the later Christian
image of persons as "members one of another"-a metaphysical reality
that will later be elaborated as being an image needing to be revitalized
rather than scrapped.
We know next to nothing of the life of Zarathustra (Greek form,
Zoroaster) whose teachings of the great Lord of Truth and Light,
Ahura Mazda, mark the beginning of a completely new direction in
Occidental religion and the associated imagery of humankind. The
novelty of his teaching lay in its treatment in purely ethical terms of the
ultimate nature and destiny of both the world and humankind; it attri-
buted absolute values to the contrary principles of Good and Evil,
personified as two contending universal gods-Ahura Mazda, "first
father of the Righteous Order," and Angra Mainyu, the Deceiver,
Antagonist, and principle of the Lie. In this teaching, time was im-
agined not as an ever-cycling round (as in most of the conceptions
before approximately 1200 B.C.), but as a linear trend to victory, which
was to culminate in a season of prodigious wars and the appearance,
finally, of a second Savior, Saoshyant, through whom the Lord of the
Lie and all his works were to be annihilated. The dead were then to be
resurrected and all would dwell forever in light and truth.
Another innovation of this doctrine, setting it apart especially from
neighboring India, is the responsibility it placed on every individual to
choose of his own free will whether and how to stand for the Truth and
Light, in thought, word, and deed. Finally, the Zoroastrian view holds
that engagement in the battle for salvation is the ultimate goal of "man,"
a view diametrically opposed to the Indian image of yogic self-release.
Judged evil, the world could nevertheless be saved.
The Knower-Gnostic View
The influence of the Semitic and the Zoroastrian VISIons on both
traditional and contemporary Jewish, Christian, and Islamic thought is
obvious. It seems clear that both forms of apocalyptic messianism were
incorporated, if not by Jesus himself, then at least by the Early Church.
24
But the Gnostics, whose beliefs appear to have been a synthesis of
Babylonian, Indian, and Egyptian, as well as Semitic and Zoroastrian
thought, took another view. Agreeing with the Semitic belief in one
Eternal and Supreme Being, and the Zoroastrian view of the World
and its unredeemed citizens as savable, the Gnostics took as central
"saving" power of gnosis-extraordinary and experientially intimate
knowledge of the mysteries of existence.
The import of this view, as contrasted with the view which ultimately
came to be the "official" one, is portrayed by the Gospel according to
Thomas:
His disciples said to Him: When will the Kingdom come? Jesus said: It will not come
by expectation; they will not say: "See there." But the Kingdom of the Father is
spread upon the earth and men do not see it.
(Saying 113)
This tension between the Gnostic understanding of apocalyptic
symbolism and that of the Early Church which condemned it as
heretical is the essence of what is sometimes called "the Judeo-Chris-
tian Problem." Is an apocalyptic Messiah to come (or come again) and
thus grandly save the elect from evil, or is the "Kingdom of the
Father" already here within us, within ourselves and our world-as is
"Buddha-consciousness" and the "Mother Light"-only waiting to be
recognized and fulfilled? The conundrum was inherited also by Islam,
and supplied the whole sense of the contention between the Sufis of the
mystic way and the orthodox Sunna of the law.
Because the Gnostic path was condemned as heretical, of necessity it
went underground, and hence its influence on our culture is much less
visible than are the effects of the orthodox views. It and views like it,
however, have been kept alive by secret societies such as the Sufis,
Freemasons, and Rosicrucians, whose influence on the founding of the
United States is attested to by the symbolism of the Great Seal of the
United States, on the back of the dollar bill. The Semitic/Zoroas-
trian/orthodox Christian image meanwhile came into dominance in
Western Europe. This image of the "human as separate" laid the
groundwork for the industrial revolution to come.
The Individual-Greek Views
The idealized image of the person in the classical phase of Greece
provided the roots of the later European emphasis on individualism
and individuality. The Greeks portrayed the Hero as one who acts
from a secular sense of duty-not toward others but rather toward
himself-striving after what we translate as "virtue" but which in
Greek is arete, excellence. Significantly, Greek theology was formulated
not by priests or even by prophets, but by artists, poets, and philoso-
phers. The Greeks were probably the first culture to develop an image
of the human not primarily as a member of this race of tribe or of
that, but as an individual being. Furthermore, when the city-state
emerged fully developed in the later period of Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle, laws and ethical rules were sought beyond individualism for
the regulation of conduct; but it was not to any supernatural authority
that the Greeks looked, but to nature, and specifically, human nature.
They saw virtue as a natural property of the person, whose nature was
not an instinctual one (as with the lower animals), but the perfection of
divine intelligence (shared with the gods above-gods who were not the
"creators" of mankind, but themselves, also, children of the mystery of
creation, having come into the world as its governing powers). Their
artistic images of humankind were thus naturalistic, as was their
philosophy, and their politics.
It is necessary to recognize, however, that the dominant "image of
man" was for the Greeks, as for so many other slave-based economies, a
dichotomous one-the image of the citizen differing significantly from
that of the slave. Thus, although the Greeks had by the second century
B.C. developed the necessary knowledge to build a powerful science-
based technology, they did not do so. For in the Greek view the
acquisition of knowledge was mainly for aesthetic or spiritual enjoy-
ment of the citizens, there being little motivation to utilize technology
to make routine labor more efficient.
While it is commonly believed that science, or what we think of as the
scientific method, originated in post-medieval Western Europe, this is
not the case. The scholars of this period, searching for more adequate
methods of inquiry than those "worn out" by medieval scholasticism,
turned to translating manuscripts of distant times and places. Only
when the Greek scientific writings were translated into a culture that
would support a "technological ethic" (as would fifteenth-century
Europe with its Semitic roots) did the widespread exploitation of these
ideas come to fruition. Although the modern scholarship behind this
finding is somewhat controversial, the delayed application of Greek
science likely represents an instance where one image of humankind
had a clear-cut influence on cultural development. We explore this
phenomenon in Chapter 4 because it provides a suggestive historical
analogy for the present-day application of Eastern thought in the
development of a science of consciousness.
Of M - 0
Empire and Christianity-the Roman Catalyst
In terms of the image of man, the Romans made two lasting
contributions to the Western heritage. First, they codified the earlier
Greek notions of law and extended them throughout the known world.
Indeed, the legal systems of most European nations are still based on
Roman law. The Greeks saw man as a political animal; to this the
Romans added the concepts of universal organization and ad-
ministration. For the first time in Western civilization, the rights of
citizenship-even Saint Paul of Tarsus boasted, "cives Romanus sum" (I
am a Roman Citizen)-extended beyond the bounds of a city state, race,
color, or creed. Thus the Romans' unique contribution was that anyone
(except, of course, a slave) could aspire to become a member of the
body politic, which the Romans defined as a set of allegiances, laws, and
respo nsibilities.
The second Roman contribution to the Western image of man was
an inadvertent one. It may be too much to assert that the later Roman
legates left behind them a "legacy" of Christianity-indeed, the mis-
sionaries sent out by the early popes may have played a greater role.
The fact remains, however, that the Romans planted the seeds of
Christianity which were kept alive in the monasteries of Western
Europe throughout the "Dark Ages."
The Age of Faith-and Contention
Following the fall of Rome in the fifth century A.D., there ensued a
period of intermittent chaos which lasted until about the eleventh
century when the Roman Catholic Church emerged as the dominant
force in Western Europe.
The history of the "Age of Faith" is one of contention between
competing images of humankind. For example, the classic Judeo-
Christian view of man as essentially master over nature was overlaid
with the restrictive notions of the Medieval Church as to the "proper"
pursuits of man in relation to nature. Similarly, the strivings of the
Church for political hegemony over the temporal rulers of Western
Europe clashed with its original spiritual mission and emphasis on the
all-importance of the life hereafter.
Even at the height of the Church's power, disruptive forces-spiri-
tual, intellectual, and socio-economic-were constantly at work. The
crusades, for example, brought Europeans into contact with more
advanced economies and created a demand for new goods which were
met by an ever-expanding merchant class. The discovery, during the
fifteenth century, of a sea route to India, followed by Columbus'
27
discovery of the New World, opened up vast new possibilities for
economic expansion and personal enrichment. Thus, despite the
strictures of the Church, a new notion of "man" as an economic entity
began to emerge.
Intellectually and spiritually too, the Western Church was losing
ground toward the end of the fourteenth century, when the tide began
to turn against it in its long battle against heresy. Over a century before
Luther pinned his ninetyfive theses to the church door at Wittenberg,
in 1519, Wycliffe in England and Huss in Bohemia had already tried to
bring about a reformation of the Church. At the same time, in the
universities of Western Europe, Arab astronomy and mathematics,
transmitted by Jewish scholars, were being studied side by side with
Aquinas and Saint Augustine.
Thus, gradually, the strands of secularism were being woven into the
Medieval fabric of life until by the beginning of the sixteenth century
we can see them drawing together to form a new pattern from which
emerged our own society.
ManOver Things-the New Empire*
From the warp and woof of new and revived ideas fostered during
the Renaissance and Reformation came notions of man as the indivi-
dualist, the empiricist, and the rationalist. These notions gained irresis-
tible power with the discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo, and brought
about an essentially new image of man and his role in the universe.
By the seventeenth century the image of man which emerged from
scientific studies was that of man as mechanism (Newton). The great
search for the order permeating the universe was summed up in
Bacon's phrase "the empire of man over things." The fundamental
realities were the human being and nature. Nature was regarded as an
objective reality-apart from the human-observable in every aspect
and unaffected by either observation or the observer. The primacy of the
act of measurement meant that new rules predominated for making
knowledge verifiable and public, and so knowledge became better suited
to "make ourselves masters and possessors of nature" (Descartes).
Evolving out of man's changing image of himself and his relation to
the external environment he sought to control came a new application
of the old Zoroastrian concept of progress-now offering new hopes
for human betterment while at the same time explaining and justifying
In the next few sections the generic term "man" was not changed to "humankind" for
purposes of contrast and emphasis.
the materialistic pursuits and excesses of industrial society. In fact, the
idea of progress become indistinguishable from the idea of science
itself. As the scientific pursuit became more objective and reduc-
tionistic, the images of mankind that it has fostered have also become
more fragmented and out of touch with the mythic forces that the
pre-scientific ceremonies, rites, and rituals helped man to experience.
The Human as Beast-the Darwinian, Freudian, and Ethological Views
In the next chapter we note the more salient characteristics of the
economic image of human beings that has dominated the industrial era.
Here, we discuss some of the other specialized images that are im-
portant today.
One such image is that of bestial man-man subject most fun-
damentally to his animal instincts. This image provides a unifying
theme to the otherwise dissimilar scientific theories of Darwin and
evolutionary thought, of Freud and psychoanalytic thought, and of
Lorenz and other leading thinkers on the ethology of aggression. In
each of these three schools there seem to be almost opposing emphases
which reveal divergent images of the human being. On the one hand
(usually dominant) is the image of Nature-human as well as animal-
"red in fang and claw"-the human as man-beast, predator, and
aggressor. On the other hand is the image of Nature as symbiotic,
cooperative, and social-with an image of the human as having both
aggressive and altruistic traits.
Darwin emphasized the competitive aspects of natural selection and
the struggle for survival both in the animal and in the human world.
Fifty years later the Russian Prince Kropotkin, with equally good
scientific methodology, emphasized natural solidarity, intrinsic soci-
ability, and tolerance-among animals as among humans. Similarly
Freud emphasized the purely instinctual drives and in particular (in his
later years) the "death instinct" (Thanatos). The neo-Freudians, on the
other hand, emphasized the ego and man's sociability drives. Lorenz,
Ardrey et at. have emphasized the "killer instinct" and the "territorial
imperative." Crook and others, looking at other ethological findings,
derive evidence for instinctually driven non-aggressive behavior and
the importance of frustration and socialization in aggressive behavior.
Here we have an illustration of how one guiding image of man-in-
the-universe (which includes not only oneself as a human, but the
physical, social and conceptual world one lives in) to a large extent deter-
mines one's behavior in the creation of a new "imageof man. "To illustrate:
Darwin comes upon the principle of natural selection and the struggle
for survival, not so much from his meticulous observations and collec-
tions as from reading Malthus' Essay on Population, and from living
amidst a society in which laissez-faire economics and the ethics of
rugged individualism were being championed. (It is noteworthy that
Darwin's competitor, Alfred Wallace, working independently, also
happened upon the insight of natural selection-through-struggle
through reading Malthus; and that the very phrase "survival of the
fittest," which first appeared in the second edition of Origin of Species,
was contributed by Herbert Spencer, the philosopher of social evolu-
tion via laissez-faire economic capitalism and rugged individualism.)
Prince Kropotkin, on the other hand, was a political and philosophi-
cal anarchist whose ideology undoubtedly intruded upon his obser-
vations and interpretations no less than had Darwin's.
Each of the above opposing image emphases (the human as in-
trinsically competitive and violent but also as intrinsically altruistic as
well) are currently appealed to in the formation of social policies:
witness the debate surrounding Ardrey's The Territorial Imperative
(1966). The most relevant question to ask with regard to such issues is
not "which view is most true?" but rather "what are the likely con-
sequences of acting from one or the other view in active contention?"
and "can a view be found which creatively synthesizes them into a
larger conception?"
The Human as Mechanism-the View of Modern Behaviorism
Objective psychology became behaviorism in 1913 when John B.
Watson led a break with the older tradition of introspection, a tradition
that had brought about little agreement about the nature of con-
sciousness. More important, from the utilitarian point of view that has
typified American thought, the introspectionist approach could not
lead to prediction and control of data as could nineteenth-century
physics. Thus, for scientific reasons, consciousness came to be thought
of as a "construct" whose study leads to no fruitful results-a "black
box" whose unknown mechanisms (which would become known by
physiology, biochemistry, etc.) should produce behaviors that would be
regular and predictable if we but study them the right way.
Instinctivist thought (endless lists of instincts being proposed to
explain man's behavior) came into scientific disrepute at about this
same time; hence it was convenient for the behaviorist school to
incorporate Locke's image of the new born human as a tabula rasa on
which is written the results of various processes of conditioning.
The branch of this school of thought which has proved most sue-
cessful emphasizes the technique of operant conditioning, a term ori-
ginated by B. F. Skinner to denote a systematic procedure whereby the
actions of an organism are brought under control by giving it a reward
if and only if it behaves in a specified manner. This technique has been
successfully used-in education, psychotherapy, and in prisons to alter
whole behavior patterns of individuals.
A rather different approach to understanding (and controlling)
behavior, also of proven effectiveness, is through the implementation
of remotely activated electrodes in the brain.
The "psycho-civilization of society" has been advocated by means of
various techniques of behavior modification such as operant condition-
ing (Skinner, 1971), electrocranial stimulation (Delgado, 1969), and
psychochemical drugs (Clark, 1971). Only if such mentalistic and pre-
scientific concepts as will, freedom, consciousness, and so forth are cast
off, Skinner asserts, does man have a chance to attain a truly peaceful,
rational, and humane society in the future." Certainly, the techniques
that have been developed within the view of "man as mechanism" are
powerful and efficient. They work. Hence if integrated and reconciled
with other views of man-views which have more adequate ethics and
metaphysics (both terms that the behavioristic scientist insists are not
part of his concern) on which to guide their application-this view and
its products could conceivably be of great benefit to mankind.
The Human as Person-the View of Humanism and Humanistic Psychology'
Although its roots go back to Greek thinkers such as Socrates and
Plato, the tradition known as humanism first flowered during the
eighteenth-century period of Enlightenment. The central theme of
humanism has always been the affirmation, perfection, and celebration
of all that is thought to be uniquely human-especially the reflective
and expressive qualities of humankind. This is in vivid contrast to the
repressive qualities of the puritan ethic that so strongly influenced the
economic image of humankind in industrialized societies.
More recently, humanism has surfaced in numerous forms, often as
explicit alternatives to dehumanizing social forms. For example, the
0 "I am just completing a book on Behaviorism in which I answer a number of mistaken
views about it. I am not sure that I really 'cast off' concepts such as will, freedom, and
consciousness. I certainly reinterpret the data."-B. F. Skinner
t This section was written for the 1981 Pergamon Edition in response to Carl Rogers's
suggestion that by jumping from the Freudian to the behavioristic to the systems
theory view of man, the original SRI report gives unduly short shrift to humanistic
psychology.-O. W. Markley
American Humanist Association arose in large part in order to offer an
ethical (and legal) alternative to dogmatic religion, and the Association
for Humanistic Psychology was created as a deliberate "third force"
along side of the Freudian and behaviorist schools of thought in
psychology. Although the leading proponents of modern humanism
differ in a number of respects, they tend to agree on the importance of
propositions such as the following, compiled by Klapp (1973, pp.
279 ff.):
Man is one species; races and other biological subdivisions are relatively unim-
portant.
If progress exists, it is to be measured by improvement in the life of all mankind.
Killing one another for national or ideological reasons is not justified.
A world order representing all mankind should be created as soon as possible.
Certain weapons and technologies should be prohibited if for no other reason than
because they threaten the future of man on this earth.
Every culture and style of life that does not destroy human rights should be
preserved.
Customs, taboos, beliefs, and institutions which cramp the development of human
potential should be reformed or abandoned.
Social systems which restrict free activity of writers, artists, thinkers, and scientists
are suspect.
The standards which govern man should come from man himself and be cut to his
measure.
Concern for the well-being of man in this world should not be obscured by concern for
the next.
Much work is dehumanizing and should be changed to make it more satisfactory to
the worker even at some loss of "efficiency" or profit.
Many modern cities are unfit for human habitation.
Many of the activities of the "counter-culture" today are an important part of
experimentation to find a better life style for man.
The branch of explicitly humanistic thought currently making the
most pronounced contributions to a more adequate image of human-
kind is undoubtedly that which is organizationally led by the Association
for Humanistic Psychology and its ("fourth force") offspring, the
Association for Transpersonal Psychology. Both being part of the
so-called "human potential movement," these organizations tend to put
more trust in the intuitive wisdom and good will of persons than in the
formalized theories and rules of organizations, believing that there is
an innate tendency toward wholesome growth and goodness in all
persons that will be actualized if not prematurely frustrated by societal
limitations. Both groups are recently programming many of their
activities with an explicit focus on the possible evolutionary trans-
formation of humankind, much as is described in (and partially as a
result of) this study. Thus, to a large extent their emerging image is
that described in Chapter 5.
32
The Human as Evolving Holon-the View of Modern Systems Theory
Over the past three decades an amorphous discipline termed "sys-
tems theory" has arisen-partly as a protest to overly positivistic and
reductionistic methods in the physical and biological sciences; partly as
a way to apply to the study of humans such new advances as cyber-
netics, information and communication theory, and computer-based
simulation models; and partly as a way to reconcile and integrate
concepts, laws, and models from different disciplines into a unified
understanding. For many of its proponents, however, general systems
theory goes beyond these objectives. It provides an entire world view,
from which an image of humankind can be inferred.
In this view, the world (and its many subsystems) is not just a
collection of analyzable components, but an integrated whole of
organized complexity, one step beyond the Newtonian view of
organized simplicity, and two steps beyond the classical world view of
divinely ordered or imaginatively envisaged complexity.
Although the concept of a general systems theory (Chapter 4) is by
no means uncritically accepted in the scientific community, it neverthe-
less seems useful here to examine two ideas stemming from this
approach because they have important implications in terms of the
"images of man." These are (1) that all natural systems are open, not
closed (that is, proper understanding of system function can only be
obtained by making reference to interactions with other systems out-
side of the boundaries of the given system under study; (2) that all
natural systems have a hierarchical structure (that is, the system is made
up to coordinated "subsystems," and the system itself is part of, or
coordinated by, other higher level "supersystems")." The term "holon"
(from the Greek hoLos-whole-with the suffix on suggesting a part) has
been used to incorporate these system properties.' By using ideas such
as these, the systems approach allows study of the seemingly purposive
aspects of living organisms without making recourse to vitalistic or
mystical ideas.
The person is a special case in systems thinking because of his
self-conscious awareness and use of symbolic-conceptual systems to
guide his behavior; he is a goal-directed, "adaptive" learning system or
The anthropologist and systems theorist Magoroh Maruyama has recently criticized the
hierarchical tendency of gener-al systems thinking as being an unnecessary and unthink-
ing application of the dominant Western image of man-preferring what he calls a
"mutualistic paradigm."-O. W. Markley
t See further description of this concept in Chapter 4.
"holon." The properties of general systems seem to apply even to
man's conceptual activity. That is, owing to his social nature, his
concepts must include the concepts held by others; and they must be
"Janus-faced," incorporating more specialized concepts, just as they
themselves are incorporated by more generalized ones. ""
The systems view thus attempts to incorporate the more specialized
images of man (as mechanism, as beast, as mystic, etc.) and emphasizes
how these different aspects fit together holistically to make the human
being a complex, goal-oriented learning system. It also has recently
been integrated with evolutionary theory to show how conceptual
reformulations can take place which coordinated previously existing
ideas at a higher level of order and complexity.
Thus these ideas have immediate relevance for a future image of
humankind that could be more adequate than the industrial/economic
image.'
The Human as Spirit-the View of the Perennial Philosophy
Although most of the views of man we have surveyed have come into
being during a particular era, often borrowing and adapting views of
other cultures, there is one view that has remained surprisingly un-
changed since it was first formulated in the Vedic era of India, about
1500 B.C. Although this view has always remained somewhat under-
ground in most cultures, it has been visible, in almost unchanged form,
as an identifiable image of humankind in so many times and places that
Huxley has termed it the "Perennial Philosophy":
Philosophia Perennis-the phrase was coined by Leibniz; but the thing-the
metaphysic that recognizes a divine Reality substantial to the world of things and
lives and minds; the psychology that finds in the soul something similar to, or even
identical with, divine Reality; the ethic that places man's final end in the knowledge
of the immanent and transcendent Ground of all being-the thing is immemorial
and universal. Rudiments of the Perennial Philosophy may be found among the
traditional lore of primitive peoples in every region of the world, and in its fully
developed forms it has a place in everyone of the higher religions. A version of this
Highest Common Factor in all preceding and subsequent theologies was first
committed to writing more than twenty-five centuries ago, and since that time the
inexhaustible theme has been treated again and again, from the standpoint of every
religious tradition and in all the principle languages of Asia and Europe. (Huxley,
1945, p. iv)
Appendix B represents comments by Sir Geoffrey Vickers on information systems and
social ethics-comments very pertinent here and in later sections of this report.
t See Note A, p. 40.
34
The central characteristics of this view may be summarized as fol-
lows.
1. Those who most seem to be living it have always insisted that it is
not a philosophy or a metaphysic, not an ideology or a religious belief,
although onlookers have typically considered it so. Rather it is an
experience that is attested to, often in paradoxical form, because the
experience is said to be one of oneness, such that it resolves the
polarities of time and space, yet the reporter must tell of the
experience in terms of time and space.
Behold but One in all things. (Kabir)
An invisible and subtle essence in the Spirit of the whole universe. That is Reality.
That is Truth. Thou are that. (Upanishads)
True words always seem paradoxical but no other form of teaching can take their
place. (Lao-Tse)
2. The basic nature of the universe is consciousness, and the human
individual can participate in this "cosmic" consciousness. This is the
Ground of Being. For the human it is a "superconscious" or divine aspect
of one's being, and one's physical nature is a manifestation of universal
consciousness,
3. Although the human can experience or participate in this cosmic
consciousness, he or she usually chooses not to, going through life in a sort
of hypnotic sleep, feeling that he is making decisions, having accidents
occur to her, etc. If he begins to "wake up" and see more clearly,
however, he becomes aware of the direction of the higher Self in this
process.
4. Human potentiality is limitless. All knowledge, power and aware-
ness are ultimately accessible to one's consciousness.
5. As a person becomes aware of this basic nature of reality, he or she is
motivated toward development, creativity, and movement toward that
"higher Self," and becomes increasingly directed by this higher con-
sciousness. What is called "inspiration" or "creativity" is essentially a
breaking through to ordinary awareness of these higher processes.
When it breathes through his intellect, it is genius; when it breathes through his will,
it is virtue; when it flows through his affection, it is love. (Ralph Waldo Emerson,
"The Oversoul")
6. Evolution occurs, physical and mental, and is directed by a higher
consciousness and is characterized by purpose. As humankind increases
its level of consciousness, it participates more fully in this evolutionary
purpose.
R. M. Bucke (1901) has defined cosmic consciousness in detail:
35
The prime characteristic of cosmic consciousness is, as its name implies, a con-
sciousness of the cosmos, that is, of the life and order of the universe.... Along with
the consciousness of the cosmos there occurs an intellectual enlightenment or
illumination which alone would place the individual on a new plane of existence-
would make him almost a member of a new species. To this is added a state of moral
exaltation, and indescribable feeling of elevation, elation, and joyousness, and a
quickening of the moral sense, which is fully striking and more important to the
individual and to the race than is the enhanced intellectual power. With these come
what may be called a sense of immortality, a consciousness of eternal life, not
conviction that he shall have this, but the consciousness that he has it already.
This view of man, if it can be experienced by more than the small
minority of persons who have apparently realized it through the
centuries, would seem to provide the needed sense of direction and the
holistic perception and understanding described which the following
chapters show to be needed."
"The American Creed"
We conclude this highly selective survey of important images of
humankind by inquiring what image or images were most important in
the formation of the United States. In his classic study of black-white
relations in the United States, An American Dilemma, the Swedish social
scientist Gunnar Myrdal (1945) was struck particularly by the near-
unanimous national endorsement of a coherent body of beliefs and
values, an image of humankind whose characteristics he termed "the
American Creed."
America, compared to every other country in Western Civilization, large or small,
has the most explicitly expressed system of general ideals in reference to human
interrelations. This body of ideals is more widely understood and appreciated than
similar ideals are anywhere else. (p. 3, emphasis in original)
The basic character and pervasive application of the "American
Creed" were spelled out by Myrdal in one sweeping paragraph:
These ideas of the essential dignity of the individual human being of the fundamental
equality of all men, and of certain inalienable rights to freedom, justice, and a fair
opportunity represent to the American people the essential meaning of the nation's
early struggle for independence. In the clarity and intellectual boldness of the
Enlightenment period these tenets were written into the Declaration of Independence,
See Note B, p. 41.
the Preamble of the Constitution, the Bill of Rights and into the constitutions of the
several states. The ideals of the American Creed have thus become the highest lawof the
land. The Supreme Court pays its reverence to these general principles when it declares
what is constitutional and what is not. They have been elaborated upon by all national
leaders, thinkers and statesmen. America has had, throughout its history, a continuous
discussion of the principles and implications of democracy, a discussion which, in every
epoch, measured by any standard, remained high, not only quantitatively but
qualitatively. The flow of learned treatises and popular tracts on the subject has not
ebbed, nor is it likely to do so. In all wars, including the present one, the American
Creed has been the ideological foundation of national morale. (pp. 4-5)
The keynote of the American Creed would seem to be that of
emancipation-not just the emancipation of a people from the bon-
dage of tyranny and poverty, but the emancipation of humankind from
the bondage of history and heredity.
This creed was not born of a single image of the human being but,
like so many events in the real world, was the result of a vast com-
promise. One view was that enunciated over time by Thrasymachus,
Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Hamilton-a pessimistic view that saw man as
essentially irrational and irresponsible, subject to blind instinctual or
environmental forces, whose life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and
short," and who would live "in an implicit state of war of all against all"
until he unequivocally surrendered his dreadful freedom to the sovereign
of an authoritarian state. A contrasting, and eventually dominant, view
was that enunciated by Socrates, Cicero, More, Erasmus, Locke, Rous-
seau, and Jefferson-who stressed the faculties of reason and purpose,
the moral attributes of dignity and responsibility, and the existence of
sovereign individual rights flowing from these qualities.
These contending views continue to press for supremacy in Ameri-
can public policy, the system of checks and balances being designed to
prevent excesses on either side. This solution represented perhaps the
first pluralistic image of man as in active confrontation with an explicit
assumption of equality between contending images (as contrasted with
the pluralistic images of man in India where detachment from active
confrontation was the ideal). It defied the great tradition which had
assumed that the regulation of conflicting interests and the capacity of
interpreting the general will must lie either with an enlightened despot
or with an enlightened elite. Although this grand experiment has not
been without its moments of difficulty (and indeed, as this study
attempts to show, we are likely now to be in the midst of this tradition's
greatest challenge), nevertheless:
.... taking the broad historical view, the American Creed has triumphed. It has
given the main direction to change in this country. America has had gifted con-
servative statesmen and national leaders, and they have often determined the course
of public affairs. But with few exceptions, only the liberals have gone down in history
as national heroes. America is ... conservative in fundamental principles, and in
much more than that ... But the principles conserved are liberal and some, indeed, are
radical. (Myrdal, 1945, p. 7, emphasis in original)
UNDERLYING ISSUES AND DIMENSIONS
By identifying a number of underlying issues and dimensions along
which the various images that have dominated human history have
differed, we not only can better portray the dominant image of
humankind in our society, but we can contrast that image with the
images of other cultures. This may prove of vital importance in the
coming "spaceship earth" era, for not only will various dissimilar
cultures have to coexist more interactively, but there is an increased
possibility for a creative synthesis of differences-to the extent that
these differences are highlighted in an appropriate context.
Free Will. Does the human have free will, or are his actions (includ-
ing his choices) determined by various internal or external forces?
Many, if not most, of the ancient images saw man as determined by
magical, divine, or naturalistic forces, a theme that has returned via
biological and behavioral science. Most modern images of man,
however, see him as free, restrained only by the natural law of the
universe and those arbitrary laws he has constructed for his own
convenience.
Good versus Evil. Is human nature essentially good or evil? Or is the
human neither, being shaped for good or ill by his choices or by his
environment? Although many cultures have not dealt with this issue, it
was made explicit in the Near East and has significantly affected the
development of Western culture, having become an essential part of
the Judeo-Islamic-Christian tradition. Most Western images of
humankind can therefore be clearly evaluated with respect to this
question.
Man and Nature. Is the human a competitor in a ruthless natural
world, or is he an agent in a harmoniously balanced natural world? Or
is he separate from and superior to nature, which he is to dominate for
his own ends? Most cultures have assumed that the human being was
intrinsically part of nature. The Semitic tradition was thus unique in
setting him apart from nature. It was this tradition that has exerted the
strongest influence on Western images of humankind and, indeed, may
have been a necessary condition for the development of applied science
as we know it today.
Mind versus Matter. Are we essentially mind, consciousness, spirit? Or
are we composed of physical matter alone, a construction in whom life
and thought is but a characteristic of the state of organization of the
material? Most cultures have seen the human as essentially spiritual;
only with the rise of objective science has the materialistic emphasis
developed.
Mortal versus Immortal. Some images have death as the end of in-
dividual existence and experience. Others hold that the person has a
soul or spirit which continues to exist consciously after physical death,
either by reincarnation into another body or by moving onto some
other non-material plane of existence. Virtually all images of man see
him as somehow surviving physical death.
Divinity of Human Beings. Are the divine and the human essentially
distinct, or is God the human's experience of universal reality at a
profound level? This is the issue which most clearly separates the
images of the mystical core of most "high" religions from the images
popularized in their traditional teachings.
Individual versus Society," Is the individual important for his own
sake, or is he important primarily as a member of the group? Similarly,
is he valued for his intrinsic uniqueness, or for his extrinsic qualities
and skills? The images of man in most ancient and modern cultures
have emphasized him as a member of a society and have valued him
for his extrinsic qualities. Only in the history of Greek and European
culture have individualism and individuality come to be valued. And
only in the French and American Revolutions did individual identity
come to be idealized as the source of the equal worth of persons.
Progress. Is there a positive future toward which man and society are
moving? Or is the notion of progress absent, replaced by an image of
the essential unchangeability of the world? Although the idea of linear
progress appears to have originated with Zoroaster and from thence to
have influenced Western thought generally, the notion of the continu-
ing rise and fall on a human and cosmic scale predominates in other
cultures, finding its most notable expression in the Vedas of India.
Morality, Ethics, and Regulation. On what kind of ethical principles
should human behavior be based? Naked power? Divine revelation?
Traditional myths? Democratic agreements? Although the ethical
aspects of various images of humankind have been based on all of
"This should be a trichotomy rather than a dichotomy-individual versus institution
versus society."-Michael Marien
these, there does seem to be an evolutionary ordering that takes place
both in individuals and across cultures at differing states of develop-
ment. This idea is explored further in Chapters 6 and 7.
Table 4 represents our estimate of the "center of gravity" or "main-
stream" image dominant in the United States today. We offer this
estimate not with any illusion that it is very accurate or that it is likely to
please the holder of any particular image, but rather to get a sense of
the dominant image of man held in the United States today which our
future image of man will certainly have to incorporate if widespread
chaos and disruption during a transition period are to be minimized."
Table 4
ATTRIBUTES OF THE DOMINANT IMAGE IN CONTEMPORARY UNITED
STATES
Has freedom. The person is conscious and rational, having freedom of choice con-
trolled only by natural law and social constraints.
Is good. People are basically good and have good intentions; there are some exceptions
but these stem from an unfortunate situation in life; as unfortunate situations increase, it
is reasonable to trust others less.
Separate from nature. The person is superior to nature. Nature is to serve him, in
accordance with the designs that humans apply by means of technology. The human is
the highest being (either of creation or evolution) and therefore has a right to dominate
nature.
Material and mortal. The person is a physical being, composed of living matter. He has
a body and a mind that are related, yet separate. Material concerns count for more than
mental or spiritual ones. Existence may well continue after death, but we should not
behave as if that were true.
Not divine. Although the highest being in creation, the human is not in any way the
same as God; reported mystic experiences or relations with higher spiritual entities are
viewed with suspicion or alarm.
Individualistic. Except in times of war or other national emergencies, the person has a
right to individualistic pursuits but with some social obligations. The meaning of life is to
be found in individual fulfillment, which includes one's family and children who
represent one's own progress through time.
Pro-progress. Material progress is important; the individual's purpose is to be produc-
tive, to change the world for his benefit and in so doing, to learn more about himself and
the world. Whether this progress does or should apply to man's nature, however, is much
less clear.
Ethically individualist and pragmatic. Although there is a continuing concern for ethical
progress and fulfillment of the highest ideals of the culture, "right" (in practical terms) is
that which works to the advantage of the individual.
See Note C, p. 41.
Precisely how the American Creed has fared since Myrdal's (1945)
observations is difficult for us to see and hence say, living as we are in the
midst of the forces for reformation and counter-reformation.
Public polls in which the principles of the u.s. Constitution and the
Bill of Rights were translated into attitude questions have repeatedly
drawn such responses as "too liberal," "too much individual freedom."
Yet movements like labor unionism in the early 1900s, civil rights (for
minorities) in the 1960s, and women's liberation in the present decade
typify the repeated emergence of collective attempts to make the
American Creed more operational. Whether some sort of scientistic
"psycho-civilization" of our society, or some sort of totalitarian control,
or some new understanding of how democratic principles can function
adequately will emerge in the years ahead-years that will likely bring
increasingly severe challenges to our present system-is unclear. What
does seem clear is that our nation is facing a crucial existential
choice*-whether the American Creed is to remain viable during even
the next 25 years. The image of humankind that develops is a fun-
damental part of that choice.']
NOTES
Note A
"General systems theory purports to offer an entire world view; unfortunately, the
Society for General Systems Research (SGSR) is a hundred or so individuals each offering
their world view, without any interest or mechanism for synthesis.
"The 1954 data for modern transdisciplinary science [given in Table 2] is none other
than the founding date of SGSR. Well, see my comments below. In any event, I am
surprised that you have no speculation as to the possible periods of the future. A good
candidate for this would be the 'Methodology of Pattern' proposed by Julius Stulman in
Fields Within Fields, 5: 1 (1972), which goes well beyond the linear scientist found in
general systems thinking. Or see Oliver Reiser, Cosmic Humanism (Schenkman, 1966).
"Natural systems are open, but man-made systems (physical and social) are not
necessarily so, despite well-intentioned but naive attempts to impose biological metaphors
on them. Most people in general systems theory-including von Bertalanffy and Laszlo-
do not have an adequate understanding of social systems. Contrast their simplistic
attempts to impose uniformity with the work of Bertram M. Gross, e.g. The State of the
Nation: Social Systems Accounting (available separately or as monograph in Bauer's Social
Indicator, MIT, 1966).
"Your acceptance of the mindless conventional wisdom of general systems theory
reinforces my contention that you are neglecting an entire scientific culture-another
state of consciousness-social sciences, managerial sciences, decision sciences, policy
sciences, or whatever."-Michael Marien
The difficulty with the 'Our nation is facing-' rhetoric is that 95% of the nation is not
aware of this choice-or is it 99%?"-Michael Marien
t See Note D. p. 41.
Note B
"Two important additional characteristics of this philosophy need to be emphasized:
"(1) It is based, not on observation of external events, but on inner experiences, on
observations of inner events, events taking place in consciousness. Thus it is based on
direct preception and observation, just as is physical science, and in the same way, these
observations and preceptions are subject to different interpretations. However, the
perennial philosophy so-called, is essentially a distillation of the observations of thous-
ands of gifted observers throughout the ages.
"2. The teaching that man is a microcosmic replica of the macrocosmic creation of God.
Hermetic philosophy summarized this in the saying- 'as above, so below.' The Vedanta in
the expression- 'Thou are that.' Jesus in the saying-The Kingdom of Heaven is within
you.' The conclusion is that by observing energy-events in consciousness, within the
nature, one can attain to an understanding equal to or greater than that which can be
gained by external observations-which from this point of view, look at surface mani-
festations only. "-Ralph Metzner
Note C
"[Here you have] a lost opportunity: You failed to consider images of woman, or to
put it differently, you failed to consider the image of man, as contrasted with woman. [For
example], the Association for Humanistic Psychology and its sympathizers suffer from
being designated an 'effeminate' organization. We are soft instead of hard, tender
instead of tough, cooperative instead of competitive, intuitive instead of cognitive,
concerned with process instead of analysis, expressive rather than instrumental, etc.
"The problem is not that our society fails to acknowledge the more humane ideals, but
rather that it feminizes and these ideals and consigns them to home, church,
school, and suburb. In the meantime men fight all the more ferociously in order to
protect with their 'realism' this 'sweet idealism.' In Nixon's famous 'I see a child' speech,
he adds:
I see a gentle Quaker mother, with a passionate concern for peace, quietly weeping
when he went to war, but understood why he had to go....
"You see, weeping and passion and peace and understanding are all for women. In fact
it is the function of Nixon's mother and other women to provide sufficient emotional
support so that he can 'make it' in a political, commercial, legal, and international jungle,
from which feminized ideals have been excluded.
"Actually both 'male' and 'female' images suffer through this 'schizogenesis.'
Cooperation and passion are trivialized and sentimentalized by restricting them to the
nuclear family and the garden suburb. In the meantime the worlds of politics and
commerce grow brutal for lack of (falsely feminized) virtues."-Charles Hampden-
Turner
NoteD
"The idea of man as a student of life, or a seeker of wisdom, is one that has the greatest
relevance to the transitions of society that we are involved in. The contemporary
American ideal, while it has a place for the role of student, tends to think of it as
temporary. By contrast the Perennial Philosophy thinks of man as always a student of
life, or of Tao, or of Reality, or of the 'Actual Design' as we call it in Actualism. Laotse,
one of the greatest of the Chinese sages, said The wise man seventy years of age, in tune
with Tao, does not hesitate to ask a child of seven and learn from it.'
"The seeker, or student of life, seeks to gain insight and understanding by (1)
exploring his own consciousness and (2) studying man as a microcosmic creation. He may
also, under certain circumstances, study in a school, often referred to in ancient times as a
'Mystery School,' or with a teacher or guide. In such a school he does not study academic
Cl M _ E
subjects; rather he studies himself, in order to expand his awareness, sensrtize his
perception, and enhance the capability for expressing his creative self in action.
"The idea of man as a student of life also suggests a remedy for some of the
deficiencies produced by our ideas of happiness as being equivalent to economic
production and consumption. Then we have the degrading spectacle of men and women
in their fifties and sixties, no longer economic producers, being left to vegetate in
retirement communities. By contrast, there existed in India, until not too long ago, the
concept of the householder, who after discharging his obligations to society and family,
having raised his children to adulthood, retired from his business or profession and
entered a meditation training center or ashram, or worked with a guru, to devote the rest
of his life to the study of consciousness and self-understanding.
"Based on this concept one can envision older people revitalizing their life-goals and
attitudes into a spiritually oriented, creative new direction, that would allow the tradi-
tional 'wisdom of old age' to be re-integrated into the communal life in a constructive
manner.
"The image of man as a seeker or student of life fills all the characteristics of an
adequate future image, as postulated in Chapter 5. It emphasizes the cooperative
approach to nature and to other human beings rather than the competitive, exploitative,
thus the ecological perspective. And it focuses human potential, thus the evolutionary
perspective. And it undercuts the arrogance of dogmatism, whether scientific or reli-
gious, which shuts off awareness of the aspects of life outside the current theories and
belief systems. "-Ralph Metzner
"The way I look at it, there's a price tag
on everything. You want a high standard of living,
you settle for a low quality of life."
Reproduced by permission of J. B. Handelsman.
44
CHAPTER 3
Economic Man: Servant to Industrial Metaphors
The imperatives of technology and organization, not the images of ideology, are
what determine the shape of economic society .... I am led to the conclusion that we
are the servants in thought, as in action, of the machines we have created to serve us.
J. K. Galbraith (1967)
Technology ... has become the prime source of material change and so determines
the pattern of the total social fabric.
R. j. Forbes (1968)
The above quotations reflect a prevailing sense that technological and
economic developments have had a dominant influence upon the
pattern of our total societal fabric. Indeed, industrialism is one of the
most potent and widely spread cultural/societal systems in human
history. In America, no modern institution has escaped its influence:
the school, the family, the community and city, the church, all have
been influenced by this primary driving force of the modern era
(Miller and Form, 1967). Thus, the industrial revolution in modern
times refers to more than machines and markets; it refers also to the
people and institutions locked into a network of relationships
dominated by economic and technological forces. The pervasiveness of
economic forces suggests that we cannot anticipate the images of
humankind that might emerge without giving consideration to the tugs
and pulls of economic and technological influences.
SOURCES OF THE ECONOMIC IMAGE OF MAN
The social effects of the Industrial Revolution markedly transformed
the lives and actions of individuals in Europe, especially by the mid-
nineteenth century. For example, the emergence of the concept of
"factors of production" (land, labor, and capital) had revolutionary
implications for the Western image of humankind. Humans (the labor
component) were no longer a part of the organic whole of society;
rather, the person, the laborer, became an objectified and standardized
45
component of the production process. The tendency to see people as
mere units in the production process, bought in an impersonal market-
place and forced to submit to the dictates of the factory in order to
survive, was reinforced by the post-mercantilist socio-economic
ideology of laissez-jaire, which discouraged government intervention in
economic activities. The image inherent in this setting could reasonably
be described as "economic man":
rationalistic (able to calculate what was in his own self-interest),
mechanistic (a factor of production),
individualistic (with great responsibility to take care of himself),
materialistic (with economic forces acting as primary if not exclusive reward and
control mechanisms).
In addition to the changes in economic structure that laid the
groundwork for a market economy and factory-dominated society, we
also can identify some of the basic value premises that emerged during
the period of the Renaissance. This is important since many elements
of the dominant images of humankind currently held by our society
have their origins in the Renaissance and its aftermath, and can be
inferred from the value premises of that era. These value premises are
discussed briefly below.
Rationalism. Reason was elevated to a pinnacle in the eighteenth-
century Age of Enlightenment: "Reason would discover the natural
laws regulating existence, thereby insuring the progress of the human
race" (Brinton et al., 1955, p. 47). A number of threads formed the
intellectual fabric of rationalism. First, there was the rejection of
revelation as a source of truth. Truth was no longer something that was
found through a religious intermediary and divine revelation; rather,
truth was discoverable through empirical observation of the world.
Second, there developed an invidious distinction between reason and
emotion. The rational mode of perception became dominant since that
was the mode most useful in dealing with a physical world. "The way
was paved for the increasing preoccupation in modern times with
phenomena that were susceptible to mathematical and mechanical
treatment, and for the increasing suppression of non-mechanical and
so-called 'irrational experience'" (May, 1966, p. 59). This suppression
of the non-mechanical went hand-in-hand with the industrializing
process, for that which could be calculated and measured had practical
utility in the industrial world and what was irrational did not.
Individualism. In earlier societies, humans perceived themselves as
inseparable components of the seamless web of being which extended
Economic Man: Servant to Industrial Metaphors 47
throughout their natural and social environments (Lovejoy, 1939). For
example,
To the Greek, the city-state was not merely a legal structure; it was a way of life.
Every aspect of daily existence was intimately connected with it. The individual
derived his importance from his relation to the state; he was viewed as a citizen who
depends on the state and who can contribute to its welfare. But it is the state that is
omnipotent.
(Rima, 1967, p. 4)
Man also had a collectivist image of the person during the Middle
Ages: "Each citizen, serf or priest or knight, knew his place in the
hierarchy of church and feudalism; and all emotions were channeled in
community and religious ceremonies" (May, 1966, p. 57). With the
Renaissance and Reformation came a new belief in the power and
dignity of the individual. There arose a new confidence that a person
could overcome problems and forge a life by his or her own efforts and
by following the promptings of one's own conscience.
Secular Progress. As the emphasis shifted from collectivism to in-
dividualism, so the focus of attention to life on earth and attainments in
the here and now, rather than rewards in life hereafter. People came to
see their future in an optimistic perspective. No longer was happiness
something to be gained in an afterlife-happiness could be found in
this life. This optimism was grounded in a faith that the future would
prove to be congenial or at least neutral to the strivings of the
individual (Heilbroner, 1959, p. 27). This corresponded with a faith in
the power of science.
Natural Law. There developed a belief in a pre-established harmony
in the universe, a natural law of existence. In its economic. form, this
was the belief that if every person pursued their own self-interest for
material gain, then the well-being of society as a whole would be
enhanced.
Man as Master", Man came to think of himself as uniquely apart
from nature so that it was his destiny to master the natural environ-
ment. The roots of this concept of man's relationship to his environ-
ment can be traced, in part, to Judeo-Christian traditions. "Especially
in its Western form, Christianity is the most anthropocentric religion
the world has seen. Christianity ... not only established a dualism of
For purposes of emphasis, the generic term "man" was not changed to "humankind"
as in other sections.
48
man and nature but also insisted that it is God's will that man exploit
nature for his proper ends" (White, 1967, p. 1205). With the industrial
period came the convergence of operational images of man and tech-
nological means whereby man could master his environment.
Materialism. In this period, the satisfaction of the individual's
material wants became not only a necessary activity but a desirable one
as well. Where, in the past, the acquisition of wealth had been disdain-
fully regarded, at least theoretically, it now was strongly favored.
Calvinism, as it came to be applied, suggested that one's life here on
earth might hint at one's ultimate destination in the afterlife-to be
"called" to one's work and be diligent in worldly endeavors while
maintaining a spirit of rectitude was outward evidence of dedication to
a religious life. Thus, "the energetic merchant was, in Calvinist eyes, a
Godly man, not an ungodly one; and from this identification of work
with worth, it was not long before the notion grew up that the more
successful a man, the more worthy he was" (Heilbroner, 1968, p. 60).
Although the role of the "Protestant Ethic" in the industrializing
process should not be overly emphasized, "it is striking that without
exception it was the Protestant countries with their 'Puritan streak' of
work and thrift which forged ahead in the economic race" (Heilbroner,
ibid.).
The compatibility among these value premises is striking and it is
suggestive of the extent to which these premises collectively formed an
image of man as possessor of a tremendous dynamism for altering the
conditions of human existence. This is well summarized by Woodruff
(1966) who examines the impact of European ideas upon the world and
concludes:
No civilization prior to the European had occasion to believe in the systematic
material progress of the whole human race; no civilization placed such stress upon
the quantity rather than the quality of life; no civilization drove itself so relentlessly
to an ever-receding goal; no civilization was so passion-charged to replace what is
with what could be; no civilization had striven as the West has done to direct the
world according to its will; no civilization has known so few moments of peace and
tranquility. (p. 16)
Although these value premises did not specify the exact form of society
that would evolve, they did articulate the ground rules, so to speak,
from which it would emerge. And in this function they formed a
resilient, potent, and enduring base for the advent of the modern
industrial era. But as the industrial system gives way to its socio-
economic successor, so should the images of humankind, the values,
and the conceptual milieu yield to the offspring they have helped
create.
THE IMAGE OF ECONOMIC MAN IN THE
CONTEMPORARY SETTING
Our society seems to have reached that point in American history
where our dominant image of economic man no longer fits the physical
reality. Until recently, the basic value premises of individualism, secular
progress, materialism, and so on, have been commonplace in American
society and gave support to societal change in the form of the industrial
system. Further, these image components, growing out of the Renais-
sance, were sufficiently embracing in their interpretation and flexible in
their adaptation to encompass a wide range of societal changes without
themselves fundamentally changing-for example, theoretical notions
of the essential equality of all humankind, which have only very
recently, and still not fully, been incorporated into society as a practical
reality. But in the process of historical evolution, merely a slight
difference in rates of change can eventually create a significant dis-
parity between images and societal experience. This "lead-lag"
phenomenon-shown in its general version earlier as Fig. 1 and related
specifically to the economic image of man in Fig. 8-takes on added
Post-
industrial
period
Transition
( present)
Living environment
"" / Gop with
"" /,J /image
II/logging
Industrial
period
Gap with
image leading
"Pre- industrial"
Q)
0'
C
o
.c
u
'0
Q)
E
o,
Time
Fig. 8. Hypothesized interaction between the economic man and society."
"You have made superb use of Polak, and your diagrams have added significantly to
his own conceptualizations of the process and ingredients of image change."-Elise
Boulding
"This diagram is too simplistic."-Margaret Mead
50
significance when applied to the particular historical period since the
Industrial Revolution.
In Fig. 8, a portrayal of this period, the economic image is at first
anticipatory; in other words, it is operating as a set of "ground rules"
providing direction to societal change as industrialism emerges. The
gentle slope of image change in the later portions of the industrial
period suggests that the economic image continues to change, but in a
slow evolutionary way as it is articulated to a degree through inter-
action with the changing living environment. Also during this stage, the
living environment is gradually, and then with increasing momentum,
being altered so as to conform with the rationale of the anticipatory,
economic image of man. Then follows a "short" period of relative
congruence or match between this image and the living environment.
The period of congruence does not last for long since the economic
image of man, which has become firmly embedded in the whole societal
framework, provides a base for further changes in the living environ-
ment. Among these changes are increasing urbanization, increasing
material abundance, growing energy utilization, and expanding trans-
portation and communication networks. Changes in this living
environment then proceed rapidly in accord with an internal dynamic
that can "overshoot" the image base from which the initial momentum
derived. In this later phase, the economic image of man must increas-
ingly adapt itself to the realities of the altered living environment if it is
to be a supportive image. However, such change in the underlying
image of man is difficult to secure since the image is so basic to the
society's "world view" that it changes only very slowly and with great
effort; thus, the image increasingly lags behind societal changes and a
gap or mismatch grows. When this mismatch between the image and
the realities of the environment becomes too great, there is societal
disruption-arising from a severe loss of meaning, purpose, and direc-
tion. This, in turn, sets the stage for basic readjustment between the
image of humankind and the societal context."
The Poverty of Our Abundance
There are two useful ways of assessing whether the foregoing analy-
sis is relevant to changing images in our era. First, we can note that the
economic image was born at a time when scarcity and abject poverty
were facts of life. The question emerges, are they still such dominant
facts of life that the image retains appropriateness for organizing our
Readers may want to refer back to Table 2 (page 6) for additional illustrations of
"overshoot. "
collective and individual behavior? Second, we can note the operational
value premises that accrue from this image-premises that are inferred
from the way in which people behave rather than what they say. These
premises, in turn, can be related to the present societal environment
and their continued appropriateness for organizing and directing our
behavior can be evaluated. These points are discussed below.
John Maynard Keynes (1930) anticipated the profound disorientation
and loss of meaning that might occur when a society achieved a
condition of relative affluence but continued to deal with it as if there
were continuing scarcity.
The economic problem, the struggle for subsistence, always has been hitherto the
primary, most pressing problem of the human race ..... Thus we have been
expressly evolved by nature-with all our impulses and deepest instincts-for the
purpose of solving the economic problem. If the economic problem is solved,
humankind will be deprived of its traditional purpose. Thus for the first time since
his creation man will be faced with his real, his permanent problem-how to use his
freedom from pressing economic cares.... There is no country and no people, I
think, who can look forward to the age of leisure and of abundance without a dread.
For we have been trained too long to strive and not to enjoy. (p. 211)
That we are rapidly approaching this point in America is dramatic-
ally illustrated by data which show changes in poverty levels and
median family income levels over the last 40 years. There has been a
veritable revolution in affluence-both in magnitude and in the rapi-
dity with which it was acquired. In roughly the space of half a lifetime,
from 1929 to 1969, the proportion of the total U.S. population in
poverty fell from 60 percent to 12 percent (Allen, 1952; Census Bureau,
1970). Median family incomes rose, in 1969 dollars, from $2100 (esti-
mated) in 1939 to $9433 in 1969 and will rise to an estimated $22,000 by
the year 2000 (Census Bureau, 1970; Population Commission, 1972).
There can be no doubt that this unprecedented material wealth,
acquired so rapidly, represents a quantum departure from past con-
ditions. From this evidence alone, it is clear that one could expect a
disjunction between the functional role of our traditional images of
humankind and the new material reality they confront. In the words of
the social psychologist, Kenneth Keniston (1965):
With the age-old goal of universal prosperity within sight, we must question whether
the methods-technological values and virtues, the instrumental goals of our affluent
society-that help us approach this goal will serve to take us beyond it. (p. 428)
Obviously, the foregoing data and comments should not be inter-
preted as a suggestion that there are no longer serious problems of
poverty in our society. This cannot be the case when 12 percent of the
U.S. population in poverty translates as 25 million people. What can be
questioned is whether a continuation of scarcity notions will help
52
people get out of poverty. In many respects, the societal reforms
necessary to cope with poverty (e.g. redistribution of income) have
much in common with the reforms necessary to cope with the problems
of affluence. Therefore, these are more complementary than compet-
ing concerns.
For those who now exist in relative affluence, scarcity premises may
still seem appropriate for psychological rather than material reasons.
The nature of this perennial scarcity is discussed by Easterlin (1973) in
his article, "Does money buy happiness?":
Each person acts on the assumption that more money will bring more happiness;
and, indeed, if he does get more money, and others do not (or get less), his
happiness increases. But when everyone acts on this assumption and incomes
generally increase, no one, on the average, feels better off. Yet each person goes on,
generation after generation, unaware of the self-defeating process in which he is
caught up. (p. 10)
Thus, the purchase of happiness is an illusory phenomenon, "a distant,
urgently sought, but never attained goal" (Easterlin, 1973, p. 10).
Despite the contemporary success in creating scarcity which is in-
creasingly psychological, there are reasons to believe that "manufac-
tured want" will not long endure in our society. First, we are destined
to run, sooner or later, against the limits of world resources. For
example, we are seeing these limits reached in food and energy
shortages. Second, our material abundance seems to have been ac-
companied by a disturbing spiritual, personal, and social poverty.
Etzioni suggests that the hedonistic thrust of the more recent period of
industrialism arises when "old patterns of meaning erode without
being replaced by a new set" (1972, p. 6). Thus, we have found only
ephemeral and transient meaning through our consumption behavior.
However, human needs are hierarchically ordered such that higher
needs emerge when lower needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1962; Graves,
1967). This implies that as we become relatively satiated materially,
other needs will arise-friendship, love, self-actualization, community
with others-to assume a place of primary importance in people's lives.
In turn, this suggests that profound disorientation may occur when our
underlying image of economic man continues to exhort us to behave
and find meaning in a way of life that is inimical to the fulfillment of
these newly emergent needs.
The Present Mismatch between Premises and Societal Realities
There are a number of inferable value premises that characterize the
workings of our society. They may never have been declared as guiding
53
premises, but the behaviors and policies during the industrial period
suggest that they, or their close relatives, must have been at work.
Below we list a number of such premises which seem possibly
obsolescent. Since these are too many to discuss in any detail, seven that
have particular relevance to the image of economic man are amplified in
the discussion.
POSSIBLY OBSOLESCENT PREMISES THAT
TYPIFY THE RECENT INDUSTRIAL ERA
(1) That progress is synonymous with growth of GNP, that quality of life is furthered by a
system of economics based on ever-increasing consumption.
(2) That the individual should be free to make his own choice of "the good," and that the
choices he makes in pursuit of self-interest willsomehow adduptodesirable overall societal
choices.
That people areessentially separate, so that little intrinsic responsibility is felt for the effect
of present actions on remote individuals or future generations.
(3) That humankind is separate from nature, and hence it is our destiny to master nature.
(4) The "technological imperative" that any technology that can be developed, and any
knowledge that can be applied, should be.
That the search for knowledge is appropriately dominated by utilitarian values-
science supported to the extent that it promises new manipulative technologies.
That the aggregate knowledge of specialized experts constitutes wisdom.
That both societal growth and protection of one's own interests are best served by
competitive aggressive behaviors.
(5) That man is rational and that reductionism in positivistic scientific thinking is the
approach to knowledge most to be trusted.
(6) That individual identity is to be equated with material possessions acquired and/or
occupational status achieved.
(7) That there is freedom in affluence, that it is possible for people to earn "enough" money,
and simultaneously have full freedom of choice.
That the future of the planet can safely be left to autonomous nation-states, operating
essentially independently.
The "political premise" that "what ought to be" is not a meaningful concept because it
is not achievable.
That economic efficiency should be pursued indefinitely through the organization and
division of labor and the replacement of humans by machines.
Premise One: that progress is synonymous with growth of GNP and that
growth is inherently good. It is now well accepted that gross measures
of growth such as GNP do not tell us a great deal about our society's
welfare. For example, the level of pollution is correlated with the level
of GNP: the question arises, what is growing-pollution or social
well-being? Given the destructive as well as benevolent potential of our
powerful economy, we can no longer afford blindly to accept the
premise that "bigger is better" and "growth is good." The momentum
of such an ideology may be suicidal.
When we combine our growth ethic with a passion for hard,
numerical evidence of growth, we find that we tend to maximize most
what we can measure best: the GNP, the rate of employment, years of
education received, the number of cars produced, and so on. While
these indices of success are useful, they tend to relegate more sub-
jective measures of success (aesthetic maturity, capacity for love,
environmental quality) to an inferior status. Further, "hard" measures
of growth such as GNP give a false sense of security, as long as they are
going up, because they sidestep the crucial question: abundance for
what?
Premise Two: that there is a natural law of beneficial self-interest
which assures us that when persons act in their own competitive,
material self-interest, the public good is well served. In its economic
form, this belief in a harmony between individual self-interest and the
welfare of society as a whole was the essence of the laissez-faire concept.
There are several problems with this premise. A different description
of this "natural" law is that: if we set up a social framework in which
people are encouraged to be generous, most of them will rise to the
occasion; set up one which encourages them to be selfish, and most will
sink to that level. Thus, the assumption that humankind is motivated
only by immediate self-interest may well be another of the self-fulfilling
hypotheses of society. Having helped create a world in which human
relationships are increasingly forced into the marketplace, we find
superb confirmation of the initial dogma, that humankind is governed
by marketplace motives (Claiborne, 1971). The incompatibility of this
motivation with human actualization is summarized by Melvin Tumin
(1964):
... one may fairly say that what business stands for, ideologically insists upon and
tries to get adopted as general principles of conduct, run directly against and reduce
the chances of evoking affection and love as principles of relationship ... in promot-
ing themes quite inimical to identification, affection, and significant membership,
business thereby and to that extent tends to bring out, standardize, and reward the
most unsocial impulses in man. (p. 130)
Not only does this diminished conception of persons exist in the realm
of business practice, it is supported by economic theory which has
"still an unmistakable aura of eighteenth-century pleasure-pain
psychology ... " (Rima, 1967).
Premise Three: that humankind is separate from nature and it is its
obligation to conquer nature. Humankind, so long subservient to
nature, now finds itself in an increasingly powerful role as the creator
of its own environmental context. However, given the highly inter-
dependent links in the ecological chain, our capacity for manipulation
of the environment must give way to an enlarged sense of symbiotic
responsibility.
Premise Four: that the technological imperative, the increasing ability
and hence requirement to shape and control the environment, includ-
ing people, is an unqualified good. This is related to the utilitarian bias
in the search for knowledge, so that only that knowledge is pursued
which promises new manipulative technologies. The "technological
imperative"-that any technology which is possible is, ipso facto, neces-
sary and desirable to apply-is now conflicting on occasion with what
may become "social imperatives." For example, because the SST was
possible it was presented to the American public as necessary and
desirable. The public, however, decided that it was neither, and after
an extended national furor, the project had to be abandoned. We are
beginning to weigh the social, psychological, and environmental costs
against the worth of such products of technology.
Premise Five: that we are first and foremost rational beings and
feeling should be subordinated as an inferior aspect of our nature.
Thill is an understandable premise in that it supported development of
the cognitive skills needed in the industrializing process. However, this
empirical view relegates the speculative world of art, music, poetry, and
religion to a position of lesser reality. How then are we to give meaning
to life in an affluent society if the "higher" pursuits of people must be
subordinated as "lower" in order to produce that affluence? We must
realize the dehumanizing influence in the suppression of the non-
rational human potentials.
Premise Six: that individual identity and success in life are to be
measured by material possessions acquired and/or occupational status
achieved. The biblical injunction against this kind of thinking is to
inquire what it profits a person to gain the world but to lose his soul.
However, one's soul has become redundant in a world secularized by
affluence; "the most effective way to establish [identify] distinctions is
through styles of consumption" (Downs, p. 64). Fortune magazine
recently reported that in the consumer market of the 1970s there is
an increasing insistence by the customers on using consumption to express them-
selves, to help in fashioning their own identities.... For increasing numbers of
Americans, the clothes they wear are not simply material objects; on the contrary,
they are viewed ... as the most basic expression of life style, indeed of identity itself.
(Silberman, 1971)
Premise Seven: that there is freedom in affluence. We have traditionally
assumed that if people can simultaneously earn "enough" money and
be given "freedom" of choice, they can take care of themselves. The
fallacy of this view lies in believing there is no conflict between earning
the money and the freedom of choice that is then available. The very
act of earning "enough" money constrains the number of social,
psychological, political, and physical choices that one can make. Mar-
garet Mead has pointed out that to introduce cloth garments
(effectively) into a grass- or bark-clad population, one must simul-
taneously introduce closets, soap, sewing, and furniture. Cloth is part
of a complex cultural pattern that includes storing, cleaning, mending,
and protecting (Slater, 1970). Imagine, then, the cultural constraints
implicit in our society which is so laden with goods and services. Thus,
the real philosophy underlying "freedom in affluence" is that once you
have enough money to be free from want, then all further income gives
you the freedom to want-as long as you want only more material
goods and services. This premise runs afoul if wants arise that cannot
be largely satisfied by material means.
The preceding discussion is only suggestive of the potential mis-
match between our inferable value premises and the societal context in
which they are operable. This lack of congruence calls into question, at
a deeper level, the utility and desirability of the economic "image of
man." It is difficult to tell when and how congruence-and thereby
meaning and direction-will be reestablished in our social order. There
are, however, several forces for resolution that will likely be involved as
a higher level of reintegration emerges.
GOING BEYOND: IN SEARCH OF IMAGE/SOCIETY RESOLUTION
There are two distinguishable methods by which congruence might be
reestablished:
1. The trajectory of the industrial state dynamic may be sustained
and the image of humankind adapted to fit that dynamic.
2. The industrial state dynamic may be either self-limiting or limited
by society so as to conform to the guiding influence of a newly
emergent image of man.
In either event, the economic image is hypothesized to require
change; however, the nature of that change is quite different for the
two responses. Although these two alternatives are an oversim-
plification of the interdependent process of societal evolution which
inevitably implies the dialectical interaction between images and
environment, nonetheless they do alert us to the following questions:
How powerful is the industrial dynamic?
Can we control that power?
Do we have emerging images of man to direct it?
The Power of the Industrial State
57
Technological change has an unquestioned primacy in virtually every
area of our collective existence. It provides the motor for the continual
social change to which we must somehow adapt (Keniston, 1965).
During the industrial period, the forces of economic/technological
change were unleashed but the agencies for the control or guidance of
technology were still rudimentary (Heilbroner, 1967). Thus tech-
nological advance became a near-autonomous driving force, bringing
about major changes in the total social fabric. The society is under
pressure to revise its underlying "metaphors of meaning" or images
of man so as to conform to the new conditions technology has created.
The powerful structuring influence of economic forces upon
developed societies is dramatically illustrated by the fact that in-
dustrialism creates standardized societal forms which are strong enough
to transcend traditionally distinctive cultural boundaries and
differences. Alex Inkeles, who has done extensive and detailed cross-
cultural studies of this phenomenon, writes that:
There is substantial evidence, over a wide attitudinal and experimental range, that
perceptions, opinions and values are systematically ordered in modern societies....
Modern society... is more or less unique in the extent to which it produces
standardized contexts of experience.
(Inkeles, 1969, p. 2)
Other extensive cross-cultural studies have reached similar conclusions.
Adelman and Morris (1967), in a study of economic growth and
socio-political change in seventy-four countries, state that:
During this process of successive differentiation [which accompanies economic
development], the economic aspects of the society become increasingly more im-
portant and more explicit until, at the fully developed stage, economic con-
siderations have become a powerful force in shaping national behavior. (p. 267)
Thus, it does seem plausible to conclude that economic processes and
products are creating an interlocking network of values, institutions,
incentives, physical structures, and social structures that exact con-
formity as the price for inhabiting this societal environment. Once we
have created a living environment, we are destined to be products of
that which we have created. We cannot start afresh. Rene Dubos makes
the point that:
The environment men create through their wants becomes a mirror that reflects
their civilization; more importantly it also constitutes a book in which is written the
Cf M - F
58
formula of life that they communicate to others and transmit to succeeding genera-
tions. The characteristics of the environment are therefore of importance not only
because they affect the comfort and quality of present-day life, but even more
because they condition the development of young people and thereby of society.
(Dubos, 1968, pp. 170-171)
Although it is clear that the "imprinting" force of the industrial state
is strong, it seems by no means certain that the industrial dynamic is
sustainable. The industrial dynamic may be self-limiting as it runs up
against the limits of world resources, as it no longer provides people
with a sense of self-identity and meaning, as its structure reaches a
point of increasing instability and vulnerability.
The self-limiting character may already be reflected in our apparent
need to make major modification of our economic institutions. It might
seem quite unrealistic to think of drastic change in the massive and
powerful business organizations were it not for a historical parallel.
Probably it would have seemed quite preposterous in the mid-eigh-
teenth century to imagine that, over major portions of the globe,
governments would soon be considered legitimate only if they derived
"their just powers from the consent of the governed," if they became
"governments of the people, by the people, and for the people." The
social power of granting or withholding legitimacy, though its
mechanisms are subtle and little understood, has impressive force-as
monarchies and colonial powers came to realize.
An analogous challenge to legitimacy appears to be building up with
respect to business institutions. The legitimacy which in the past was
granted on the basis of ownership and managerial expertise is being
attacked. Consumers, environmentalists, civil-rights groups, and
modern feminists are placing new requirements on business for social
responsibility. Workers are demanding not only a voice in the policy-
making and decision processes hitherto reserved for management, but
also improved work environments and "meaningful work." The
emergence of huge multinational corporations with economic powers
comparable to those of nations has brought awareness that these
private-sector institutions have impacts on human lives comparable to
the impacts of political governments, and hence should be subject to
the demand made of governments to assume responsibility for the
welfare of those over whom they wield power.
The Control of the Industrial State
Although the industrializing process has a very powerful impact
upon the rest of society, it is itself largely dependent upon tech-
nological change, which tends to be an uncontrolled and undirected
process. The reasoning behind this contention is as follows:
Economic growth depends largely upon technological change-economic studies
typically attribute between 60 percent and 90 percent of economic growth to the
forces of technological change (Hollander, 1965; Kuznets, 1966).
The direction of technological change in the short run depends largely upon profit
potentials and, therefore, technological change occurs as an unplanned and un-
governed process in the unrelated profit pursuits of many independent firms
(Schmookler, 1966; Rogers, 1962).
The direction of technological change in the long run depends largely upon the state
of scientific knowledge, which develops haphazardly through the accretion of many
small bits of knowledge from many independent sources (Mesthene, 1970).
In both the long and short runs, the regulation of technological
change is peculiarly difficult owing to systemic shortcomings. Control
over its direction requires a great deal of expertise; however, the
demands for specialization inherent in the development of expertise
necessarily narrow the focus of regulating agencies at the same time
that the consequences of our technologies are having an increasingly
broad impact. Therefore, from a systemic perspective, the possibility of
effective regulation of technological change would seem to be declining
at the same time that the need for guidance is increasing.
There are forces beyond the rather accidental convergence and
impact of technology which reinforce the feeling that "the course of
social change is quite beyond our capacity to control or even influence"
(Keniston, 1965). For example, the market mechanism largely reacts to
short-term profit potentials and substantially discounts the dysfunc-
tional consequences that might accrue from decisions based upon
short-time horizons. Also, the result of using such criteria as net profits,
units produced, and attendance levels as measures of societal progress
is that:
... each sub-component of society tends to define its values and goals, not in terms of
quality, inner satisfactions or fulfillments, but with respect to position relative to
other like components within the competitive context, irrespective of the state or
direction of movement of that context.
(Wilson, 1970, p. 21)
In addition, there may be fundamental, systemic "control deficien-
cies" that inevitably emerge as a society becomes highly developed (e.g.
with increasing urbanization, growth of the economy, growth of politi-
cal institutions, interlocked transportation and communications net-
works, and so on). It appears that "industrial man" has created an
60
Complexity
interdependent societal environment of such proportions that it has
inadvertently reached a critical, systemic mass which is beyond his
direct control. We have aggregated what were comprehensible smaller
systems into larger and oftentimes incomprehensible supersystems:
[there is a] ... growing reliance on supersystems that were perhaps designed to help
people make analyses and decisions, but which have since surpassed the understand-
ing of their users while at the same time becoming indispensable to them....
(Weizenbaum, 1972)
The simultaneous need for and lack of control over societal changes
at the macro-systemic level can be visualized as follows:
!
Interdependence
1 1
implies
need for Regulation (conflict) need for Expertise
This schematic suggests that as a society becomes increasingly developed,
a logical consequence is for the system to become increasingly complex
and interdependent. An increasingly complex system-given biological,
learning, and mechanical limitations to human decision-making
capacity-implies the need for division of labor and increasing speci-
alization, i.e. the need for expertise. Further, an increasingly inter-
dependent system requires increasing regulation to insure smooth
functioning and to prevent damaging perturbations. Several con-
clusions follow from these characteristics of large societal systems:
Increasing interdependence implies increasing vulnerability of the system: one
hijacker can take over a multimillion dollar airliner; a localized power grid failure
can plunge the whole U.S. eastern seaboard into darkness; the shutdown of a brake
plant can stop production at major auto assembly plants and also at "upstream"
plants. The entire system, then, is no stronger than its weakest or most vulnerable
component. This weakness, which becomes more pronounced as interdependence
increases, necessitates increasing predictability, order, control, and regulation of
societal processes (human and mechanical). As Donald Michael has pointed out, this
weakness is further aggravated by the fact that as the size of the population
increases, "even if the percent of disturbing events that occur doesn't increase, the
number of events that occur will increase" (1968). Further, as more people and
processes are grouped together, the number of linkages (vulnerability points) in-
creases more than proportionately-perhaps exponentially.
Increasing complexity requires increasing expertise in order to cope with that
complexity. However, this trend may seriously compromise our much prized demo-
cratic processes. If people do not have the capacity to make informed decisions, they
may feel obliged to defer to the expert. We see evidence of this in the common belief
that "the President has all the facts and knows many things that we do not-
therefore, trust in his decisions." Another way of stating this is that the viability of a
democracy depends upon the informed decision-making capacity of its citizenry, i.e.
the "relative political maturity" of the people must at least maintain parity with the
complexity of the issues confronting the public. If the acquisition of relevant know-
ledge does not proceed at about the same pace at which the decisions become
complex, then relative political maturity will decline. This may have two con-
sequences: (1) increasing reliance placed upon the "expert" to maintain order and
control, with a resulting compromise of our democratic processes, or (2) reluctance
to give control to the "expert" but, with an increasing inability to make informed
decisions, the result is that the system may truly go "out of control."
Increasing interdependence requires that the whole system be guided-to allow any
element to exist outside of the domain of guidance is to threaten the entire,
intertwined network. An increasing scope of control, in turn, implies governance by
that body whose powers extend over the entire system-the national government.
Thus, a predictable consequence of economic growth (with its systemic concomitants)
is an increasingly broad focus of federal involvement. Increasing expertise, on the
other hand, implies an increasingly narrow focus of specialization and division of
labor (whether intellectual or physical). A disturbing thought arises: Who is theoverall
expert with overall control? Can we expect any single person, such as the President, or
group, such as the Domestic Council, to have the human capacity to aggregate all
relevant expertise and maintain their own relative political maturity? Are they not
subject to the same human limitations that have necessitated the demise of the
"Renaissance man" for the sake of developing many narrow if deeper extensions of
knowledge?
In earlier times, when our society was comprised of many small and
virtually self-sufficient units, a wrong decision usually had very limited
consequences. Today, an inappropriate decision can have vast con-
sequences for the entire societal system. While the interdependence,
vulnerability, and need for effective control of the system are increas-
ing, the means of control may be decreasing.
Even this cursory analysis suggests that we cannot attain a post-
industrial society with industrial-era means of regulating human and
institutional conduct. There is the further suggestion that our societal
system may become increasingly destabilized and vulnerable to chaotic
disruptions. Thus, the "undirected" power of the industrial system has
contrasting implications. On the one hand, it could be extremely
difficult to redirect our society in any direction other than where the
natural momentum seems to be. taking it. On the other hand, this
natural momentum may be strongly self-limiting when a critical mass of
systemic complexity and interdependence is reached. The latter point
suggests that out of the ensuing disorganization may come a sufficient
freeing-up of the system to allow the injection of fresh images and
corresponding institutional structures in such a way as to give us a new
burst of momentum into the post-industrial era.
62
The Growing Impotence of the Economic Image
While our economic image has become less and less capable of
guiding the societal context created by technological change, there has
also been a decline of constructive utopian thinking. Indeed, the words
"utopian" and "myth" currently connote impracticality, fantasy, and
irrelevance to everyday concerns. When we label something utopian it
is often to dismiss it out of hand. When we speak of myth it is often to
characterize something as false. These pejorative connotations suggest
that we live today without the benefit of positive anticipatory myths,
symbols, images:
... as thinkers, Americans rarely if ever now attempt to construct an imaginary
society better than that in which they live; and at the same time, the faith that our
society is in some sense a Utopia has surely disappeared.... But if we define Utopia
as any attempt to make imaginatively concrete the possibilities of the future, Utopias
have not in our own day ceased to exist, but have merely been transvalued.... Our
visions of the future have shifted from images of hope to vistas of despair; Utopias
have become warnings, not beacons. Huxley's Brave New World, Orwell's 1984 and
Animal Farm, Young's The Rise of the Meritocracy, and ironically even Skinner's
Walden Two-the vast majority of our serious visions of the future are negative
visions, extensions of the most pernicious trends of the present.
(Keniston, 1965, p. 327)
This wave of negative visions of the future suggests that the image of
humankind which proved so powerful in the Industrial Revolution is
increasingly impotent as an organizing metaphor. Rather than being
pulled by an anticipatory image of a positive future and pushed by the
momentum of a realized past, we are now only being pushed by the
momentum of our realized past without the attraction of a magnetic
image of the future. To the extent that this is true, it would seem that
our society is out of control, with guiding images virtually non-existent
and the system operating on its own complex of micro-decisions. This
loss of guidance via positive images might be tolerable if the internal
dynamic of the industrial system were sufficiently organized that the
numerous individual decisions yielded a desirable result. But our
experience and present situation make all too clear how haphazard is
the internal dynamic. We are thus doubly disadvantaged: we have no
guiding images to impose upon the industrial system and the system itself seems
to have no internal macro-guiding processes.
Thus the industrial state at this point has immense drive but no
direction, marvelous capacity to get there but no idea of where it is
going. Somehow the breakdown of the old images has seemed to lead
more to despair than to a search for new images.
CONCLUSION-PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE
63
The material abundance associated with the industrial era has not
been acquired without tremendous costs. Accompanying industrialism
was an erosion of Western man's sense of a cosmological order:
Contemporary man no longer "naturally" sees himself as a useful and necessary
member of a social whole geared into a meaningful plan of existence within the
totality of a cosmic or divine order.
(Luckman, 1970, p. 584)
A meaningful existence is largely derived from the existence of, and
congruence between, the human being's relationships to self, society,
and universe. Although profitable, the industrial period has thus been
very costly as it has left us alienated, to varying degrees, from these
sources of meaning. Mysteries of the cosmos have seemingly been
displaced by the cold rationality of science. A sense of community has
been displaced by an incomprehensible urban existence. Social pres-
sures have created an "other-directed" mentality such that many are
alienated even from themselves. This would suggest that the next
phase of our societal evolution should be the reintegration of man with
his sources of meaning-to find the deep roots of significance among
the ephemeral artifacts of our society. The continued extension of the
industrial state seems poorly suited to this task. We are challenged now
to look beyond the technological and material frontier to a new
American frontier which is essentially that of man searching for himself.
To summarize: The interrelationship between the power of the
industrial state, the control of the industrial dynamic and the lead-lag
relationship of images can be woven into two distinct societal fabrics
which could plausibly emerge out of the present. Stripped of all
refinement, the skeletal outlines of two responses to the current image-
society mismatch might be:
1. A "technological extrapolationist" response. This hypothesized
response assumes that: (a) the industrial dynamic would be sus-
tained, (b) it would continue to be relatively "uncontrolled," and
(c) the economic image of man would continue to lag and be
forced to make adaptive changes in accordance with the dictates
of the evolving industrial dynamic.
2. An "evolutionary transformationalist" response. This hypo-
thesized response assumes that: (a) the industrial dynamic is either
self-limiting or else will be limited by society, (b) the dynamism of
the "American Creed" will regain control (a greater degree of
societal direction in response to the will of the people) over our
societal system and subsystems, and (c) a new humanistic image of
humankind will emerge which will guide us into a post-industrial
era.
Despite the seeming clarity of these two responses, we are still faced
with a dilemma. To the extent that modern people and their images
are being shaped by the urban-industrial environment, it would seem
fruitless to try to change "the image" without changing the environ-
ment which demands certain patterns of behavior. On the other hand,
it would seem equally fruitless to try to change the powerful dynamic
of industrialism without the help of a potent image of humankind to
guide us toward a different societal trajectory. One alternative is to
attempt to do both. The other alternative is to accept-and some would
suggest suffer-the consequences of the working out of the logical
extensions of the industrial-state paradigm. What is implied by both of
these alternatives is considered in greater detail in Chapter 7, where
they are developed at greater length.
Reproduced by permission of Simon & Schuster, a Divisionof Gulf and Western Corporation,
1970, Walt Kelly.
66
CHAPTER 4
Influence of Science on the "Image of Man"
Let us suppose for a moment that we are back in the year 1600, concerned with
forecasting probable future trends. In retrospect it is clear that one of the most
significant events in progress was what came later to be called the Copernican
revolution... What was the essence of this remarkable transformation that started
with the brash suggestions of Nicholas Copernicus and Giordano Bruno and led to
consequences as diverse as a tremendous acceleration in physical science and a
decline in the political power of the Church? One useful interpretation is that a
group of questions relating to the position of the Earth in the universe, and the
nature and significance of the heavenly bodies passed out of the realm of the
theological and philosophical and into the realm of empirical inquiry. No longer
were these questions to be settled by referring to this or that ecclesiastical or
scholarly authority; rather they were to be subjected to illumination by systematic
observation and experiments.
Willis Harman in "The New Copernican Revolution" (1969)
The explosion of science and the kind of knowledge about man and his
universe that came as a result of this shift in authority structure has
transformed science into one of the most powerful influences on our
image and conception of humankind today. As we shall see, however,
science now stands at the threshold of yet another series of changes
whose consequences may be even more far-reaching than those which
emerged from the Copernican, Newtonian, Darwinian, and Freudian
revolutions. Questions regarding consciousness, awareness, subjective
and transpersonal experience, the roots of fundamental value pos-
tulates, and related matters constitute a set of concerns that may, like
earlier questions regarding the physical universe, be passing from the
realm of theological and philosophical and into the realm of systematic
empirical inquiry.
This chapter is organized in three parts. The first is a general
discussion of the characteristics and inherent limitations of science,
including brief mention of areas in which the old mechanistic
metaphors and deterministic assumptions have proven inadequate and
yielded to probabilistic laws of causality and weird models quite foreign
to anything in ordinary experience.
The second part comprises a cursory examination of a number of
scientific frontier areas where anomalies are showing up or data do
not fit comfortably into the old paradigms. These are the challenges
which may in the end result in a shift. to anew, expanded scientific
67
68
paradigm when the strain of patching up the old or suppressing the
offending data becomes too great.
The third part of the chapter examines some of the sources and
characteristics of a possible new scientific paradigm. Throughout, the
interaction is emphasized between scientific paradigms and cultural
images of man.
CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL SCIENCE
Science is ideally a search for knowledge and enlightenment carried
out with an objective and pragmatically defined attitude. The spirit of
science is that of open, unbiased inquiry into whatever interests the
investigator. The classical view of science is essentially based on the
following axioms (Conant, 1951):
Reason is the supreme tool of humankind.
Knowledge, acquired through the use of reason, will free mankind from ignorance
and will lead to a better future.
The universe is inherently orderly and physical.
This order can be discovered by science and objectively expressed.
Only science deals in empirically verifiable truth.
Observation and experimentation are the only valid means of discovering scientific
truth, which is always independent of the observer.
As we shall see, recent developments in a variety of frontiers of
scientific inquiry make us progressively less sure that we know what
these axioms mean, or should mean.
Paradigms in Transmutation
The scientific inquiry is not something that can be examined apart
from the society in which it is embedded. An active dynamic process
exists among the developing scientific knowledge, its technological
applications, and the surrounding cultural context. As the new know-
ledge generates new technologies and these are applied to influence the
physical and social environment, the cultural context is affected. But
this in turn affects the kind, form, and application of new knowledge.
In a way similar to that portrayed by Fig. 8 (page 49), conflict grows
between societal ends and the consequences of technological ap-
plications, and this brings challenges to the basic axioms of the scientific
activity.
The commitment of science to verifiable knowledge renders it
naturally Promethean. The mythical bold explorer Prometheus stole
fire from the Gods and thereby gave man control of his own destiny.
Prometheus' brother Epimetheus liked to play with his brothers' dis-
Influence of Science on the "Image of Man" 69
coveries, not always with due regard for the consequences. The Gods,
angry over Prometheus' theft, gained their revenge by sending Epi-
metheus a wife, Pandora, with her proverbial box which upon being
opened released all mankind's ills and troubles. Only Hope remained
inside, to preserve man's sanity in the face of his new misfortune. As de
Ropp (1972) points out:
Our age, the age of the new Prometheans, illustrates as does no other age, the depth
of the Promethean myth. Never before have the Prometheans been so daring. Never
before have the Epimetheans been so rash and never has Pandora's box been so
crammed with menace.
This Promethean-Epimethean conflict between science and civiliza-
tion is one, perhaps the dominant, force presently modifying the
patterns of scientific conceptualization and experiment. Emergence of
a "new transcendentalism" in the culture is a second. And new
developments in certain scientific frontier areas form a third.
The goals of society, influenced by the cultural image of man-in-the-
universe, help to define the research territory of science. Thus the
content of science is affected by the prevailing image of man. Then the
act of scientific inquiry involves another set of image processes involv-
ing models of the problem to be investigated. Many scientists have
stressed the importance of proper imaging in scientific investigation;
one nuclear physicist, Martin Deutsch, has remarked (1959):
In my own work, I have been puzzled by the striking degree to which an experi-
menter's preconceived image of the process he is investigating determines the outcome
of his observations. (Emphasis added)
The prevailing image of man-in-the-universe also enters into the
interpretation of observed phenomena. The scientist almost inevitably
refers back to the model of causality contained within the more basic
image to decide on an acceptable interpretation of his data and
findings. The myths and images of the culture influence perception of
what seems possible in the universe and is therefore acceptable-
scientifically or otherwise.
Thomas Kuhn (1962) 'used the term "scientific paradigm" to refer to
the total pattern of perceiving, conceptualizing, acting, validating, and
valuing associated with a particular image of reality that prevails in a
science or branch of science. These theoretical models with their
associated behavior patterns may operate successfully for a limited
time, but in the dynamic processes of scientific development tend to
rise, fall, and be replaced-often by an expanded paradigm that
includes the earlier one as a special case. When a paradigm is more or
less successful at accommodating the phenomena being perceived (and,
70
we recall, what is perceived is affected by the form of the dominant
paradigm), then we have what Kuhn terms "normal" science." Its
central activity is the articulation and elaboration of the reigning
paradigm.
However, when a sufficient amount of anomalous data has ac-
cumulated that does not fit the paradigm's terms of explanation, then
one or more new candidate paradigms may emerge and there results a
period of "crisis" science. Events during such a period can be highly
complex, for as Polanyi (1958) remarks:
A hostile audience may in fact deliberately refuse to entertain novel conceptions such
as those of Freud, Eddington, Rhine or Lysenko, precisely because its members fear
that once they have accepted this framework they will be led to conclusions which
they-rightly or wrongly-abhor.
Proponents of a new system can convince their audience only by first winning their
intellectual sympathy for a doctrine they have not yet grasped. Those who listen
sympathetically will discover for themselves what they would otherwise never have
understood.
Changes in paradigm constitute the most critical moments in science,
for they determine whether a new realm of reality is to be successfully
incorporated into the operations of science. These are also the times
when the dominant image of humankind bcomes most crucial since the
issues involved may include "abhorred" conclusions. This of course
does not include every possible case; strong reaction to a theory does,
however, often mean that a paradigmatic limitation has become in-
volved.
The anomalies that appear near the beginning of a "crisis" period in
science may, because of their prematurity, be ridiculed or ignored.
Stent (1972) suggests that a discovery is premature "if its implications
cannot be connected by a series of simple logical steps to canonical, or
generally accepted knowledge." Science's encounter with prematurity
is a basic problem. When it occurs, the ideal commitment of science
always to examine the facts of a matter can weaken, and the facts may
be either ignored or attacked. The significance of Mendel's discovery
of the gene in 1865 was not understood until about 35 years later and
was ignored until that time. Polanyi's 1916 model of the adsorption of
gases onto solids was rejected out of hand as ridiculous until it was
"There is never a period of normal science: What Kuhn calls paradigms are multiple
and usually disconnected theories, postulates which are constantly being tested,
falsified and altered or verified and reclaimed pro tern. The process is dynamic; in time
it alters every tenet' of science. The abandonment of an important tenet (like geocen-
tricity) is sometimes called a revolution. "-Henry Margenau
Kuhn's use of the term paradigm is controversial among many members of the scientific
community; some scientists regard Kuhn as correct, others do not.
71
"rediscovered" as correct about 40 years later. However, when a new
theory can be seen to involve immediate relevance to the dominant
image, a new phenomenon may enter the field. Stent regards the
subject of ESP as currently in the realm of prematurity, given the
general reactions of the scientific community to the subject. Even as
reported by Stent, however, it might be more proper to regard it not as
being only premature but also as a taboo in science.
One could argue, as does Dubos (1972), that there are no taboo
topics, since science is always willing to deal with all questions within its
capabilities-and ultimately all problems are "scientific." In practice,
however, history often speaks differently and echoes .Kelvin's point
(1970) that: "In principle we may say that the 'facts' speak for them-
selves; in practice they do so only when accompanied by a chorus of
approval." Shaw remarked: "All great truths begin as blasphemies."
We might well ask, what have been the great blasphemies in science?
On the level of the physical sciences, the classic case is that of Galileo.
The Copernican theory that the earth circled the sun was tabooed by
society, particularly by the Church. As Hanna Arendt (1958) explains, it
was permissible for scientists of the day to use the Copernican theory in
their mathematical calculations, but it was not permissible for Galileo to
invent a telescope demonstrating it to be true. In the eighteenth
century a controversy raged around the question of meteorites as rocks
which fell from the sky. After the Lavoisier commission decided that
rocks could not fall from the sky, museums threw away their collections
of meteorites since they were no longer "real" (Morrisson, 1972).
Unidentified flying objects are taboo today also, even though a
significant percentage of the cases on record are acknowledged as
unexplained (Hynek, 1972).
Taboos in biology have included Darwin's theory of evolution and at
one time the study of anatomy, which was regarded as a violation of the
"temple of the body." Contemporary taboos include the relation be-
tween genetics and IQ (Beale, 1971) and human sexuality (Shainess,
1973). To some extent the aura of taboo also hangs around B. F.
Skinner's behaviorist theories.
In the psychological realm, where issues related to images of the
human being are the most explicit, taboos have included: dreams,
hypnosis, death, suicide, homosexuality, parapsychology, subliminal
perception, and psychedelic drugs. Only some of these areas are now
beginning to emerge from the stigma of taboo (Farberow, 1963; Dixon,
1971; Kleitman and Dement, 1957; Hilgard, 1965; Noyes, 1972). Of
course, because a theory is tabooed, it does not necessarily contain truth
(Krippner, 1973). The taboo problem in science arises when an in-
vestigation could be performed to answer a question, but is not for
reasons that are political, ideological, or irrational.
Thus we can see that the issues of prematurity and taboo are
powerful shaping influences on the content of scientific research. In
cases where a topic involves both, it has even less chance of in-
vestigation. In many such cases the "holding factor" appears to be
adherence to a particular image of humankind, sometimes on the part
of scientists themselves, sometimes by society, and occasionally by
both-in spite of the existence of significant data to the contrary.
Limitations of the Scientific Process Itself
The human activity basic to science is observation and the recording
thereof. However, a science based on description has limits imposed on
it by the epistemological limits inherent in the process of description.
Goedel in 1931 showed that it is impossible to demonstrate the internal
consistency of complex systems without resort to principles of inference
outside the system. This means there is a class of problems that must
remain formally undecidable. Similarly Tarski (1944) established that
any theorem expressed within the terms of a given formal language
can be proved true only by reference to another language richer than
that expressing the theorem. As Margenau (1965) bluntly expresses it:
Science no longer contains absolute truths. We have begun to doubt such fun-
damental propositions as the principle of the conservations of energy, the principle
of causality, and many other commitments which were held to be unshakeable and
firm in the past.
Bremerman (1965) suggests a different kind of boundary with his
theory defining an upper limit to the amount of information that can
be held in any system-at least in terms of the current framework of
analysis. This limit would prevent man from understanding his own
brain if all he can use is the operations of the brain-as-systein itself.
Another limitation which is at least equally difficult to deal with is the
more or less exclusive orientation toward the analytic/rational mode of
problem solving. In the West, the only alternative has always seemed to
be illogical "irrationality," our language being ill-equipped to discuss
what many great scientists have acknowledged as the source of their
discoveries: intuition. Recent results in brain research (discussed in
detail later) indicate that linguistic expression and analytic thought are
associated with the left side of the brain whereas the right side deals
with field-oriented, synthetic perceptual modes. Hence, "left-side"
thinkers tend not to acknowledge "intuition."
A third limitation is specialization, which Bohm (1971) refers to as the
natural fragmentation problem in science. Margenau (1973) points out
that in large measure, specialization is simply a by-product of the
73
increasing complexity of science. In this sense it has been a necessary
and powerful tool. However, it has progressed to the point where our
attention has been directed away from the somatic or general systems
aspects of nature; and as Fuller (1973) has pointed out, any species that
has overspecialized has always become extinct owing to a loss of
adaptive ability." The impact of specialization in science is to reduce
science's possible framework of explanations.
Closely allied to specialization is the limitation imposed by the reduc-
tionist method. This is the approach in science which proceeds to
investigate systems by breaking them up into parts. As Ashby (1973)
describes it:
Faced with a system, the scientist responded automatically by taking it to pieces.
Animals were anatomized to organs, organs microscoped down to cells, cells studied
as collections of molecules, and molecules smashed to component atoms. This
method of analysis tended to become dogma; and, in fact, the reductionists tended
to assert that all science was to be advanced in this way alone. "Get to know the
properties of each part, and you have only to put the parts together again and you
will know the whole."
This method, reduced to absurdity, tends to generate statements like
"life is nothing but physics and chemistry." It also leads to the picture of
the sciences (Schlegel, 1972) shown overleaf.
Social sciences
Anthropology
Sociology
Political science
Economics
Hi story
This model suggests that the kinds of procedures which physics and
mathematics used in the nineteenth century should be applied to all
other sciences, and leads to statements like: "biology depends on the
judgment of the physicist" (Szent-Gyorgi, 1961). It is quite true that the
"This point by Fuller, applied to us, might indicate why we will not survive if our
technological resources are threatened, why we must relearn how to survive with only
our natural resources, and why it is imperative to rely on machines only if one knows
how to fix them, or do without them. "-Stanley Krippner
Ol M - G
reductionist method of analysis has brought about major progress, and
the model would constitute a quite logical picture of the sciences
as a whole if science were to be confined to the analysis of the kinds of
systems addressed by nineteenth-century physics. These systems in-
volved little or no interaction between the component parts: they were
in fact "reducible" systems. For these systems, the information needed
to describe the whole system (and therefore control it) is almost
equivalent to the amount of information needed to describe the parts
in isolation: the whole is equal to the sum of the parts.
There is, however, another class of systems involving rich inter-
actions between the component parts. Biological and ecological systems
are good examples. In these, synergy or the properties of the whole
system created by the interactions of the parts operate to such an
extent that reductionist analysis cannot achieve a theory capable of
extension and prediction. Arbib (1972) points out that:
We found that we needed to modify Newtonian mechanics to get to relativity when
we entered the domain of the very fast; and we needed to modify them again to get
to the laws of quantum mechanics when we entered the domain of the very small.
Thus we must not be unprepared to have to find new laws of physics when we enter
the domain of the very com plex.
The reductionist framework therefore contains inherent limitations
when applied to highly complex systems, such as the brain or biological
system as a whole, and new physical principles will have to be dis-
covered before proper scientific description of these can be made.
Perhaps a kind of periodic table of the principles governing systems of
evolving complexity will be the next advance in scientific method. *
Still one more characteristic of classical science is challenged by
recent developments on numerous fronts, namely the idea that the
objective world explored by the various scientific probes is essentially
separate from and independent of the subjective experience of the
investigator. The perturbation of the objective system by the act of
observing shows up in particle physics as the Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle. It appears in biological and social science in the effects of
experimenter expectations (Rosenthal, 1971; Orne, 1959) and in the
Hawthorne effect (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1939). It is most clearly
to be encountered in the area of psychic research since if the psychic
phenomena have any reality at all, the mind of the observer is most
surely an ineradicable component of the experiment.
Thus the limitations of science have had important consequences for
the way in which the contents of science are defined. Only those aspects
'" Henry Margenau offers additional comments in his discussion of "modified reduc-
tionism" in Appendix C.
of reality that can slip through the various limitations end up included
in the content of science. Science deals with a selected set of metaphors;
other possible metaphors have in the past been excluded, whether
because of reductionist bias or commitment to a peculiar concept of
objectivity. The prevailing "image of man" intervenes in the scientific
process by shaping the definition of both the research territory and
interpretations of the results of scientific investigation. Contrariwise,
the past orientation of science toward understanding of the physical
world has contributed to a materialistic emphasis in the culture as a
whole.
As we examine some of the contemporary scientific developments
that challenge old scientific paradigms, it must be from the standpoint
of this two-way interaction between the changing scientific paradigm
and the societal image of man. It is not that either causes the other, but
rather that they tend to move together.
CRUCIAL FRONTIERS IN SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
Challenges to the past paradigms of science, some old and some
recent, appear in such diverse research frontiers as physics, biology,
psychology, and parapsychology. Following are brief mentions of some
of the most important.
Modern Physics and Cosmology
The modern revolution in physics began quietly: on February 21,
1870 a 24-year-old named William Clifford suggested to the Cambridge
Philosophical Society that a particle of matter was really nothing but a
kind of hill in the geometry of space! In 1873, still believing in classical
continuity, Maxwell published his equations describing the continuous
nature of the electromagnetic field but later remarked, in a startling
intuition of things to come:
The study of the singularities and instabilities, rather than the continuities of
things ... may tend to remove that prejudice in favor of determinism which seems to
arise from assuming that the physical science of the future is a mere magnified
image of that of the past.
The full meaning of that glimmer of the future began to erupt in 1900
when Planck showed that energy was not emitted in a continuous
fashion, became stronger in 1905 when Einstein proved that light came
in packages called "quanta," and reached its final breach from the
continuous dream when Bohr incorporated the fundamental dis-
continuity in the universe into his model of the atom and eventually the
76
Principle of Complementarity, suggesting that light could be both wave
and particle. As John Wheeler succinctly put it (1971): "A sibyl seems to
say, 'choose: paradox or nothing'."
Einstein then promised a kind of continuity with his theory of
General Relativity, ending the dichotomy of time and space, and
suggesting not only that matter and energy share the same equation,
but that gravity can also be included into a unified field theory.
Suddenly the universe was pure geometry. As Margenau (1963) des-
cribes it, matter simply dematerialized: "The hard and solid atom has
become mostly empty space. Electrons ... may indeed be points,
mathematical singularities haunting space."
Suddenly the universe became personal again. Bronowski (1973)
describes it well:
Einstein showed that the laws of physics are universal, that is, are formulated in the
same terms by every observer, but only because he carries his own universe with him.
Time as you measure it may be different from my time, mass as you measure it may
be different from my mass, speed and momentum and energy may all be different; it
is only the relations between them that remain the same for us both. Each of us rides
his personal universe, his own travelling box of space and time, and all that they
have in common is the same structure or coherence; when we formalize our
experiences, they yield the same laws.
And so, as Jeans (1973) remarked, "The universe begins to look more
like a great thought than like a great machine," or as Eddington (1928)
had put it, "The stuff of the world is mind stuff."
At the forefront of physics today the real world recedes. As Edding-
ton once remarked:
In the world of physics we watch a shadowgraph performance of familiar life. The
shadow of my elbow rests on the shadowtable as the shadow-ink flows over the
shadow paper. ... The frank realization that physical science is concerned with a
world of shadows is one of the most significant of recent advances.
Indeed everything has been found to be receding, for General Rela-
tivity predicted that the universe itself is expanding, and by 1929
Hubble had demonstrated it. Far from the limited Copernican vision,
now we know that we are part of an immense galaxy of about 100,000
million stars, arranged in a disc-shaped spiral 100,000 light years in
diameter, about three-fifths of the way out from the center of the disc,
and moving further out at a mere 35 kilometers per second. The
"edge" of the universe is now billions of light years away and full of
strange wonders: quasars, pulsars, and black holes. And even stranger,
though logical, postulates of antimatter, time flowing backwards, nega-
tive mass and particles travelling faster than the speed of light are part of
the new tapestry.
It is a world full of logic stranger than dreams. Everett (1971) has
suggested that just as in relativity where the passage of time is relative
to the observer's frame of reference, in quantum mechanics, the visible
outcome of an event is also relative to the observer. Thus all possible
outcomes actually take place, but the observer can see only the one
happening in his or her frame of reference. Physicist de Witt (1970)
then argues:
Every quantum transition taking place on every star, in every galaxy, in every remote
corner of the universe, is splitting the local world on earth into myriads of copies of
itself .
Many physicists have objected strongly to the notion of a universe
containing myriads of three-dimensional Xeroxes of themselves. The
idea is not idle speculation, however, but arises from the urgent need
in modern physics to somehow unite quantum theory with general
relativity." Physicist and Nobel laureate Eugene Wigner (1961) has
suggested a role for human consciousness at the deepest levels of
quantum reality; is he correct? We must wait and see, and perhaps
remember jung's admonishment:
Space flights are merely an escape, a fleeing away from oneself, because it is easier to
go to Mars or to the moon than it is to penetrate one's own being.
Modern physics and cosmology have placed the human in a universe
inestimably more rich and extraordinary than the mechanical vision
ever prepared him for. Indeed, as LeShan (1969) has argued, the
cosmic man of modern physics bears strong resemblance to the image
of "man-in-universe" of Eastern philosophies. For this person, too,
reality is apparent, dynamic, and inhabited by both harmony and
strangeness. And if the extension of science is technology, and today
we have the technology of the hard and solid matter of the nineteenth
century, then what can possibly be the technology of matter trans-
formed into curvature in space-timet
"And it seems to some that such union cannot be achieved unless the problem of
consciousness, which appears in every act of measurement, is taken seriously and
included in the theory. "-Henry Margenau
t "The (past) Faustian interpretation of (historical) time was subordinated to the will to
power, symbolized by Newtonian mechanics which treated bodies moving in space as
inert recipients of energy. The (present) Riemannian space-time of the Leibnitzian
culture has a strong Chinese tinge: fields of forces compose the extension of the
universe 'which displays a curvilinear 'infinity'."-Roland Fischer
78
Other Physical Sciences
While several areas of the physical sciences impinge on questions
relating to images, two of the strongest impacts come from ther-
modynamics and the computer sciences generally.
The concept of entropy emerged from the study of thermodynamics
in the nineteenth century. The Second Law of Thermodynamics says
that isolated systems naturally tend toward a state of maximum dis-
order, and so the universe must inevitably "run down." Our ultimate
fate then became invasion by chaos, and since this was a law of nature,
there was nothing that could be done. The human being and life are
therefore insignificant since there is no larger process toward which
humankind can evolve if the physical universe is decaying.
The concept still holds sway, though it has been noticed that it is not
applicable to living systems; Huxley (1963) and others suggested that
life violated the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Now we know that
living systems exist under different conditions. Entropy was defined for
closed, equilibrium systems cut off from their surroundings and un-
perturbed by external forces. Living systems are open and far from
equilibrium, exchanging material with their environments. Damnation
by the Second Law is therefore not quite so total, and as the charac-
teristics of complex systems become more apparent, the operation of
the Second Law may be seen to be even more restricted. The present
situation in physics, where absolute certainty is no longer possible,
should warn us that total commitment to the scientific paradigm of
knowledge can place us in the position of accepting a deprived concept
of reality, which clearly has never been the intention of science.
Similarly, the earlier mechanistic view of cybernetics-that "the brain
is merely a meat machine"-is rapidly giving way to the less restrictive
notion of the computer as an extension of the human nervous system.
McLuhan believes that computer systems will be used to "augment"
human intellect, just as cultural forces augment the individual's abilities
(Englebart, 1973). An example of this process is the use of the com-
puter to open up new and creative possibilities in the modern arts,
described by Youngblood (1970).
Chapanis (1970) stresses that the difficulties in harmonizing the
man-machine interface, which used to be attributed to the limits of
man, can just as well be regarded as the limited abilities of the machine.
Though man's calculating rate is slow, subject to error and fatigue,
machine systems have more difficulty correcting their mistakes, have very
limited methods and choices of action, and are so far incapable of forming
hypotheses. More and more effort is being directed toward making the
computer accommodate to the man rather than the other way around.
79
Attempts to create "artificial intelligence," which Minsky (1968) des-
cribes as "the science of making machines do things that would require
intelligence if done by men," have so far resulted in computers being
taught to play chess, simulate proofs of mathematical theorems, and
to "understand" simple English, though not yet in a fashion exceeding
human capability (Newell, 1969). Present work at Stanford and MIT is
focused on developing more sophisticated robots. Goedel's theorem,
mentioned earlier (page 72), indicates, however, that machine systems
can never be conscious of themselves except by reference to another
machine. Human consciousness is conscious of itself as a unity and
seems to have properties that can never be created artificially.
In 1923 J. B. S. Haldane predicted that although physics was then the
major center of scientific interest, this century would be remembered
as the century of biology. Surveys of the current trends in scientific
literature (Garfield, 1972) now confirm Haldane's prediction.
Humans as Species. Much of the early significant work in biology con-
cerned the human as a species. While many of the old theories have
been discarded or modified, there are a number of important new
concepts which affect man's relationship to others of his species, to the
environment as a whole, and this place in the evolutionary scheme.
In population biology, for example, extensive studies into the
dynamics governing human population growth indicated that
humankind is on the brink of discovering that it is also bound by the
S-shaped sigmoid curve governing the growth characteristics of so
many other species (Salk, 1973). As noted earlier (see Fig. 6), the values
governing the first part of the curve where the survival of the species
depends on the survival of the individual (competition, survival of the
fittest) must be different from those governing the second part of the
curve, where the survival of the species depends on the behavior of the
whole species (cooperation, survival of the wisest). The complex ques-
tions surrounding the population problem have been discussed by
many authors (e.g. Ehrlich, 1970; Commoner, 1971). Clearly the main
impetus for these studies is the need for man to evolve to a systematic
image of his being, considerate of the survival of the whole species.
Closely allied to these developments are ecological studies. The latter
have radically changed the image of the human as conqueror of nature
to a sense of being in cooperation with nature. The growth ethic has
been challenged (Meadows, 1972); our attempts to dominate nature
have been criticized (Commoner, 1971); our role as augmenter of
nature has been stressed in several ways (Dubos, 1973; Salk, 1972;
Fuller, 1969; Laszlo, 1972). Again the need for viable systems-
oriented images is the main finding of these studies. Further, they have
80
stressed the interdependence of humankind's existence and that of
other species, as well as the environment as a whole. As Handler (1970)
states it:
Undoubtedly more species than anyone now realizes are essential for man's survival
and welfare. For both beneficial and harmful types, we need to know the physical
and chemical conditions under which they can survive and reproduce, the extent to
which they can adjust to change, the optimum conditions for survival and reproduction.
The need to protect the stability and diversity of all species of flora and
fauna has emerged into heightened popular awareness as a result both of
these studies and of the emergencies caused by industrial mismanage-
ment globally.
Similarly, evolutionary theory has now developed to the point where
it extends all the way from the realm of all species down to the
molecular/atomic level. The interrelationship of all species as an evolv-
ing whole was first proposed by Darwin in 1859. Mendel's discovery of
the gene allowed the elaboration of the mechanism of heredity, while
the discovery of DNA as the carrier of information in the gene
(Watson, 1953) extended our knowledge of the process into the domain
of the very small.
These findings led to a renewed debate about the role of chance and
determinism in evolution, since only statistical description of events at
the atomic level is possible. As a result, some scientists concluded that
genetic change can occur only by the mechanism of random mutation.
"Chance alone is at the source of every innovation, of all creation in the
biosphere" (Monod, 1971). This image of the human species as the
victim of mere chance places man in an absurd role-most scientists
would see something more operative. Waddington (1969) explains that
the inert gene, as it moves toward the process of becoming an
organism, passes through a series of steps, many of which are
influenced by both the molecular and organismic environment. Thus in
the emergence of the organism, order is imposed on the initial ran-
domness. Weiss (1969) shows how there exists "determinacy in the
gross despite demonstrable interdeterminacy in the small."
Thus both chance and determinism are involved at least (perhaps
consciousness as well) and the systems developed by evolution become
the crucibles of a creative process (Dobzhansky, 1971). The trend of
evolution is seen as being toward systems of ever greater complexity
and sophistication. In our species, particularly, culture is an interven-
ing factor (von Foerster, 1971):
Culture, as a manifestation of man's effective and symbolic behavior, is at the same
time cause and effect of man's genetic constitution. As cause, it determines the
mechanisms of natural selection in his self-made ecology; as effect, it is determined
by the creative processes that can be mastered by his biological constitution.
Dubos (1967) points out that the human's biology is now basically stable
while the human psyche may be said to be rapidly evolving," and as-
Huxley (1947) suggests:
Since in the process of evolution, values emerge, they must be taken into account by
the scientist. We find values not merely emerging from the evolutionary process, but
playing an active part in its latest phase.
von Foerster (1971) then suggests that "The superior survival value of
brains exchanging experience and thought will favor the evolution of
this organ." Earlier, Teilhard de Chardin (1959) had noted that
"Evolution is an ascent towards consciousness." The human is regar-
ded as being at the very forefront of this process, the growing tip as it
were. Thus the forces and counterforces of chance and determinism
become poised in a delicate balance, with our species as one of the
"rare spearheads ... or trustees ... of advance in the cosmic process of
evolution" (Huxley, 1963).
While it is still too early to say which of these hypotheses will prove
most useful, it is clear that evolutionary theory is, and will probably
remain, at the heart of humankind's image of itself.
Molecular Biology and Genetics. The unfolding of the sciences of the
human as a biological entity has created several major shifts in the
image of humankind. Even if all the physical principles necessary for
the complete description of the biological system are not yet with us
(Elsasser, 1966), it now seems clear that the basic unit of life is the cell
and that its information is largely, if not completely, carried in the
DNA which makes up its genes. This totally physical description of the
living system has threatened the "vitalist" philosophies which main-
tained that the living entity was possessed of some special non-physical
component. As Hayes (1971) remarks:
There can be no doubt that this new vision of ourselves as merely the very complex,
and perhaps even predictable, end-product of an exclusively macromolecular evolu-
tion will exert as profound an effect on our social, ethical and political attitudes as
have the enlightenment of Darwin and Freud.
This gives rise to what Dubos (1968) terms "biological freudianism."
However, perhaps there need be no conflict between the two notions,
on the one hand that heredity determines the characteristics of the
"Your image of psychically evolving humankind is, I think, incorrect. "-Elise Boulding
As Dr. Boulding's reasons for holding this view are too lengthy to include here as a
footnote, and as they pertain to various other sections of this report, they are included as
Appendix A.
82
adult human being, and on the other, that the environmental
experiences of early life exert a shaping influence-the nature versus
nurture argument. The conflict is apparently resolved in the view that
the genes provide potential which is modulated by environment.
However, the persistence of the concept of karma in the doctrines of
the East suggests that future scientific metaphors may include still
other influences.
The notions of genetic "engineering," cloning, and the like have
provided new impetus to the old visions of eugenics and the "im-
provement" of human stock. The relationship between genetics and
"intelligence" is currently controversial but is not in itself a new idea.
However, with genetic engineering, all of human nature would be in
some sense apparently subject to human choice. This concept could
potentially have a most profound impact on the human self-image.
Exobiology/Origin of Life. From studies of the origin of life and the
principles of extraterrestrial biology (exobiology) come clear images of
our cosmic origin, even though they are in terms of our physical being.
The fusion of these two areas brings the first glimpse of a cosmological
biology, as Bernal (1965) first outlined it:
A true biology in the full sense would be the study of the nature and activity of all
organized objects wherever they were to be found on this planet and others in the
solar system, in other galaxies and at all times future and past.
Studies of the self-organizing properties of elemental chemical systems
by Miller (1963) and Fox (1970) have shown how the amino-acid
building blocks of life form spontaneously in primordial mixtures and
naturally give rise to more complex forms. The knowledge that be-
tween the planet's formation and the first emergence of simple life
forms, meteors brought 335 million tons of these same amino acids to
earth clearly lends substance to Oistraker's remark (1973): "Atoms in
your body have been through several stars-they were ejected many
times as gas from exploding stars."
Increased understanding of the origin of life can only augment our
search for other kinds of life amongst the estimated hundreds of
millions of inhabitable planets in our galaxy alone (Dole, 1964). Indeed,
the beginnings of active research into the possibility of extraterrestrial
intelligence (Handler, 1970) suggest a new sense of continuity of life.
Though the problems are formidable, the near future will see, if
present trends continue, a significant increase in information on the
origin of life which will be "of prime relevance to the most profound
and ancient biological and philosophical questions of human
83
civilization ... partial answers (to which) ... have given rise to varIOUS
religious, philosophical and political systems" (Handler, 1970).
Brain Research. Research in brain function is one of the most rapidly
expanding frontiers of modern science. The tools of almost every
major discipline are being used and the vital need for integration of
the sciences may be realized through our attempts to study our own
mental functions.
In contrast to other areas of biology, the early study of the brain had
a strongly electrical orientation; by 1791 it was known that the brain was
electrically excitable and by 1932 the well-organized motor effects and
emotional responses in conscious animals had been created by electrical
stimulation (Galvani, 1791; Fritsch, 1870; Hess, 1932). We know now
that the brain possesses the most efficient signal-detection scheme
known (Trehub, 1971). The work of Hess, Penfield, and Olds involving
the implantation of electrodes to create signals internally has allowed
the mapping of large portions of the brain. Control of psychological
phenomena and stimulation of memory have resulted from this work.
As Delgado (1969) describes it:
Autonomic and somatic functions, individual and social behavior, emotional and
mental reactions may be evoked, maintained, modified or inhibited, both in animals
and in man, by electrical stimulation of specific cerebral structures. Physical control
of many brain functions is a demonstrated fact but the possibilities and limits of this
control are still unknown.
Of no less importance has been the recent emergence of some
detailed knowledge of the chemistry of brain function. Results have
indicated that malnutrition can cause serious damage to the developing
brain, and so many of the poor are doubly disadvantaged. Theories
suggesting that chemical processes in the brain (RNA and protein
synthesis) are involved in learning and memory have raised the pos-
sibility of chemically improving these functions in the human-though
this is still controversial and definite conclusions have yet to emerge.
Highly purified genetic strains of mice have been isolated and shown to
have markedly different learning abilities for laboratory tasks, suggest-
ing that at least some kinds of genetic differences can affect memory
and learning. Many mind-altering substances have been discovered
with effects ranging from hallucination to tranquillization and trance.
Such developments led Kenneth Clark, as President of the American
Psychological Association, to suggest in 1971:
We might be on the threshold of that type of scientific, biochemical intervention
which could stabilize and make dominant the moral and ethical propensities of man
and subordinate, if not eliminate, his negative and primitive tendencies.
84
Clark proposed the development of chemically based "psychotech-
nologies" (primarily to bring control over the tendencies of national
leaders, in an attempt to lower the possibility of nuclear war). Delgado
has urged the development of a "psycho-civilized" society such that
dangerous behavior in man can be modified by electrical stimulation of
the brain. Thus certain areas of modern brain research clearly raise
profound moral questions which, if unresolved, might propel civiliza-
tion toward Brave New World and 1984. The issue has been raised,
whether the control of the brain made possible by electrical stimulation
of the brain (ESB) is essentially different from placing the individual in a
prison, where the prison bars, instead of being iron rods, are a complex of
metal electrodes wired into a computer. Delgado (1969) believes that such
questions are still premature:
This Orwellian possibility may provide a good plot for a novel but fortunately it is
beyond the theoretical and practical limits of ESB. By means of ESB we cannot
substitute one personality for another, nor can we make a behaving robot of a
human being. It is true that we can influence emotional reactivity and perhaps make a
patient more aggressive or amorous, but in each case the details of behavioral
expression are related to an individual history which cannot be created by ESB.
A completely different line of investigation is split-brain research.
The data indicate that the part of the brain which talks, uses
language, engages in logical problem-solving, and reads this page is the
left-hand side. Experiments have shown that split-brain patients who
have lost the use of this left hemisphere have no verbal output and
cannot express perceptions. The other side of the brain functions
differently, being primarily responsible for our orientation in space,
body image, recognition of faces; it processes information more
diffusely and can integrate information more readily. If the left side is
analytic and reductionist, then the right is more holistic and integrative.
Bogen (1973) calls the left hemisphere the "propositional" mind and
the right the "appositional" mind. He suggests that investigation of the
"appositional" mind, or right hemisphere, may lead to the discovery of
new forms of communication (which may not be language), better
suited to dealing with both our evolutionary heritage and our on-going
experience of the universe in holistic terms.
Sperry (1967) notes that this functional asymmetry of the brain is
apparently unique to higher mammals and most emphasized in man.
Bogen (1973) suggests that if the right hemisphere is dominant for
certain higher functions, we may suppose there might be others, and
that perhaps every higher function is distributed unequally between
85
the hemispheres. '*' In normal humans, the two are connected and some
information is passed from one hemisphere to the other. Scientists are
only beginning to explore the complex interrelationship of the two
minds of man. Perhaps Einstein's term for creative thought- "com-
binatory play"-will prove prophetic of future research findings. Split-
brain research is leading toward more understanding of what Polanyi
(1964) terms "tacit knowledge:" Our tacit powers decide our adherence
to a particular culture and sustain our intellectual, artistic, civic and
religious deployment within its framework. By forming and assimila-
tion of an articulate framework these tacit powers kindle a multitude of
new intellectual passions.
Platt (1970) reminds us that: "Perception is the first thing we
experience and the last thing we understand. It is the beginning of
knowledge and also, in some sense, the end of it." In the end,
perception is a personal phenomenon and it may not be possible to
"objectify" it without limit. Physicists investigating the physical uni-
verse found that beyond a certain point of refinement of matter, there
is a limitation of relativity and uncertainty on the objective knowledge
principle. Brain research today may be approaching a similar limit
imposed by what Delgado (1969) terms "psychological relativity." The
Newtonian concept of centers in the brain governing various activities
ceases to be valid beyond a certain level of complexity in investigation.
Beyond that point, and particularly when it comes to higher mental
functions, the picture tends to blur.
The development of biofeedback techniques in the past decade
(described later) has brought another important research tool into this
same area. In the West it had been considered that those aspects of our
bodily functions which could be brought under voluntary control were
strictly delimited by the division between the sympathetic and
autonomic nervous systems. This assumption was in sharp contrast to
the Eastern view which held that any bodily function could be con-
sciously modified at will. Miller (1971) and Kamiya (1969) have now
shown that the latter view is largely correct; that the individual pro-
"There are historical 'consequences' to the shifting of epochs: swinging from the
digital (left, rational) to the analog (right, symbolic) hemisphere! In the past 2,000
years, the pendulum has swung twice from analog to digital and back, and it is now
swinging towards the analog for the third time. Perhaps we have just about passed the
point more than halfway. The great outburst of creative activity which marked the first
few decades of the century may be viewed as resulting from an interhemispheric
integration of the digital and the analog zeitgeist. Apparently, artistic and scientific
creativity reach maximum at a point midway between a digital and a subsequent analog
epoch. "-Roland Fischer
86
vided with feedback has the ability to become conscious of, and in a
limited way modify, the activities of both his own brain and the rest of
his body. This development represents an important shift away from
the "robotomorphic" images presented by ESB research and the
chemical domination of mind suggested by Clark.
Split-brain research has directly challenged the unitary mind
concept, and we now know that the total number of possible states of
the brain can be given only by a number of truly astronomical propor-
tions-according to Anokhin (1971), a one followed by a line of zeros
stretching out into space 24 times the distance from the earth to the
moon! No wonder that to some, the brain has begun to look like an
enormous hologram (Pribram, 1971). As physicist Weisskopf remarks
(1972):
The deeper we penetrate into the complexity of living organisms, into the structure
of matter, or into the vast expanses of the universe, the closer we get to the essential
problems of Natural Philosophy. How does a growing organism develop its complex
structure? What is the significance of the particles and subparticles of which matter is
composed? What is the structure and history of the Universe?
Biological Rhythms and Bioelectric Fields. Modern biology has
developed an understanding of man centered largely around a chem-
ical paradigm. In recent decades, however, more attention has been
given to the complementary electrical aspect of biological functioning
(Presman, 1970) and as a result, factors that were previously regarded
as unimportant have been recognized as significant. For example,
certain low-level radiation has now been found to affect adversely
important parameters of human functioning such as reaction time,
mood, and the rates of biological processes (Adey, 1972; Colquhoun,
1971; Krueger, 1973; Fischer, 1966). Becker (1963) has correlated
frequency of admissions to mental hospitals with geomagnetic fluctua-
tions.
The combined body of this work suggests that (1) the electrical
environment of man is just as important as the chemical, (2) inattention
to this environment adversely affects a significant (though undeter-
mined) segment of the population, who may end up being treated as
"mentally ill" when the problem may be an electrically imbalanced
environment. It is only recently that some action has been taken to
investigate this whole question of "electromagnetic pollution" and
clearly, a vast amount of work remains to be done (Healer, 1970).
Research into the effects of various kinds of fields and electrical
currents on biological organisms had led, to improved rates of healing
(Becker, 1971) and apparently more effective control of pain, as well as
correlations between the electrical environment and the incidehce of
87
various diseases (Barnothy, 1971). Many of these field phenomena are
rhythmic in nature, affecting and being affected by weather patterns
for example, and there is a new surge of interest in the investigation of
biological rhythms and their significance for the human being (Luce,
1971). As a result, the highly rhythmic nature of many aspects of
human functioning is becoming clear and the combination of these two
areas of research is beginning to present a view which more closely
resembles that of the old astrologers, with their emphasis on the
importance of the cosmic environment for human affairs, than the
more conventional view wherein the immediate chemical environment
of the organism is considered paramount.
On a larger scale, the strongly rhythmic patterns of many phases of
societal phenomena, such as war and conflict, create the desire to
understand causal factors for them on a much wider scale than pre-
viously considered reasonable. This suggests to some the Aristotelian
image of the universe itself as a sort of organism-the "cosmobiological
conception of nature." At the fringes of these developments lies the
recent research into the old Eastern technique of acupuncture, based
on such concepts as "energy flow" and a more field-oriented approach
to the human organism. It may be that reorientation toward the "field
approach" may serve to bring the biological view of humans more
closely in line with the Eastern view, which holds that the individual is
essentially part of the cosmic evolutionary process.
Consciousness Research
Science has been concerned with the relationship of things to one
another and not to ourselves (Lonergan, 1957). However, it is our
consciousness that perceives relationships, even when science has erec-
ted an interface of instruments between reality and the observer. The
important anchor point of the observer has been often overlooked.
Chaitanya (1972) notes that:
It was soon forgotten that to describe experience completely, one had to mention the
consciousness looking out as well as the universe which was seen when it looked
outward.
In Western science it has been generally assumed that the conscious-
ness involved in scientific observation should only be of the kind that
produces objective knowledge. In recent years, however, there has
been increased scientific interest in consciousness as such, in the rela-
tions between physical states and consciousness, and in the ways altered
88
states of awareness can affect perception, thinking, feelings, and
behavior. Researchers from psychology, neurology, and many other
disciplines are studying sleep and dreaming, meditation, brain-wave
control, yoga, hypnosis, and other states of consciousness. These stu-
dies indicate that not only does man have rarely used potentials which
can be learned, but that elements of these states are more common
than previously thought and their influence on perception is such that
the world seen by them differs in many respects from that characteriz-
ing "normal" consciousness. As the visible light band is a minute part
of the total electromagnetic spectrum, so "normal" human conscious-
ness is showing up to be a small portion of total human awareness.
It is becoming clear that many altered states of consciousness and
other topics can be brought into the realm of scientific inquiry. Many of
these subjective states or phenomena were originally classified as reli-
gious or mystical in nature, and hence excluded from scientific study as
not being objective, physicalistic, or subject to general observation.
These attitudes are changing, first because the breakdown of sub-
jective-objective dichotomies is demonstrating the importance of con-
sciousness, and second because technological developments have made
it possible to discover physiological correlates of subjective states-
dreams, for example, can now be detected and monitored through
rapid eye movements (REM) and EEG recordings. As a result of such
advances, these former topics of mysticism are moving into the domain
of scientific verification and exploration.
Hypnosis. Major scientific research into the nature and characteristics
of hypnosis has increased rapidly in the last decade. The state of
hypnosis is still not well understood, but. it can be defined as a state of
mind usually induced by another person, which involves control over
attention and also communication with parts of the mind usually
outside of awareness, such as memory, subconscious processes, and
physical control of the body. The hypnotized person's usual structure
of reality recedes, enabling him to have intense absorption in one facet
of awareness.
Present research indicates that many affects are possible through
suggestion in the hypnotic state: control of pain, enhanced memory
and mental abilities, changes in motivation and emotion, changes in
habits, increases in creativity, and control over physical processes,
including blood flow and treatment of many diseases (Weitzenhoffer,
1953; Hilgard, 1965; Krippner, 1969).
It appears likely that most phenomena which can be evoked by a
hypnotic suggestion from a hypnotist can also be done by an individual
himself, through self-hypnosis and self-suggestion (Sparks, 1962). The
technique is one which can be learned individually and in groups. An
example of this is the technique called "autogenic training" developed
by Schultz and Luthe (Luthe, 1969) which uses self-suggestion exercises
for therapeutic medical treatments, e.g. relaxation, increasing blood
flow to hands and feet, creating mental calmness.
Researchers are finding that deep states of hypnosis are not neces-
sary for many of the affects to be produced, so it is likely that
self-hypnosis and self-suggestion can be used by a great many persons
in our society. The list of potential uses of hypnosis is extensive and
impressive, and one may wonder why hypnosis is not used more
extensively and more frequently.
One partial answer is that we do not have a paradigm, in medicine
or in our culture, within which hypnosis can be understood and used
consistently and responsibly. Our medicine is based on the manipula-
tion of material processes through material means: drugs, surgical
intervention, diagnostic tests. So strong is the preference for physical
means of treatment that psychophysical processes are fringe areas:
psychosomatic ills, the neuroses, and mental conditions and treated
frequently with drugs, placebos, or psychosurgery, instead of through
psychological methods. With a supportive psychological and experiential
context, in which hypnosis is considered normal and useful, leading to
autonomy and self-control, its potential would be more likely to be
accepted, explored, and used.
Biofeedback. Many of the results obtained through hypnosis-volun-
tary control of a wide variety of internal states-can also be achieved
through biofeedback training (BFT). This is a technique of giving a
person precise and immediate feedback on a particular physical process
as it occurs. The most widely known BFT has been applied to the
control of brain waves. In a procedure devised by Kamiya (1969), an
electroencephalograph is used to monitor a person's brain waves and
arranged to sound a tone whenever alpha frequencies (8-14 cps) occur
in the brain. The subject is instructed to note how he is thinking when
the tone sounds and to try to keep the tone sounding. With this
feedback, many individuals learn to increase the proportion of alpha
waves in their brain, often within a few hours.
As we noted earlier, this kind of control was always thought to be
impossible in the West. The pioneering work of Kamiya (1969) and
Miller (1971) changed this belief: the physical processes that have so far
proved amenable to learned voluntary control include brain waves
(alpha and theta frequencies), heart rate, blood pressure, body and skin
temperature, muscle relaxation, and even the electrical activity of single
cells in the spinal cord (Barber, 1971).
elM _ H
The consequences of this development for the individual's ability to
learn the full range of controls that are possible over the activity of his
own brain have been mentioned earlier. Some preliminary reports
from this research indicate that such control is established through a
different kind of conscious volition, a "passive volition." This may
change the ways in which knowledge gained in these states can be
processed or used." A less appreciated aspect of this new technology is
that it can allow the person to become more specifically sensitive to the
effects of changes in his environment, normally unnoticed and occur-
ring as a result of changes emanating from remote locations, e.g. the
effects of changes in the magnetic and electromagnetic environment on
reaction time and the generation of hypertension (Presman, 1970). The
psychosomatic basis for many diseases may also be explored in a more
dispassionate way, allowing the patient to become aware of the full
situation surrounding illness. This could have significant consequences
in overall mental stability and the sense of self-responsibility in the
individual.
Dreaming. This is the most common altered state of consciousness
that people experience. Dreams have been a subject of interest from
early times and have often been associated with precognitive
experiences and creative experiences of all kinds. Freud concluded that
dreams were images created by the subconscious to express emotions,
desires, and feelings, chiefly as wish fulfillments (d. Freud, 1950).
Others have found that dreams present trial solutions to problems,
show images and goals, and dramatize themes and patterns from
waking life. Jung suggested that they represent contact with the basic
archetypal images which are also expressed in myths.
About two decades ago researchers discovered that when a sleeping
person dreams, his eyes move under his closed lids (Aserinsky and
Kleitman, 1955). This discovery, simple though it was, made it possible
to get recall of a person's dreams during the night by simply waking
him or her during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, rather than
relying on his spotty recall the morning after. Once the correlation was
made, then a study of EEG patterns revealed that dreaming went in
cycles through the night, with the length of dream time increasing
toward morning. The conclusion is clear that although dreams occur to
everyone, for some individuals they are not accessible to conscious
memory in the morning.
See Elise Boulding's remarks in Appendix A regarding self-hypnosis and "mind
games" which use passive volition.
Interest in dreams and dream consciousness cuts across several fields.
Psychotherapists are exploring the meanings and uses of dreams for
the individual's personality, life problems, and growth needs (Freud,
1950; PerIs, 1969; Martin, 1955; Faraday, 1972). Researchers in
neurology and psychophysiology are studying the mechanisms of
dream production and the function of dreams for the mental health of
the individual. The possibility of controlling or guiding dreams is being
explored by researchers in consciousness (Tart, 1969, 1970; Witkin,
1969; Casteneda, 1972) and others have studied the relation of dreams
to ESP (Dunne, 1939; Ullman and Krippner, 1970). The findings from
this research suggest that humans have extensive and important dream
lives, which contributes to their psychological, emotional, and physical
health, and that their dreams can be used for their benefit in a number
of ways:
Dreaming is essential for mental health, and dream deprivation results in detrimen-
tal psychological effects.
Actions, plots, and themes of dreams can to some extent be controlled.
Solutions to personal or practical problems can be produced in dreams.
Literary and artistic creations can be developed through dreams.
Emotional conflicts and needs can be communicated through dreams.
Different parts of the personality can communicate through dreams.
Integrative and positive personality images can occur in dreams.
Telepathic and precognitive information can be received and expressed in dreams.
"Waking consciousness" can be maintained in some dreams.
Telepathic, predictive, and other apparent ESP messages may occur in dreams. (See
the later section in parapsychology.)
Meditation. Though interest in meditational practices has increased
markedly in the West during the past decade, some of the techniques
themselves are thousands of years old, being drawn from classical
traditions of mysticism, religious practices, and methods of self-under-
standing. There are two general types of meditation. In one, the
individual gathers his attention on an object, a thought, a sound, or
some other internal or external sensation, with the goal of merging
with that object. In the second technique, the meditator clears his mind
so that he is empty of thoughts, ideas, feelings, sensations, or "pro-
grams." Whichever technique is used it must be learned and practiced
if it is to have any effect.
The limited amount of scientific research that has been done in-
dicates that meditation results in lowered rates of metabolism, respira-
tion, blood flow and oxygen consumption, increased alpha waves in
the brain, and increased relaxation (Wallace, 1970). The psychological
effects include a vast range of reported phenomena, such as: recall of
experiences, abilities to shut out distractions, changes in color or shape
92
of objects, and feelings of relaxation or peace (Deikman, 1963; Tart,
1969).
Also there is some evidence that different methods of meditation
produce different results that are consistent with the goals of the
practice. For example, EEG studies show that in Zen meditation,
continual awareness of the external world is maintained (Kasamatsu
and Hirai, 1966) while in Yoga meditation, external stimuli are ignored
(Anand, Chhina, and Singh, 1961). Each of these is appropriate to the
intention-to remain aware of the outside world in Zen, and to with-
draw from it in Yoga.
Psychologically, some meditators experience the world transcen-
dentally following meditation, seeing it as fresh, new, and often more
brightly colored. This kind of transfiguration (reported in Deikman,
1963) is similar to reports of experiences by religious mystics, and
indicates that meditation may give individual insights into parts of
awareness which are deeper than normal everyday consciousness.
Psychedelic Drugs. In the last 15 years there has been increased
interest in chemical substances that change the quality and charac-
teristics of normal everyday consciousness, particularly through such
drugs as lysergic acid, mescaline, psilocybin, and others. These drugs,
referred to as psychedelics, hallucinogens, or psychoactive chemicals,
expand or contract the field of consciousness; they seem capable of
enhancing perceptions and sensations, giving access to memories and
past experiences, facilitating mental activity, and producing changes in
the level of consciousness, including what are reported as transcendent
experiences of a religious or cosmic nature (Masters and Houston,
1966).
Although uncontrolled and illegal drug use in the United States has
hampered scientific research, psychoactive substances seem to have
many potential uses if used under proper conditions" (Masters and
Houston, 1966; Aaronson and Osmond, 1970; Krippner in Tart, 1969).
Psychotherapy using psychedelic chemicals has had remarkable success.
Some studies have shown that creativity can be enhanced, at least in artists and creative
workers.
Therapeutic sessions using psychedelic drugs with patients suffering terminal dis-
eases have resulted in less pain and apprehension regarding death.
"Psychoactive substances have many potential uses-and misuses. (See Wayne O. Evans
and Nathan S. Kline, Psychotropic Drugs in the Year 2000. Charles C. Thomas, 1971.) It is
irresponsible to wax enthusiastic about the potential of drugs without also cautioning
about the many problems that they are causing. "-Michael Marien.
Transcendent, religious, or "cosmic" experiences occur to some.
Hyperawareness of body states and physiological processes have been reported.
Some evidence indicates that parapsychological abilities may be enhanced.
93
These potentials, as with those deriving from hypnosis, meditation,
and other altered states of awareness, are subject to the conditions set
by the individual through his personality and his expectations, the
setting and context of the treatment, and the sophistication with which
the particular drug is used. The potential of these techniques has not
been fully explored, largely owing to a combination of the problems
sometimes associated with their use in ill-suited conditions and an
unfavorable societal attitude.
Unconscious Processes and Subliminal Stimulation. The theory that parts
of our thinking and mental processes are outside of our awareness is
becoming accepted today. Initially called the subliminal self (Myers,
1903) or the unconscious (Freud, 1950), the suggestion of unconscious
processes first seemed in conflict with the image of rational man, in
which the individual was regarded as fully conscious and rationally in
charge of his thoughts and behavior. Now there is general realization
that many mental processes take place outside of awareness, and these
influence our actions, our thoughts, and our feelings.
The notion that the senses could receive information below the
normal thresholds for perception or awareness has also been the
subject of controversy many times during this century. Laws prohibi-
ting subliminal advertising were drawn up even when its actual exis-
tence was being questioned by psychologists. Dixon (1972) has recently
reexamined the whole question in a critical light and found that as
measured against eight different experimental criteria, the
phenomenon is real and has been found to affect at least eight different
aspects of perception and behavior.
The Superconscious. Freud's concept of the unconscious mind
emphasized a pool of negative, emotion-ridden conflicts, and this
notion has come to characterize the unconscious. Currently there are
indications that a concept of a superconscious aspect of mind is emerg-
ing. The superconscious is the name given to the creative, intuitive,
inspiring aspects of mind, those which have positive and self-directing
qualities (Assagioli, 1965; Aurobindo, 1971; Teilhard de Chardin, 1969).
Like other mental activities that are outside of conscious awareness, it
may be expressed in dreams, hunches, feelings, and intuitive "know-
ings." At present the idea of a superconscious is scattered among a
number of philosophers, psychologists, and other investigators of con-
sciousness. If the concept is a viable one, it may coalesce with as much
force and effect as did the earlier idea of unconscious processes.
Toward a Science of Consciousness. Besides the study of specific states
of consciousness, researchers are beginning to develop explanatory and
descriptive theories regarding consciousness. Lilly (1972) hypothesizes
that the mind (and body) is a human biocomputer, with programs and
metaprograms which can be analyzed and altered. Muses (1972), a
mathematician, describes consciousness mathematically by hypernum-
bers. Tart (1971) considers states of consciousness as information-
processing systems, with units such as memory, emotion, sense of
identity, evaluation and decision, and awareness. Krippner (in White,
1972) has listed twenty states of consciousness, with criteria to dis-
tinguish each. Such theories require investigation and further
development, but indicate that an investigation of consciousness and its
alterations is scientifically feasible.
Here we can summarize as follows: the extension of the scientific
method to the study of consciousness itself has resulted in the
identification of an increasing number of distinct states of conscious-
ness, each with distinct characteristics through which reality may be
experienced or interpreted. Tart (1972) suggests that the rules of
correspondence which exist between "normal" consciousness and the
"external" world should also be discovered between other states of
consciousness and the realities "external" to them. This extension of
the scientific method could, he suggests, greatly enhance science and
the usual assumption of science that "our ordinary, normal, so-called
rational state of consciousness is the best one for surviving on this
planet and understanding the universe" (Tart, 1973). The con-
sequences could be profound not only for science, by extending greatly
the meaning of generalization for example, but also for the image of
humankind. The image stemming from this research as a whole is
basically one which overlaps with the image from evolutionary theory,
wherein the course of evolution moves toward increasing complexity
on the physical level and increasing awareness in the arena of con-
sciousness.
Parapsychology and Psychic Research
We come now to research on phenomena that violate the paradigms
of physicality or causation, or that cannot be explained by the known
laws of the universe. The four major divisions of this kind of research
to date are as follows:
Telepathy. The perception of another person's on-going mental activities without the
use of any sensory means of communication.
Clairvoyance. The ability to know directly information or facts about events occur-
ring in remote locations, without normal sensory means.
Precognition. The ability to know of events or happenings in the future without
sensory or inferential means of knowing.
Psychokinesis (telekinesis). The movement of matter by non-physical means or direct
mental influence over physical objects or systems. I<
The first three are often referred to collectively as psi phenomena, or
extrasensory perception (ESP); psychokinesis is sometimes referred to
under the rubric of psycho-energetic phenomena. The main task
chosen by early workers in these areas was proof of the actual existence
of the phenomena; the seemingly sporadic nature of their occurrence
meant that the only proof which could be sought at the time was
statistical in nature (Rhine, 1961).
Margenau (1966) has suggested that the proper approach would be
to attempt to find those conditions necessary to concentrate the
phenomena sufficiently to ensure their reliable occurrence in a labora-
tory situation. There are many indications that this is now possible, as
more and more reliable data from scientific investigation are emerging
about the occurrence and characteristics of these phenomena. We
survey these findings briefly:
Altered states of consciousness, particularly those tending toward relaxation, facili-
tate receiving ESP information. This has been found for the states of dreaming
(Ullman and Krippner, 1970), deep relaxation (Brand and Brand, 1973), alpha brain
wave states (Honorton, 1969), and hypnotic suggestions (Krippner, 1967).
Physical states and processes can be "induced" telepathically. In experiments with
identical twins and also with unrelated persons, physical changes such as the rate of
blood flow, electrical skin resistance, and brain wave patterns have been sent from
one person to another (Dean, 1966; Tart in Ryzl, 1970; Duane and Behrendt, 1965).
Telepathy is more likely between persons who have mutual liking, or who have
physical or emotional bonds (Anderson and White, 1956; Duane and Behrendt,
1965).
Emotions and emotional content can be transmitted telepathically. Moss (1969), for
example, presented emotionally stimulating visual and musical sequences to senders,
and percipients (the receivers) reported corresponding emotional feelings.
High motivation enhances psi phenomena (Rhine and Pratt, 1957).
Belief in extrasensory perception raises ESP scoring levels in laboratory experi-
ments; disbelief lowers them (these are colloquially called sheep vs. goat experi-
ments) (Schmeidler and McConnell, 1958; Palmer, 1971).
Telepathic or other psi information is often received subliminally, and gains access
to the conscious mind through hunches, dreams, intuitions, and feelings (L. E.
Rhine, 1961).
I< "Of the 4 effects, most scientists have greatest reservation with respect to telekinesis-
in spite of work at Boeing and in Russia. Telekinesis is also of least importance for the
discussion that follows. "-Henry Margenau
The information is often interpreted through the receiver's own frameworks of
perception, rather than seen as it was sent. For example, the visual message of a
boxing match may be translated into an image of an ocean with pounding waves;
messages regarding street riots may be consciously perceived as relating to earth-
quakes (Moss, 1969).
Scores on ESP tests have been correlated with several different personality charac-
teristics (e.g. Kanthamani and Rao, 1973).
Psychokinetic effects have been demonstrated in the laboratory to affect quantum
processes, mechanical and electronic systems, and falling dice and other objects
(Adamenko, 1972; L. E. Rhine, 1970; Green, 1973; Ostrander and Schroeder, 1970).
Psychokinetic or paranormal physical effects are almost always small in laboratory
experiments, but may be of large magnitude in real life situations, such as poltergeist
phenomena-which may be caused in some cases by psychokinesis (L. E. Rhine,
1970; Roll, 1970).
In experimental studies, the psychokinetic effect almost always shows a significant
cyclic decline in strength over short time periods (L. E. Rhine, 1970).
These findings are still scattered pieces of information, and as yet the
field awaits an integrating theory or set of principles which will reveal
lawful patterns. Scientists from disciplines other than psychology are
entering the investigations of psychic phenomena, and this has
widened the variety of search criteria being brought to bear on the
issue. Just as the chemist knows that certain conditions of temperature,
pressure, timing and concentration of chemicals are necessary for a
reaction to yield a given product, modern psychic research is piecing
together the complex pattern of conditions likely to enhance the
occurrence of telepathy or precognition.
Several new developments make these investigations more feasible
now than they were in the past:
It may be possible to train psychic abilities using techniques of immediate feedback
to enhance the learning process (Targ and Hurt, 1972).
Psychics have always referred to other modes of perception as part of their ability,
e.g. the perception of "auras" or fields around the body as sources of information.
Electronic instrumentation sensitive to minute changes in magnetic and other fields
around the body can now be used in a biofeedback set-up to enhance these kinds of
perception (Beal, 1973).
Electronic instrumentation can further be used to detect and monitor psychophy-
siological states which are correlated with psychic functioning (ASPR Newsletter,
1972).
The use of gifted psychics in laboratory research is increasing. Many of these
persons apparently have voluntary control of various parapsychological abilities
(Green, 1972; Stanford Research Institute, 1973).
Certain aspects of physics that were thought to logically prohibit most psychic
phenomena are no longer held so rigidly. The classical formulations of the prin-
ciples of causality and conservation of energy are not holding up in certain situations
in quantum physics (Margenau, 1965) and thus physical theory is making room for
some of the kinds of causality involved in psychic phenomena.
Theories of the phenomena based on quantum mechanics and physics have begun to
emerge; in one of these, the theoretical curve for the distribution of psychic abilities in
populations closely matches experimental data (Walker, 1973).
In psychic research, where the theoretical issues are in many cases
identical with the limits of physics, it is understandable that many
relevant general models will come from physics. For example, attempts
are being made to relate "hidden variable" theory in quantum
mechanics, concepts of hypernumber and hyperspace, and theories of
sub-atomic particles to a description of the physical world in such a
way that it includes, at least theoretically, the information that can be
the basis for psychic perception (Walker, 1973; Muses, 1972-3; Kozyrev,
1968; Koestler, 1972).
Impact of Psychic Research on Images of Humankind. The present form
of science has based itself upon a particular kind of separation between
subjective and objective realities, and has argued that its discovered
laws make it so. This remained relatively unchallenged until the early
twentieth century, when the deeper probing of science began to reveal
a universe that renders objective knowledge impossible once a certain
kind of highly responsive system is approached. As noted, this shows
up particularly in physics-where the atomic level is so sensitive to the
nature of the measurement necessary for the acquisition of objective
knowledge that this knowledge becomes impossible to achieve.
A similar phenomenon occurs in research on the human brain. Eccles
(1970) has described the connection between events in the brain and
energy transitions occurring at the subatomic level in atoms. His
suggestion is that whole chains of actions and responses of the nervous
system are capable of being initiated by tiny energy transitions occur-
ring at the quantum level, since the brain possesses cells which can be
affected by these very small energy transitions, cells whose firing can
trigger other whole sets of neurons. This interface between quantum
mechanics and brain research will no doubt be one of the vital growing
areas of science in the future, and may overlap present inquiries in
psychic research in important ways.
It is of course at the level of information itself that all theories,
whether physical, biological, or psychological, must fuse. All the issues
involved, however, seem to hinge upon the relationship between the
physical world and that of consciousness, and it is this relationship that
is "on trial" when psychic phenomena are debated.
An important aspect of this relationship is the demonstration that the
body is sensitive to many more than the several classes of stimuli in
normal sensory perception. In subliminal perception the presentation
is such that the threshold of perception for the sense modality being
tested is never reached, and yet evidence clearly shows that information
is transferred. Dixon (1972) concludes that subliminal stimulation has
been shown to affect dreams, memory, adaptation level, conscious
perception, verbal behavior, emotional responses, drive-related
behavior, and perceptual thresholds. Thus subliminal perception
research has been held by some to be the essential point of departure
from conventional psychology into those issues in the theory of per-
ception which also involve psychic research and, ultimately, the rela-
tionship between the brain and the "external" world.
However, a recent experiment, if substantiated, points to a far more
radical departure from presently accepted psychological theory. This
experiment, by Puthoff and Targ (1974), depends upon the discovery
that if a stroboscopic light at about 15 flashes per second is shined in a
subject's eyes, a characteristic alpha component (around 10 or 11 cps)
appears in his electroencephalogram. In the Puthoff-Targ experiment
two remotely isolated subjects are used, some prior degree of rapport
having been established between them. The light is flashed in one
subject's eyes and the other is asked to guess whether, in a given time
interval, the light is on or off. While the second subject is usually
unable to guess better than a chance basis, the telltale alpha component
appears in his EEG. The important deduction is that unconsciously he
knows with a certainty, in an extrasensory way, when the light is in the
other person's eyes-even while he is denying such knowledge to his
conscious mind.
In other words, this watershed experiment appears to provide clear
evidence of universal telepathic capacity with almost complete repres-
sion (for most persons) of awareness of this source of knowledge.
Demonstration of this repression phenomenon does much to explain
the puzzling erratic character of psychic research data. It opens the
possibility of radically new research methodologies in which the inhibit-
ing effect of the "internal censor" is bypassed by utilizing responses
(such as EEG components) that the organism has not learned to
repress.
The implications of the experiment goes much further. If telepathic
capacity is shown to be universal and almost completely repressed, this
suggests that the same may be true of the whole range of reported
paranormal phenomena-clairvoyant remote perception; abnormally
rapid healing; precognition; retrocognition of other lifetimes; telepor-
tation, "thought photography," and other forms of psychokinesis; and
the rest. Kuhn (1970) describes how, in the replacement of scientific
paradigms, a watershed point is reached where the accumulated weight
of discrepancies and anomalies that cannot be fitted into the old
paradigm tips the balance, and it becomes more profitable (in emo-
tional as well as in rational terms) to seek a new paradigm than to patch
up the old. Recent experimental researchers, including especially the
experiment mentioned above, strongly suggest that the range of
human potentialities is far greater, that the role of out-of-consciousness
mind processes is far greater, and that the power of expectations and
images is far greater than can be accounted for under the old
paradigm.
Clearly the dominant image of human nature in Western society
today does not as yet include the potentialities implied by the vast and
puzzling range of reported psychic phenomena. On the other hand,
public interest in this realm is evidently growing. If Lawrence LeShan
(1969) is correct in his theory that the assumptions held about reality
influence the "reality" experienced, then changing cultural assump-
tions about the possibility of psychic phenomena may have con-
sequences for the frequency with which they are observed to occur.
(Hypnosis researchers in the early nineteenth century typically obser-
ved that the hypnotic trance brought forth latent clairvoyant obser-
vation and diagnosis capabilities in their subjects. A century later those
doing hypnosis research were more certain that these phenomena were
physically impossible, and they no longer seemed to occur.)
If the newly re-energized area of psychic research does flourish, with
the dual impetus of increasing public tolerance and new methodologi-
cal tools, its impact on modern culture may be profound. As earlier
indicated, in the current Western scientific paradigm "reality" tends to
be physical, causal, mechanistic, and objective. The data of psychic
research suggest that reality includes paraphysical effects, that non-
material mental states exist and transact with physical systems, and that
humanity has a mental or consciousness aspect which transcends its
physical nature.
General Systems Theory and Cybernetics
We may let Gregory Bateson introduce a final research area to be
mentioned here:
the growing together of a number of ideas which had developed in different places
during World War II ... the aggregate of these ideas [being called] cybernetics, or
communication theory, or information theory, or systems theory. The ideas were
generated in many places: in Vienna by Bertalanffy, in Harvard by Wiener, in
Princeton by von Neumann, in Bell Telephone labs by Shannon, in Cambridge by
Craik, and so on. All these separate developments in different intellectual centers
dealt with ... the problem of what sort of a thing is an organized system ... I think
that cybernetics is the biggest bite out of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge that
mankind has taken in t.he last 2000years.
(1972, pp. 482-484)
General systems theory is in essence an attempt to integrate in some
rational terms, with appropriate metaphors, the diverse knowledge
100
flowing from the whole of scientific investigation. It aims at being both
holistic and empirical. One of its most basic propositions, empirically
supported, is that laws and principles found to govern the systems
particular to one discipline are likely to have import for the systems
peculiar to other disciplines.
For example, Wiener (1954) observes that the operations of modern
complex computing systems are precisely parallel to those of living
organisms in their use of feedback to counteract the thermodynamic
tendency toward increasing entropy (i.e. confusion, disorder). In both
cases there are similar processes of collecting information from the
outside world, transforming this information into more usable forms,
basing action on the transformed information, and reporting the
consequences back to the internal regulatory apparatus.
The concept of many systems as potentially having similar functional
or structural models is an essential part of what in 1954 was termed
General Systems Theory by von Bertalanffy (a theoretical biologist),
Boulding (an economist), Gerard (a neurophysiologist), and Rapoport
(a mathematician). It should be noted that they specifically rejected the
notion of the person being only an assembly of the parts of systems that
the reductionist approach suggests (Buckley, 1968).
The main thrust for the systems approach may be said to have
stemmed from biology. The trend toward, and need for, viewing
biological systems in other than reductionist terms came from the
thinking of von Bertalanffy, Weiss, Cannon, Bernard, and others in
the 1920s and 1930s though their work did not gain widespread
recognition until after World War II. Then it was realized that al-
though parts of the biological system might be said to be both in
equilibrium and dosed, the whole system was not so structured, and so
new concepts would be necessary if these systems were to be accurately
described by science.
In turn, the systems approach was fruitfully applied to many aspects
of the study of organisms, e.g. to the cell (Rashevsky, 1938), to per-
meation in cells (Osterhout, 1932), to metabolation (Bertalanffy, 1932),
growth theory (von Bertalanfly, 1934), and excitation (Hill, 1936).
However, the terms of its initiation were broader than this and Ashby (1973)
describes the kinds of cross-fertilization that were envisaged as possible if
the inhibitions of specialization could be removed:
The neurophysiologists were generally unwilling to think of the cerebral cortex as a
place where epidemic-like processes were occurring. The economists ordinarily would
not take a person seriously who suggested that the banking system worked rather
like the liver.
101
Further, the advantages of the systems approach were made apparent
when Sir Ronald Fisher successfully challenged the reductionist pre-
mise by demonstrating that in ecological systems, plots showing the
effect of one variable change at a time could never show the effect of
varying two or more of them simultaneously. A second major advance
was achieved when radio engineers mastered the problems of feedback
circuits which had enormous sensitivity but were wildly unstable until it
was understood how the interactions created by the feedback operated
on the system. When Norbert Wiener discovered that the results could
be applied to systems generally such that "goal-seeking" or "self-
corrective" devices could be constructed utilizing the feedback prin-
ciple, then systems science began in earnest, but again, for specialized
purposes.
Now it is understood that interaction in systems is a vital element and
it requires a new approach; hence Weiss's (1969) point that:
The number of statements necessary to describe the whole system is more than that
necessary to describe the parts ... the "more" in the above statement does not at all
refer to any measurable quantity in the observed systems themselves; it refers solely
to the necessity for the observer to supplement the sum of statements that can be
made about the separate parts by any such additional statements as will be needed to
describe the collective behavior of the parts, when in an organized group.
Further, the ways in which systems are structured in terms of
hierarchies that allow them to deal effectively with increasing com-
plexity is another essential component (Weiss, 1969).'*' Thus we find
that systems in general have only certain kinds of responses to growth,
new information, or change, all of which have common meanings in
systems theory. In general such responses are characterized by sudden
restructuring phenomena which are usually preceded by dissonance in
the system showing up at several levels simultaneously. These events
are also accompanied by a trend toward greater simplification as well as
interactive transitions across levels of the old subsystemic structure. It is
not yet clear whether transitions of this kind can actually be guided;
this question emerging from the systems approach is one of the most
demanding challenges which we must meet in the near future (Platt,
1970).
Thus it is clear that information emerging from the systems ap-
proach can have immediate relevance for the study of many parts of
the human environment. The hierarchization notion is common to
See Note A, p. 109.
102
language (Chomsky, 1965), voluntary action (Bruner, 1969), instinctive
behavior (Tinbergen, 1951), and numerous other kinds of systems.
Laszlo (1969, 1972) and Salk (1973), among others, find ethics and
values as having an objective base in norms echoed in the structure or
"metabiology" of living systems. Bateson (1972) states the promise of
cybernetics and general systems theory most ambitiously in dealing
with the dilemma to which human consciousness aided by modern
technology have now brought us:
Today the purposes of the consciousness are implemented by more and more
effective machinery, transportation systems, airplanes, weaponry, medicine,
pesticides.... Conscious purpose is now empowered to upset the balances of the
body, of society, and of the biological world around us. A pathology-a loss of
balance-is threatened.... On the one hand, we have the systemic nature of the
individual human being, the systemic nature of the culture in which he lives, and the
systemic nature of the biological, ecological system around him; and, on the other
hand, the curious twist in the systemic nature of the individual man whereby
consciousness is, almost of necessity, blinded to the systemic nature of the man
himself. Purposive consciousness pulls out, from the total mind, sequences which do
not have the loop structure which is characteristic of the whole systemic structure. If
you follow the "common-sense" dictates of consciousness you become effectively,
greedy and unwise-... [where] I use "wisdom" as a word for recognition of and
guidance by a knowledge of the total systemic creature. Lack of systemic wisdom is
always punished.... Biological systems-the individual, the culture, and the
ecology-are ... punishing of any species unwise enough to quarrel with its ecology.
Call the systemic forces "God" if you will. (p. 440)
SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A POSSIBLE NEW PARADIGM
We have examined some characteristics of science as it has been, and
also some of the developments that may be forcing change in its basic
paradigm. Now we want to look at some of the interactions between
science and society and suggest some characteristics of the new
scientific paradigm that may be emergent.
Interactions between Science and Society
Science today affects the lives of an unprecedented number of
people, in terms both of technological impact and of their direct
involvement in the activity. The number of Americans who are in some
manner occupationally involved in scientific research and development
is approaching 5 percent of the working population (Schlegel, 1972).
The highly complex and costly operations of science have become a
subject for debate in all the advanced societies (Ciba, 1972; Calder,
1963). This increased impact and the high cost of science bring a
heightened interaction between society's attitudes to science and the
content and quantity of scientific research.
For at least a century, the relationship between science and modern
society in many ways has resembled that which formerly existed be-
tween religion and society. In advanced societies, most people have
sought explanation of natural phenomena in scientific terms, where
formerly, explanation was sought from the authority of the major
religions. Thus, science has acted as a kind of validating filter through
which events in the "real" world had to pass before they could become
accepted. However, in performing this function, science has often
ended up rejecting as unreal or illusory many aspects .of subjective
experience of phenomena which cannot be explained by its own
paradigms-psychic phenomena, UFOs, religious experiences-as well
as some of the taboos listed earlier. In recent years, major institutions
of science have begun to recognize that they can no longer refuse
attention to aspects of human experience having high currency in
society, and that to continually deny existence to widely experienced
realities is to eventually destroy their own authority.
Related to these changes within science is society's growing dis-
enchantment with science. Generally speaking, this disenchantment has
been exacerbated by the sometimes disastrous misapplication of tech-
nology made possible by science. In the eyes of many, the distinction
between science and technology is blurred; as a result, today's ecologi-
cal crisis, the spinoff of science into military technology, and other
problems of advanced societies are blamed on science itself.
This new hostility toward science is reflected, for example, in
decreased enrollment in science-degree programs at colleges and uni-
versities. It has also repeatedly been used in the political sector to
initiate massive cutoffs of funding for basic science-even though the
development of military technology continues to flourish. There is a
growing belief in the possibility of discovery-specific targeted funding
in science, although examination of the patterns of scientific discovery
discloses that one of its essential qualities is unpredictability.
The influence of social factors on science can pull in two opposing
directions. On the one hand, social pressure can enrich the whole
content of science by stressing the need for science to address itself to
many issues now excluded. Important future developments might
include, for example: extension of models of causality to include new
phenomena interlocking with developments in physics; theory of
complex and mutual causal systems and psychic research; the role of
consciousness in both quantum mechanics and the general realm of
state-specific sciences; the vital parameters of ecological and global
104
systems as wholly interconnected systems leading to more enlightened
macro-decision-making.
On the other hand, if previously cited problems of misunderstanding
of science and the role of technology prevail, then science will have its
base of operations diminished by the social demand for almost
exclusive attention to short-range problems and goals, thus causing a
deterioration of the quality of the scientific enterprise as a whole.
Thus, certain social pressures may be actually molding science into
becoming exactly what society most wishes it not to be.
Although it has become commonplace to note how science has
transformed society, we may well have underestimated the converse-
how much the changing values of society have accelerated or
decelerated, and affected the form and content of, scientific activity. As
Edelstein (1957) points out, the Greeks discovered and tested most of
the essential elements of the scientific method. They did not, however,
develop their discoveries into practical application. One of the reasons
for this, Farrington (1953) suggests, was that Greek society was based
on a slave economy, and there was, therefore, no need for the
development of technological applications. A more fundamental re-
striction, as Edelstein (1957) notes, was the Greek image of man in
relation to nature: "The world was there to live in and not to be used
and made over." Hence, the Greek approach to the pursuit of know-
ledge was largely aesthetic, although as Aristotle prophetically remar-
ked: "Man vanquished by nature becomes master through technics."
In contrast to the Greek notion of "man," the Judeo-Christian view
holds that "man" is essentially separate from the rightful master over
nature. This view inspired a sharp rate of increase in technological
advances in Western Europe throughout the Medieval period. On the
other hand, the severe limitations of scholastic methodology, and the
restrictive views of the Church, prevented the formulation of an
adequate scientific paradigm. It was not until the Renaissance brought
a new climate of individualism and free inquiry that the necessary
conditions for a new paradigm were provided.
Interestingly, the Renaissance scholars turned to the Greeks to
rediscover the empirical method. The Greeks possessed an objective
science of things "out there," which D. Campbell (1959) terms the
"epistemology of the other." This was the basic notion that nature was
governed by laws and principles which could be discovered, and it was
this that the Renaissance scholars then developed into science as we
have come to know it.
Today, scientists are experiencing a sense of restriction from the
limitations of the objective and reductionist approach, akin to the
limitations felt by the Renaissance scholars in relation to the Medieval
schoolmen's approach.
The time is clearly ripe for a new vision, and it is natural to wonder if
once again the methods of inquiry developed by another culture might
not be strong where ours are providing weak. As indicated by Table 5,
it may be that these methods will be found in an "epistemology of the
self," such as has held sway in the East. Certainly, there is a sudden new
interest in oriental knowledge of various methods of control over
bodily and mental functions. Like the Greek methods, these techniques
have lain dormant in their culture of origin insofar as general ap-
plication and "objective" development are concerned. Now, however,
the Eastern discoveries are being validated in the West by biofeedback
and other techniques. In short, the scientific knowledge of the West
may be the environment needed if discoveries of the East are to
develop and receive" widespread application to the practical concerns
of humankind. This is not to suggest that modern science would or
should adopt totally all the Eastern notions of consciousness, but rather
that they might be fruitfully adopted and synthesized with traditional
Western scientific methods to produce the next stage in man's evolu-
tionary advance. As Oates (1972) commented:
What appears to be the breaking down of civilization may well be simply the
breaking up of old forms by life itself (not an eruption of madness or self-
destruction), a process that is entirely natural and inevitable. Perhaps we are in the
tumultuous but exciting close of a centuries-old kind of consciousness-a few of us
like theologians of the Medieval church encountering the unstoppable energy of the
Renaissance. What we must avoid is the paranoia of history's "true believers," who
have always misinterpreted a natural, evolutionary transformation of consciousness
as being the violent conclusion of all history.
Characteristics of a Possibly Emergent Paradigm
Much of what has been discussed in this chapter is to the point that
the scientific paradigm and, through it, scientific research findings
affect the dominant "image of man" in the society-but contrariwise
the society's priorities and its cultural prejudices influence the scientific
paradigm. At the present moment in history both developments within
science itself (e.g. changing metaphors) and pressures from the rest of
society (e.g. disenchantment with the present science-technology thrust)
"This is a most important admonition, which could be further elaborated. Northrop's
'Meeting of the East and West' here makes an important point. In my own writings,
where I introduced P-plane and C-field, I called attention to the fact that the East
dwells largely in the protocol plane of immediate experience (which includes intro-
spection and esthetic immediacies), refusing to enter the field of rational constructs.
The West, on the other hand, overemphasizes C, the rational. P and C are connected
by rules of correspondence. My insistence is upon equalizing the emphasis on the
two. "-Henry Margenau
elM -I
Table 5
ELEMENTS OF AN HISTORICAL ANALOGY FOR EXPLORING THE FEASIBILITY
OF A NEW SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM
......
g
Element of the
historical analogy m
Approach or idea with
undeveloped potential
Image blocking
development of the
idea for human
betterment
in culture of origin
Motivating conditions
for development of
idea
Medieval to Industrial
transformation (past)
Early Greek development of
an epistemology of the
"other" on which an objec-
tive physical science could
be based
Dominant image of the world
as there to live in, not
to be used and made over;
free people enjoying know-
ledge for its aesthetic value;
slaves doing the work-
hence uneconomic to replace
human energy by technology
Perceived limitations of
the scholastic method, de-
sire for empiricism and
practical physical tech-
nologies
and
Industrial to Post-industrial
transformation (future)
Early Oriental development of an
epistemology of the "self" on which
an objective/subjective psycho-
physical science could be partially
based,
Dominant image of the
person as essentially a spiritual
being deluded by the "maya" of
physical existence-hence uneconomic
to apply self-knowledge to problems
of material existence
Perceived limitations of current
reductionistic, objective methods;
ecological problems beyond resolu-
tion by physical-technologies alone;
desire for "value incorporating"
social and psycho-technologies
Q
~
~
('JI:j
E'
('JI:j
~
~
~
c:"
~
~
~
Image of humankind
necessary to foster
development of the
idea
Building blocks for
development of idea
Result of full .
development of idea
Person as a being separate
from nature, appropriate to
dominate nature through
exercise of individual will
and reason
Translation of Greek
thought; development of
measurement mathematics,
engineering, and later
'pure" sciences of special-
ized discipline
Powerful objective science
and physical technologies;
industrial corporations with
necessary capitalization to
exploit new technologies
Person intrinsically part of nature,
appropriate to harmonize self and
nature through exercise of the indi-
vidual and the collective, with
objective and subjective means
Translation of Oriental thought, syn-
thesis with general systems theory,
learning theory, and emerging dis-
ciplines of holistic objective/
subjective inquiry
Balanced "moral" science and eco-
nomics oriented toward ecological
well-being; balanced emphasis on
physical, social, and psycho-
technologies; new institutional
forms yet to be discovered and
created
~
~
l;:
t"::>
;:!
("',
t"::>
~
~
t"::>
;:!
("',
t"::>
C
;:!
So
t"::>
~
~
~
~
~
;:!
-o
-:J
108
may be bringing about a basic change in the scientific paradigm. From
the nature of these various forces we have examined in the preceding
discussion it is possible to ded uce some characteristics that the emer-
gent paradigm would be likely to have if it is responsive to these forces.
The following eight characteristics are among the most important:
1. The new paradigm will likely be inclusive rather than exclusive.
Science as it has been known to now will be included as a special case,
distinguished by a positivistic bias that resulted in relative neglect of
subjective experience, and a serious schism between the "two cultures"
of science and the humanities. There will be recognition that any
system of knowledge that has guided a stable society, whether that
society be sophisticated or primitive, ancient or modern, Eastern or
Western, may be assumed to be rooted in the human experience of its
time and place and hence in that sense valid, not to be lightly assumed
away as a quaint superstition.
2. It will likely be eclectic in methodology and in its definition of what
constitutes knowledge. It will be guided by the dictum of Saint-Exupery,
that "Truth is not that which is demonstrable. Truth is that which is
ineluctable"-which cannot be escaped. Thus the new scientific
paradigm will not be slavishly wedded to the controlled experiment as
the paragon of the test for ultimate truth. Furthermore, it will not be
solely reductionistic in its quest for "explanations," recognizing that,
for instance, a teleological cause may complement, not contradict, a
reductionistic cause.
3. The new paradigm will likely make room for some sort of sys-
tematization of subjective experience, the domain which has heretofore
largely been left to non-science-the humanities and religion. That is to
say, it will include study of those experiences from which we derive our
basic value commitments. From this characteristic flow several others:
4. It will likely foster open, participative inquiry, in the sense of
reducing the dichotomy between observer and observed, investigator
and subject. Insofar as it deals with a "human science," it will be based
on collaborative trust and "exploring together," rather than on the sort
of manipulative deception which has characterized much experimental
psychological research of the past.
5. It will likely be a moral inquiry, in the sense of investigating (and
applying) what values are wholesome for man (much in the sense that
the science of nutrition investigates what foods are wholesome for
man), rather than a "value-free" inquiry.
6. It will likely highlight a principle of complementarity, or recon-
ciliation (analogously to wave and particle theories of light) of such
"opposites" as free will and determinism, materialism and transcen-
dentalism, science and religion.
7. The new paradigm will likely incorporate some kind of concept of
hierarchical level of consciousness, or levels of subjective experience.
These will be distinguishable in the sense that concepts and metaphors
appropriate to one level do not necessarily fit another. They will be
hierarchical, not in the sense that one is higher than another on some
value scale, but in the sense of structural hierarchy, and also in the
sense that the consciousness of intense moments of creativity are
accompanied by, in some testable meaning, more awareness than times
of "ordinary consciousness," and those in turn involve more awareness
than deep sleep. The notion of a spectrum of potential consciousness
connotes extending the range of recognized "unconscious" processes
(i.e. processes of which we are not usually conscious although the
potentiality appears to be present of experiencing them directly) to
include a vast range of reported experience in the provinces of creative
imagination, "cosmic consciousness," aesthetic and mystical experience,
psychic phenomena, and the occult. This range will include, im-
portantly, both subconscious choice-man "hiding from himself,"
repressing not only feelings and memories but also knowledge of his
own potentialities-and supraconscious choice, the direction of a
"higher self" manifesting itself in hunches and inspirations and
"choosing better than we know." The metaphors appropriate to the
"highest" levels will include some way of referring to the subjective
experiencing of a unity in all things (the "More" of William James, the
"Divine Ground," Brahman) of which the "higher self" (the "Over-
soul" of Emerson, Atman) has immediate knowledge.
8. Thus the paradigm will allow a much more unified view of human
experiences now categorized under such diverse headings as "crea-
tivity," "intuition," "hypnosis," "religious experience," and "psychic
phenomena"-and also a more unified view of the processes of per-
sonal change and development that take place within the contexts of
psychotherapy, education, "growth centers," religion, and crisis con-
frontation.
The guiding paradigm of scientific activity and the dominant image
of man in society are not the same thing. They are, however, inter-
dependent and a change taking place in one will surely affect the other.
NOTE
Note .4
"Weiss's point that the rules of interaction must be given does not provide the whole
story here. Complex patterns can be generated by simple rules. However, in Ulam's
formulation, it takes a greater amount of (Shannonian) information to describe the
finished pattern than just the rules of interaction alone. Thus the amount of information
(Shannonian) grows. This is contrary to Shannon's formulation that the amount of
information decreases but can never increase. Furthermore, often the rules of interaction
cannot be inferred from the finished pattern. It is important to realize that Shannon's
information theory was developed to combat noise in systems and is therefore based on
the rules of random mterference. Thus it cannot explain the increase of complexity,
structure and differentiation in biological systems. Biological and social processes, on the
other hand, are based on differentiation-amplifying as well as structure-maintaining
mutual causal relations, and can increase and maintain differentiation, structure and
complexity. So Shannon's information theory is inadequate for biological and social
systems. [See Maruyama (1963) for further details.]"-Magoroh Maruyama
"The question before the board, then is whether or not to enter an altered state of consciousness."
Reproduced by permission of The New Yorker Magazine, Inc. Drawing by Richter.
1977.
112
CHAPTER 5
Characteristics of an Adequate Image of Humankind *
We have seen how the predominant image of humankind in a society is
a powerful shaping force on the social environment and how the social
environment, in turn, influences the society's image. We have also seen
how the dominant images that guided this society through an age of
incredible success are now being challenged, bcause of our inability to
deal adequately either with the problems created by the success or the
problems attendant to past and emerging social and scientific
developments.
Now questions of tremendous import arise. Could an image of
humankind emerge that might shape the future, as the currently
dominant images-man as the master of nature, inhabitant of a
material world, and consumer of goods-our legacy of the past, have
shaped our present culture? Could such a new image provide the
bridge to carry us safely over to a post-industrial era? If so, what
characteristics should the emergent image entail, such that it would be
both feasible and adequate for the satisfactory resolution of the serious
problems currently facing the society?
From the nature of contemporary societal problems, studies of
plausible alternative futures, and our earlier considerations of the role
played by a society's dominant image, we can postulate a provisional list
of characteristics that a new image must possess if it is to become
dominant and effective. At the minimum we believe it would need to:
(1) provide a holistic sense of perspective on life, (2) entail an ecological
ethic, (3) entail a self-realization ethic, (4) be multi-leveled, multi-
faceted, and integrative, (5) lead to a balancing and coordinating of
satisfactions along many dimensions, and (6) be experimental and
open-ended. We examine these requirements more closely below, and
will consider the feasibility of emergence of such an image in Chapter
6.
To prevent misunderstanding, it should be emphasized that the word "self" in this
chapter is meant to have a trans-personal connotation along the lines described in the next
chapter. For this reason, some readers may prefer to scan Chapter 6 before reading
further.
113
A HOLISTIC SENSE OF PERSPECTIVE
A holistic perspective and understanding of life seems absolutely vital if
we are to overcome the fragmentation and alienation that have become
so common in the latter part of the industrial era. If in the absence of
the myths and rituals of pre-scientific societies we are to regain a sense
of meaningful purpose and integration-at the level of self, of society,
and of the universe-a generally acceptable sense of perspective or
understanding must emerge in our society of "what it is all about." Just
as an adequate new image should serve to reintegrate the specialized
images that at present contend with each other, so too should it lead to
a satisfactory sense of perspective and derivative methods for
experiencing and participating in construction and discovery processes
through which that perspective is maintained. Only then will the needs
of continued evolution and the important function once served by
myth and ritual again be fulfilled."
ECOLOGICAL ETHIC
An ecological ethic is necessary if man is to avoid destroying the
complex life-support system on which our continued existence on the
planet depends. It must recognize that available resources, including
space, are limited and must portray the human as an integral part of
the natural world. It must reflect the "new scarcity" in an ethic of
fragility, of doing more with less. It must involve not only a sense of
mutual self-interest between individuals, but also the interests of fellow
men and the more extensive interests among fellow creatures (both
near and far, both present and future). An ecological ethic would imply
movement toward a homeostatic (yet dynamic) economic and ecological
system, in which the human acts in partnership with nature to har-
monize ecological relationships and in establishing satisfactory recycling
mechanisms. Such an ethic is necessary to achieve a synergism of
heterogeneous individual and organizational micro-decisions such that
the resultant macro-decisions are satisfactory to those who made the
component decisions, and to society. (The alternative way of arriving at
satisfactory macro-decisions involves behavior controls that would
deprive the individual of freedoms, as well as being in conflict with the
next characteristic.)
An ecological ethic should incorporate concerns that are broader
than those of the physical/biological ecosphere, however. It should also
lead to concern for the processes of coordinated and balanced need-
See Note A, p. 121.
Characteristics of an Adequate Image of Humankind 115
satisfaction and well-being among cultures (cultural ecology), among
various institutions and types of activities such as the arts, the humani-
ties, the sciences, politics and so forth (institutional ecology), and
among various aspects of the self (intra- and trans-psychic ecology).
SELF-REALIZATION ETHIC
The desirability of this characteristic of the new Image IS based on
the view that the proper end of all individual experience is the
evolutionary and harmonious development of the emergent self (both
as a person and as a part of wide collectivities), and that the ap-
propriate function of social institutions is to create an environment
which will foster that process. This is the ethic which must supersede
the man-over-nature ethic and the material-growth-and-consumption
ethic which have given rise to a large portion of man's problems as he
became increasingly preoccupied with solely material aspects of exploit-
ing and controlling nature for selfish ends on a fragile and finite
planet where the pursuit of such goals can be suicidal."
This self-realization would relieve the current hostility toward in-
dustrial and bureaucratic practices which tend to diminish man and the
anxiety that we have somehow lost a sense of direction in the control
and management of our human affairs-of what our ancestors would
have called our destiny. The wide acceptance of a new ethic is required
if we are to restructure our social institutions to satisfy the individual's
basic need for full and valued participation in the society. As corollaries
to this ethic, self-determination of individuals and minority groups
would be fostered, diversity of choices would be honored, social
decision-making would become largely decentralized, and the
mechanism of creative voluntarism would be preferred over public
bureaucracy for the accomplishment of most social tasks.t
Properly understood, these two ethics, the one emphasizing the total
community of life-in-nature and the oneness of the human race, and
the other placing the highest value on development of selfhood, are
See Note B, p. 122.
t "Let us realize that self-realization is very much an upper middle class/bour-
geois/academic/liberal nostrum that, as you suggest, will cure everything for
everybody .... I am all for self-realizing, but I entertain far more modest expectations.
Moreover, I can be totally self-realized, but still be anxious as hell 'that we have
somehow lost a sense of direction in the control and management of our human
affairs.' The self-realization paradigm requires far more critical examination than you
have given it here-just remember, that for most Americans, self-realization is winning
a trophy in the bowling league. There is no indication how this will be otherwise."-
Michael Marien
not contradictory but complementary. Both are necessary to synthesize
and coordinate mutualistic and hierarchical approaches in a symbiotic
manner. The ecological ethic corrects for a selfish distortion of the
self-realization ethic, and the latter corrects for an excessively collec-
tivist version of the ecological ethic. Together, the two ethics leave
room for cooperation and for wholesome competition, for sociality and
for individuality. But if the two ethics are to harmonize, the term "self"
must be understood in broad terms, incorporating the diverse roles
and aspects of existence of the human being. To quote three modern
theorists,
It is by now widely accepted that the history of evolution may be regarded as the
development of ever more complex organizations of living matter: molecules,
proteins, cells, groups of cells, animals.
(Metzner, 1968)
Consciousness, rather than being the product of a particular neural circuit ... is the
organization of the bio-system; that is, awareness is the "complementary" aspect of
that organization-its psychological equivalent.
(Deikman, 1972)
Consciousness can be defined as a phenomenon which is synonymous with the
structure of an organism.
(Wolf, 1970)
Thus, corresponding to the generally increasing complexity and
differentiation of evolving biological systems, there has been a con-
comitant increase in consciousness which reflects that evolving state. Our
sense of self must incorporate this vision if we are responsibly to accept
the challenges that our era presents.
Just as the different systems within the body (cells, organs, and so
forth) are interrelated, so too are the different systems within the
body-politic (persons, institutions, and so forth), and this interrelated-
ness of necessity increases as our civilization becomes more tightly
coupled and complex. It represents a higher degree of organization of
the bio-system. If we try to "love our neighbor as ourself," not because
it is what we have been taught is proper but because we hold the
underlying image and perception that our neighbor is in a real sense
ourself, then it might indeed become more feasible to arrive at
meaningful social goals that can be satisfied within ecological con-
straints. Thus the new image of humankind should incorporate trans-
personal as well as individualistic aspects of existence. '*'
., See Sir Geoffrey Vickers' very relevant comments on "Social Ethics" in Appendix B.
MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, MULTI-FACETED, AND INTEGRATIVE
We earlier noted how the images of humankind have over the past
several hundred years become increasingly fragmented as specializa-
tion and reductionism have come to be emphasized in mature in-
dustrialized societies. If this trend is not reversed it is likely to lead, not
only to continuing fragmentation of personality and culture, but also to
ideological conflict as social policies based on old images compete for
dominance. (For example, witness the current debate over the image of
the human as portrayed in Skinner's Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971)
and operant conditioning in the schools.)
At this point in history, ideological conflict is too costly-our weapons
are too strong and our institutional environment too fragile. If a new
image is to contribute to resolution of the planet's woes, it must provide
for an integrative reconciliation of the apparent dichotomies between
opposing images (as quantum theory reconciled wave and particle
images in physics). The new image must also be integrative in the sense
that it builds on past successful images. Seldom if ever have historical
infusions of new images from external sources been of a non-violent
nature, whether the new image was imposed by physical power or
brought in by a charismatic messiah who was persuasive to some but
not to others. For the new image to foster a smooth transition to a
benign post-industrial and eventually planetary society, it has to be
absorbed into the lives of people and the institutions of society without
the disruptions that accompany most revolutions. This can only happen
if the new image and its implications are seen as an integration,
reinterpretation or improvement of the old.
Any image of humankind that has guided a stable society, whether
that society be sophisticated or primitive, ancient or modern, Eastern
or Western, agricultural or hunting or industrial, must be assumed to
be rooted in the human experience of its time and place and in that
sense valid. That image which can lead toward a pluralistic yet sym-
biotic world of greater fulfillment cannot be in direct opposition to any
of these more restricted images. In the specific case of late twentieth-
century America, the new image must somehow be made compatible
with the basic symbols and images of the American democratic
experiment, and with the individualism of the frontier and the ener-
getic activism of American enterprise.
But just as the new image should be integrative, so too should it
entail a high degree of differentiation, not blurring the distinctiveness,
focus, and validity of various specialized images in efforts at in-
tegration. It therefore must be adequately multi-faceted, and, in
keeping with the sense of evolution, coordinate those differences at a higher
level of complexity and coherence.
To perform this task of differentiated integration, the new image will
likely have to be multi-dimensional." In keeping with the lessons
learned from ecology and general systems theory, any new image will
have to order the various aspects of our existence at the physical,
organic, social, psychical, and spiritual levels. As Polanyi (1966) and
Weiss (1969) have pointed out, these levels form a hierarchy; the
functioning of systems at each level relies on the elemental laws of the
lower level; but the principle of the operations of a higher level can
never be derived from the laws governing the lower-the lower level
system received its meaning from the higher system, which integrates
the particulars of the lower into a new emerging Gestalt. Such a
multi-leveled image of humankind could thereby help both to integrate
the contributions from various disciplines of science, and to contain
meaning for and serve the needs of individuals and groups at varying
degrees of maturity and modernity, just as relativistic physics includes
Newtonian mechanics and common-sense observations as special cases
of restricted validity.
Thus, if the requirements of various cultures, belief systems, and
personality types are to be served, if cultural unity with diversity] is to
be fostered and the evolution of consciousness to be furthered, the new
image must portray a general direction of growth in which various
conceptual emphases are reconciled but retained. For example, the
emphasis of: individuality and community; the way of the yogi (in-
wardly directed change) and the way of the commissar (outwardly
directed change); freedom and determinism; nature and nuture; male
and female; sensory and extrasensory; and salvation or progress
through efforts by self and society and through divine intervention.
The meaning of divinity must somehow come to incorporate both the
images of person as separate from God, and of person and God as
different levels of the same reality. In all such cases the various partial
images appear as complementary truths, neither denying the other, thus
reflecting the views of such diverse groups as children and adults,
lettered and unlettered, abstract and concrete minds.
Both of the dominant conceptual images basic to Western democracy
(an agnostic survival of the fittest and a trustworthy invisible hand) are
in need of revitalization if self-interested individual micro-decisions are
in fact to combine into satisfactory macro-decisions in today's complex,
See Note C, p. 122.
t ''The term 'unity with diversity' should be replaced by 'symbiotization of hetero-
geneity.' Although, as you [Markley] pointed out in conversation, the term 'unity with
diversity' is likely to be understandable to more people, it misses the point completely.
This point is very important. "-Magoroh Maruyama
interconnected society. Thus, if the operative principles based on a
view of the human as possessing free will and a valid sense of values are
to remain viable, the new image must accommodate the concept and
experience of the transcendental, the expansion of consciousness, in
personal and cultural evolution.
BALANCING AND COORDINATING SATISFACTIONS ALONG MANY
DIMENSIONS
The maximizing of concerns along one narrowly defined dimension
would not allow the other criteria listed above to be met in a way that
contributes to an increased quality of life. The related ideas of balance
and coordination stem from ecology and general systems theory (as
well as from various cultures' notions about wisdom), and provides a
needed corrective to the one-sided life style of achieving an increased
standard of living that has accompanied the growth of the value-empty
economics and science in our industrial society."
Such a new image of man might be supportive of a philosophy (and
indeed, a public strategy) of "well-being"-a term that Weisskopf
(1971) uses to replace the term "welfare" and the older terms "happi-
ness" and "utility," which have come to have predominantly economic
connotations. Such a philosophy would have to acknowledge that:
... a person, a family, a group or a nation can have too much wealth and income and
may suffer from too much change, economic growth and production. It may
consider that the way in which wealth is produced, distributed and consumed can, in
itself, lead to a destructive way of life.
(Weisskopf, 1971, p. 182)
Just as the complexities of ecology fare badly from single-valued
approaches of such physical technologies as DDT, so too do the
complex needs of the human system from treatments such as typify
exclusively allopathic (drug-based) medicine, or a minimum-wage law.
The hierarchical structure of human needs requires coordinated
"satisficing" if the overall goal of well-being is to be served. (The term
"satisfice" was coined by Herbert Simon, 1957. It stems from our
"The term 'balance' should be replaced by 'symbiosis.' In symbiosis differences do not
have to be 'reconciled.' You make positive use of differences. For example, plants
convert carbon dioxide to oxygen, and animals convert oxygen into carbon dioxide.
They do the opposite. Symbiosis makes use of this difference. The idea is completely
different from 'reconciliation.' Also, 'balance' is based on the paradigm that what one
gains is what someone else loses. But in symbiotic paradigm, everybody gains."-
Magoroh Maruyama
120
recogmtion that the trade-offs in real life are such that true "satis-
factions" are not usually possible-hence we suffice as best we can,
arriving at decisions that do not properly satisfy but may indeed
"satisfice. It)
In addition to these somewhat idealized objectives, however, the new
image should point toward a transformed state of industrialized society
that will seem achievable and preferable to the present state, yet have
functional utility in the present. A positive guiding image is a crucial
determinant in the fate of a people. In individual psychotherapy
(Frank, 1972) and in societal revitalization (Polak, 1973), the expectation
of success in confronting and dealing with crises is often a far more
important variable than the specific methods or approaches used. For
example, the American response to World War II seems to prove that
our society is capable of extraordinary mobilization when it perceives
itself to be in a crisis that it comprehends and expects to be able to deal
with. But of course the present situation is different from World War
II; as Pogo said, "We have met the enemy and he is us." Rather than
encouraging propagandistic efforts to mobilize society, a new image
should lead to understandings of personal and social actions suitable
for the highly interconnected and complex-but limited-environment
that the symbol "spaceship earth" has come to signify. The image
should have ethical implications that are immediately practical in ap-
plication and should validate the sense that there is a way out of our
current difficulties.
EXPERIMENTAL AND OPEN-ENDED
Self-consciously evolutionary rather than dogmatic and paradigm
bound attitudes and images are necessary. It is unreasonable to expect
the rate of change in society to diminish. If the society of the future is
to avoid the image obsolescence and crisis that our present society
faces, it will be necessary to anticipate-rather than just to react to-the
necessity for such paradigm changes, and continuously to seek more
adequate conceptions and images.
Thus the new image of humankind should incorporate the con-
tributions of subjective processes as well as objective sciences. It should
portray a vision of man-in-the universe that is unrealized but appears
realizable-incomplete in the sense of pointing to the greater mystery
that each individual or culture must discover for itself, and thus
encouraging exploration and self-development on the part of in-
dividuals, groups, and the entire human venture.
Indeed, this last requirement, that a new image be open-ended and
evolutionary, may be the key to the productive transition hom an
industrial past to a post-industrial future. For one of the strongest of
current conflicts is that of incremental versus revolutionary change.
Incremental change is typically seen as being inadequate to overcome
the resistance of institutions which must somehow be fundamentally
changed.
Revolution, on the other hand, might well cause so much social
upheaval that the cure would be worse than the disease. We suggest
that the resolution of this dilemma could be fostered by an "image of
man" in transformation which portrays the person and human culture
as growing elements in an evolving cosmos. If personal and social
evolution is seen as an integral part of human life, then perhaps much
less impetus would be required to bring about needed change. One
such image has been expressed in Dunn's (1971) phrase, "process
teleology", in which human beings
... establish the process of human development as the goal of the process of social
evolution. Both the process and the goal are understood to be open to further
transformation as we advance with the practice and understanding of them. (p. 244)
With such imagery it is conceivable that the incrementalist/rev-
olutionary dilemma could be resolved by revolutionary changes at the
conceptual level in the near term, but accompanied by incremental
changes at the operational level, leading to thoroughgoing trans-
formation of society only in the longer term.
NOTES
Note A
"Holistic thought and analysis are essential to understand the change through which
we are passing. If we are going to work our way through the pitfalls and dilemmas
inherent in your convincing visions of the future with a minimum of waste and agony, we
can only do so if we are unable to perceive the interrelationships of things and appreciate
the problems inherent in the inexorable synthesis.
"There are two rather fundamental obstacles in the way of this achievement: one is
intellectual and the other institutional. Alfred North Whitehead foresaw the first in 1925
when he wrote of the evils of specialization:
... the ignoration of the true relation of each organism to its environment ... , the
habit of ignoring the intrinsic worth of the environment which must be allowed its
weight in any consideration of final ends .... In short, the specialized functions of the
community are performed better and more progressively, but the generalized direction
lacks vision. (pp. 282, 283)
"So we are deprived of the intellectual tools and disciplines necessary to simplify,
refine, and synthesize the components of the holistic visions which you set forth.
Furthermore, most academic bureaucracies, structured to reward specialization, are not
helping the situation.
Of M - J
"A second-and related-obstacle to the holistic approach emerges from the structure
of our institutions, such as government, corporations, and universities. These institutions
have been made legitimate by a framework of ideas, and ideology, which emerged some
300 years ago as an explicit rejection of Medieval holism. (I describe this ideology,
somewhat imprecisely, as Lockean ....) Our institutions have departed from the old
ideology even as it has eroded; their foundations are shaking. But even as they shake,
our institutions and their managers understandably tend to ding for legitimacy to the old
ideas."-George C. Lodge
Note B
"This should be called 'heterogenistic self-realization ethic.' In order to uri-brainwash
the readers, it is necessary to repeat 'heterogenistic' where needed. 'Self-realization'may
mean, in the minds of many, giving the 'opportunity' to everybody and 'enabling'
everybody to become standard middle-class, enabling everybody to go to college, etc. I
would rewrite the entire passage as follows:
[The new image] must embody or imply a heterogenistic self-realization ethic, based on
the view that the basic principle of the biological and social processes is increase of
heterogeneity and of symbiotization, that the individuals are unique and different, that
the desirable end of all individual experience is the further development of the
emergent self, and that the appropriate function of social institutions is to create an
environment which will allow for and facilitate heterogeneous development of in-
dividuals and symbiosis within human species as well as among all living species."-
Magoroh Maruyama.
Note C
"Three interpretations must be mentioned here: hierarchical, atomistic, and network.
In the first school of thought, represented by Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Polanyi and
Weiss, these dimensions are conceptualized as levels in a hierarchy. The second school of
thought, having its origin in the Nominalists of the Medieval Age and translated into the
ideology of democracy in England and in the U.S.A., sees the whole as nothing but a
statistical sum of its parts. The third school of thought, developed particularly since the
advent of cybernetics in 1940s, sees the whole as characterized by the pattern of network
formed between individual elements. In some cases such a network may be pre-designed
according to a centralized plan. But in many cases the network will form as a result of
interaction between the elements without anybody planning ahead. Ecological inter-
actions are an example of the latter. The evolutionary process is another example. The
result is different from a mere statistical sum of the parts. Nor is it something planned by
a central authority. This type of system is characterized by the pattern of interaction
activated by its component elements."-Magoroh Maruyama
Rembrandt van Ryn-A scholar in his study, watching a magic disc ("Dr Faustus").
Reproduced by permission of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
124
CHAPTER 6
The Feasibility of an Integrative,
Evolutionary Image of Man
We have postulated a set of characteristics that an emergent image of
man-in-the-universe would need in order both to be adequate to the
challenges of the future, and also to be compatible with our historical
past. How feasible is it that such an image might come to dominate
world society in the near future?
We propose to address this question here, in two parts. First we shall
examine the conceptual feasibility. Mathematicians use what they term
an "existence theorem"-it is enough to show that solutions can exist if
you can find even one. In that spirit we discuss one sort of image of
man that appears to meet the conditions laid down in the preceding
chapter.
Then in the second section we shall examine the operational feasibility
of replacing past images of man with a new and emergent one.
CONCEPTUAL FEASIBILITY OF A NEW IMAGE OF MAN
Thus the possible construction of a new image, and the testing for
conceptual feasibility, will be examined first.
Elements of a New Image
It would be impossible to cite all the contributions that influenced the
envisioning of the composite image described below. However, the
ways of thinking or imaging contained in the following works stand
out as having had particular significance in this exploration:
General systems thinking (Laszlo, 1972; von Bertalanffy, 1967), but in particular the
hierarchical relationships of ascending levels of "consciousness" (Polanyi, 1966;
Weiss, 1969); and the process of "hierarchical restructuring" (Platt, 1970).
Various past theories and images (e.g. Judeo-Christian, Darwinian, Freudian,
behaviorist), reviewed in Chapter 3, that somehow must be incorporated.
The metaphor of the human biocomputer (Lilly, 1972).
125
The postulation of "state (of consciousness) specific" theories, needs, knowledge
processes, and modes of explanation (Tart, 1972; Kantor, 1969; Maslow, 1962;
Hubbard, 1954; Kohlberg, 1969).
The vision of continuing evolution of man-social (Dunn, 1971), cultural (Mead,
1964), spiritual (Chardin, 1939), and integrative (Aurobindo, 1963; Assagioli, 1965).
The "Perennial Philosophy" (Huxley, 1945) and various occult writings (e.g. Ous-
pensky, 1943).
The process of transformational discovery, as in the "Monomyth" (J. Campbell,
1956), "cultural revitalization" (Wallace, 1956), and in the work of Toynbee, Jung, and
Eliot, as described in The Experiment in Depth (Martin, 1955).
The Gradient
Figure 9 shows a number of theories about the nature of the human
and their underlying images that we will attempt to show can be
integrated into a more holistic image/theory of humankind. If this
attempt proves successful, each composite part would come to be seen
not as erroneous but rather as having its own validity (albeit a restricted
one as seen from the perspective of the whole). First, it is useful to
introduce the concept of gradient, and to see how it applies to the
systemic properties of existence.
Images af man
Divine self
Many-leveled self
(astral, erc.)
Spokesmen
The Vedas, Perenni al phi losophy, etc.
Rosicrucians, Theosophy, etc.
Existentially-free man
Absurd man
Conditioned man
Economic man
Animal- bestial man;
Impulsive - Irrational
man
Repressed man
Dreaming man
(ego 7)
'Conscious"
( super-
ego? )
Lid ?)
Personal
and
collecti ve
subcon sc ious"
Humanists, NeoFreudian
Sartrian existe nt ialists
Freud, Watson, Skinner
Freud, Lorenz, Ardrey
Freud
Jung -It
Fig. 9. Complementarity of various images as they might fit in a proposed composite
image of the person.
Jung's imagery of "dreaming man" is difficult to place in the model-precisely because
this aspect of man partakes of "the center" (discussed on pages 137-138), which tends to
integrate "the higher" and "the lower."
The Feasibility of an Evolutionary Image of Man
127
By "gradient" we mean, simply, "the grade or ascent ... a series of
transitional forms, states, or qualities connecting related extremes"
( Webster's).
It is widely recognized that each succeeding level of biological and
social evolution forms a hierarchical gradient of interacting levels of
increasing complexity and order. The various scientific disciplines
reflect this ordered series-from phylogenesis to ontogenesis to socio-
genesis; from such disciplines as physics, chemistry, genetics, and
physiology to ethology, psychology, sociology, and anthropology and to
such newly emerging disciplines as systems theory and the policy
sciences.
Some type of gradient should similarly be recognizable with regard
to the higher aspects of human existence. In biological evolution, as
each higher level system emerges, it brings with it the capacity to order
chemical reactions in an increasingly coherent and purposive manner.
Similarly with social and cultural evolution where, for example, ethical
norms order or channel the energies associated with more primitive
processes (such as anger) in keeping with higher needs, or where
immediate gratification is postponed in order to obtain a greater
gratification at some future time.
Three principles are enunciated in this approach: one, the dimensions of existence
form a hierarchy of lower and higher levels or dimensions; two, the higher
dimension, although resting on the foundations of the lower ones, cannot be
understood in terms of the principles governing the lower ones; it receives its
meaning from the higher dimension which integrates the particulars of the lower
dimension into a new emerging Gestalt. Three, the highest level is the realm of the
normative, of the moral sense, of the standards of value.
(Weisskopf, 1971, p. 186)
An analogy to computer programming may be a helpful illustration
at this point.
The Gradient in the Human Biocomputer. The real power and flexibility
of the modern computer is found not in its hardware, but in its
software-the gradient series of ever more general symbolic programs
that make it feasible to use the computer for vastly different functions.
The basic functioning of a computer requires one instruction for each
operation that is carried out, and while programming at this machine-
language level is in principle very flexible, it requires too much time to
prepare special purpose programs for different applications. Rather, it
has been found useful to create a hierarchical series of macropro-
gramming languages, where a single instruction at one level generates
a score or more detailed instructions at a more basic level.
The utility of the computer metaphor of human functioning is
illustrated in Table 6 (a). At the lower (machine language) end of the
Table 6
THREE DIMENSIONS ON A "GRADIENT OF AWARENESS"
-
N)
00
(a)
Hierarchical programs in the
human biocomputer
(b)
Hierarchy of needs
(Maslow)
(c)
Hierarchy of moral orientations
(Kohlberg)
Higher levels of awareness and func-
tioning, metaprograms, transcendence
of time and space, aesthetic and
creative sense, supra-mental function-
ing astral levels, contact with 5. Self-actualization
spiritual entities, etc.
4. Esteem
Normal levels of waking awareness and
ego functioning
3. Belongingness and
love
2. Safety
Subconscious awareness, id functioning, 1. Physiological
semantic and cultural determinism;
psychosomatic process; genetic
inheritance
6. Universal ethical principle
5. Social contact/shared under-
standings
4. Authoritarian law and order/doing
duty
3. Other-directed-conformist
2. Instrumental relativist
1. Obedience and fear of punishment
Q
~
;z
C1q
;;.
C1q
~
~
~
~
~
;z
The Feasibility of an Evolutionary Image of Man 129
human biocomputer are such processes as genetic inheritance; in-
stinctual, endocrine, and autonomic processes; semantic and cultural
determinism-all of which we have some degree of subconscious
awareness of; and as the experience of yoga, hypnosis, and biofeedback
training suggests, all of which we can to some extent reprogram. At a
higher level, that of normal waking awareness, the executive function
of the human biocomputer manifests awareness of the self (cogito, ergo
sum); and as part of that self-awareness, believes that it is constantly
capable of choice and of reprogramming itself, i.e. that it has freedom.
Just how much freedom of choice exists at this level is somewhat
problematical, however, for as Lilly (1972) has pointed out, there are
still higher level metaprograms to which the human biocomputer is
subject.
If such metaprograms (the basic beliefs; images of self, others, and
the universe; influence from subconscious and the superconscious
aspects of self) determine the criteria for choice, then there is in fact
very little true freedom of choice unless access to these levels can be
obtained. We have only the most rudimentary maps for these aspects of
the self, but they must be incorporated into any image of humankind
adequate for the future. To the extent that a linear dimension of lower
and higher is valid, however (and we will later discuss limitations of this
approach), it would seem that it is the lower quasi-conscious or un-
conscious aspects of man that are operative through the functioning of
instinctual energies (Freud) and operant conditioning (Skinner); and
conversely, the higher levels are those to which esoteric wisdom refers
and from which the intuitive sources of creativity most likely stem. The
Italian psychiatrist Roberto Assagioli has formulated a map
(reproduced here as Fig. 10) that depicts these various domains of
consciousness in a useful way.
The Gradient of Human Needs. Maslow (1962) described a gradient that
parallels the above as being manifest by persons with different levels of
need-fulfillment. He noted that persons who have adequately fulfilled
their basic physical and emotional needs act from a very different type
of motivation than do those who have not. Very simply stated,
"deficiency needs" are those which, if not fulfilled, will eventually lead
to illness or to death. Their non-fulfillment causes the deprived person
to act at lower levels of functioning, as we have portrayed on Table
6 (b). Growth/being/wisdom needs, on the other hand, are the needs
whose fulfillment provides a sense of meaning for existence, aesthetic
or spiritual delight; non-fulfillment brings, not illness, but rather a
sense of boredom or apathy (assuming that the deficiency needs are
130

'"'-
/
I -,
I \
/ i \ 7
/
I 3
I \

I
...... +-,
/ I , 2 I
7 I I 4 I \
\ 2
5
;' I
\
-, /
.... _...... I
,----------1
\ I / 7
\ /
" /
"'-_/
I. The lower unconscious
2. The middle unconscious
3. The higher unconscious or superconscious
4 The field of consciousness
5 The conscious self or "I"
6 The higher self
7 The collective unconscious
Fig. 10. Various aspects of consciousness/function in the personality. Source: Assagioli
(1965). Assagioli presents a great deal more background, reservations, and qualifications
with regard to this type of conception than can be presented in this report.
adequately met). * It was Maslow's hypothesis that most people move
sequentially through a "hierarchy of needs." Such movement likely
occurs in two rather different modes. As Maslow emphasized, it can
occur quite spontaneously-as one modal need type is adequately
fulfilled, there is a natural tendency to grow and seek further. On the
other hand, as noted by Clare Graves (another theorist who has
developed the needs hierarchy theme), it can also occur or be stimu-
lated in crises-as one modal behavior style becomes dysfunctional
there is a tendency to seek another level of need fulfillment.
The Gradient of Human Morality. Still another similar gradient series,
this time having to do with ascending degrees of moral thinking and
acting, has been derived by Kohlberg (1969). In both cross-cultural and
domestic studies, Kohlberg found that the dominant form of morality
tends, over time, to follow a definite, hierarchical progression. This is
true both of whole cultures and of the individual within the culture
(until he reaches or surpasses the dominant form in his culture). Like
the hierarchy of needs, these stages also form a gradient, as depicted in
"It is important to note that boredom and apathy (if not viewed from a dualistic
mind-body bias) does lead to illness, non-productivity, and death in terms of the holistic
concepts this paper is espousing. "-Stanley Krippner
PRECONVENTIONAL I.EVEL
At this lr-ve l the child is rt'sponsive
to such rules and labels as good or
bad and right or wrong. He interprets
these labels in purdy physical or
hedonistic terms: If he is had, he is
punished; if he is good, he is re-
warded. He also interprets the labels
in terms of the physical power of
those who enunciate them-parents,
teachers and other adults. The level
comprises the following two stages:
Stage 1: punishment and obedi-
ence orientation. The physical con-
sequences of action determine its
goodness or badness regardless of the
human meaning or value of these con-
sequences. Avoidance of punishment
and unljuestioning deference to
power are valued in their own right,
not in terms of respect for an under-
lying moral order supported by pun-
ishment and authority, the latter
hein!!: stagl' 4.
Stage 2: instrumentul relativist or-
ientation. Right action consists of that
which instrumentally satisfies one's
own Ill'('cls und occasionally thr-
)1('(II.s (If otilt'rs. H'II11,all rtlations art
vi .. w .. rl III tenllS s i nn l.rr 10 those- of
th(' marke-tplace. Ell'ul('uts of lilir-
ness, of reciprocity and e-qual sharing
are present, hut they are always in-
terpreted in a pragmatic way. Reci-
procity is a matter of "you scratch my
hack aud I'll scrall'h yours," not of
loyalty, !!:ratitude or j1lostice.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
At this level maintaining the expec-
tations of the individual's family.
group or nation is perceived as valu-
ahle in its own right, regardless of
immediate and obvious conse-
'I II 'I1C('S. The aitlJ(l,. is one Ilot only
of conformity to the social order but
of loyalty to it, of actively maintain-
ing, supporting and justifying the
order, and of tdentifying with the per-
sons or group involved in it. This
level comprises the following two
stages:
Stage 3: interpersonal concordance
or "good hoy-nice girl" orienta/ion.
Good behavior is that which pleases
or helps others and is approved hy
them. There is much conformity to
stereotypical images of what is major-
ity or "natural" behavior. Behavior is
frequently judged by intention: "He
means well" becomes important, and
one earns approval by "being nice."
Stage 4: "law and order" orienta-
tion. Authority, fixed rules and the
maintenance of the social order are
valued. Right behavior consists of do-
ing one's duty, showing respect for
authority and maintaining the social
order for its own sake.
POSTCONVENTlONAL LEVEL
At this le-vel there is a clr-ar eflint
to n-ach a personal ckfluilion of moral
values-to de-fine principles that
have val'idity and application apart
from the authority of groups or per-
sons and apart from the individual's
own identification with these groups.
This h-vel again has two stages:
Stage 5: social-co ntract legalistic
orientation. Generally, this stage has
utilitarian overtones. Right action
tends to be defined in terms of gen-
eral individual rights and in terms of
standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the
whole society. T h e r ~ is a clear aware-
ness nf the importance of personal
values and opinions and a corres-
ponding emphasis on procedural
rules for reaching consensus. Other
than that which is constitutionally
and democratically agreed upon,
right is a matter of personal values
and opinion. The result is an empha-
sis both upon the "legal point of
view" and upon the possihility of
making rational and socially desirable
changes in the law, rather than freez-
ing it as in ~ h e "law and order" stage
4. Outside the legal realm, lree agree-
ment is the hinding element of ohli-
gation. This is the "official" morality
of the U.S. government and the Con-
stitution.
Stage 6: unioersul ethical-nrtncip!e
uriC'lItation. Right is defined by the
conscience in uccorcl with self-ehosen
ethical principles, which in turn are
basl'd on logical "olllprehensiveness,
universality and consistency. These
principles are abstract and ethical
(the golden rule, the categorical im-
perative); they are not concrete moral
rilles like the Ten Commandments.
At heart, these are universal princi-
ples of justice, of the reciprocity and
equality of human rights, and of re-
spect for the dignity of human beings
as individual persons.
Fig. 11. Stages of moral development. (Source: Kohlberg and Whitten (1972). Reprinted
by special permission from Learning, The Magazine for Creative Teaching, December 1972.
1?72 by Education Today Company Inc., 530 University Avenue, Palo Alto, Cali-
forma.)
131
132
Table 6 (c). (Descriptions of each of the stages are given in Fig. 11.)*
Hampden-Turner (1971) has suggested that each of the dominant
social sciences has a "hidden morality" that can be located in one of
Kohlberg's categories, and that although most social sciences claim to
eschew metaphysics, they make unverifiable moral assumptions that
significantly affect their choice of methodology and criteria of valida-
tion. Hampden-Turner concludes that only those social sciences that
are consistent with Kohlberg's stage 6 have the demonstrated capacity
to move from paradigm to paradigm (stressing congruence between
and reconcilability of perspectives) despite dialectical tension.
The Relevance of a Gradient of Awareness for an Adequate Image. What is
the common characteristic of the various gradients we have reviewed?
Recalling the operational definition of consciousness (the organization
of the biosystem; with awareness as the psychological equivalent or
complementary aspect of that organization), it seems reasonable to cast
the image of ascending stages of evolution in terms of a gradient of
awareness. As we come to higher stages of evolution, the attribute of
consciousness comes to the fore. By this we mean the discovery of
relationships and the making of choices-both individually and collec-
tively-on the basis of understanding, appreciation, and judgement;
and being influenced by a relevant context with its past, present, and
future rather than being determined by instinct, habit, or some
authority from another time and place. In this sense we speak of the'
evolution of consciousness manifest in hierarchical restructuring of our
conceptions; and the derivative systems of thought, institutions, etc.,
through which we achieve coherent integration at higher orders of
differentiation and complexity.
We have only briefly sketched some of the thinking that leads to this
conception. Other contributions which are in keeping with an ascend-
ing gradient of awareness in evolution we have postulated: "this
worldly" (e.g. D. Campbell, 1966; Polanyi, 1966; Weiss, 1969; Land,
1973), "other worldly" (e.g. Cummins, 1952), and "trans worldly" (e.g.
Hubbard, 1951; Aurobindo, 1963). (Land's book Grow or Die: The
Unifying Principle of Transformation (1973), especially Chapter 10,
elaborates this theme in more detail than we can do here.) Again,
however, we are not here concerned whether these ways of thinking
are right or wrong as judged by the methods of anyone particular
knowledge paradigm, but rather whether (1) they give us a vision of
potential growth and further evolution beyond where we are now-a
"To these dimensions, you might add Rollo May's five descending levels of power and
five ascending kinds of power (Power and Innocence, Norton, 1972)."-Michael Marien
vision that accepts where (both as individuals and as a species) we are
now, seeing ourselves now as being more highly evolved (in some ways,
less in others) than was earlier nian, and less highly evolved than we
hope future man will be; and (2) they lay the conceptual beginnings of
a general systems framework in which an integration of the various
fragmented images of man-each of which can come to be seen as
haying a restricted validity-becomes possible. At this state of know-
ledge, then, we view the gradient of awareness more as useful
metaphor than as proven theory. Indeed, as the review of limitations of
sciences presented in Chapter 4 makes clear, it is likely not
possible to prove whether or not such a view is valid. Rather we will
have to estimate what results might flow from translating this-as
opposed to some other image of humankind-into concrete policies for
the resolution of societal problems and the fuller realization of the
human potentialities. We attempt such an estimate in Chapter 8.
The Self
A second key element in our attempt to discover a more adequate,
integrative image of man-in-the-universe concerns imagery regarding
the nature of the self. In our culture, the dominant image which the
person holds of himself is that of a separate and independent entity, as
denoted by the very term "self"-defined by Webster's as "the person-
having its own or a single nature or character." But even a cursory
examination of the known facts of existence indicates that this is an
unduly limited view, as explained below.
Transpersonal and Personal Imagery. The most basic aspects of our being
which we have portrayed as being at the lower level (the machine lan-
guage aspects of the human biocomputer) we share in common with all
other persons. Indeed, because of this commonality, one suspects that
it is only this level which is usually comprehended in the phrase "the
nature of man." The next stage in developing an integrative image
of humankind is explored in Fig. 12, which shows these aspects as being
transpersonal rather than idiosyncratic to each person. jung's phrase
"the collective unconscious" seems particularly appropriate for this level.
Coming up the gradient of awareness we observe the egoic and
sensory level, where there is a valid perception of separateness between
persons. The behaviors that are unique to this level, such as our use of
sensory channels to communicate with other humans across the spatial
distance that separates us, are typically perceived as manifesting
freedom in the sense of their being freely chosen behavior under the
unique control of each person as a separate entity.
134
<:0
I
"Higher"
transpersonal
region
Personal
region
....
c
.!!!
"0
o
t5
"Lower"
transpersonoI
region
I
To the beginnings \
of evolution {TranSpersona.1 region o. f
shared unconscious (e.g
racial memones,cultural
md genetic inheritance)
Fig. 12. A metaphorical image of the personal and transpersonal aspects of consciousness.
But coming still further up our gradient of so-called awareness we
find-if the reports of yogis (Patanjali, Prabhavananda, and Isherwood,
1953), mystics (Reinhold, 1944), and some recent laboratory evidence
(Tart, 1969; Backster, 1972) are to be believed-that things once again
become transpersonal in nature. Perceptions become intuitive and
"quasi-sensory" (to use the term coined by McBain, 1970), rather than
stemming from the usual senses. And typically as higher levels are
reached, subjective experiences of mind-sharing are often reported, as
are experiences of a disconnectedness or transcendence from the usual
constraints of time and space (see, for example, Tart, 1969, 1970).
Indeed, it is likely that only when we are able to expand our scientific
image of man to include phenomena at this level will we be able to
develop adequate theories to account for the various psychic
phenomena reviewed in Chapter 4.
The schematicized integrative image of the person shown on Fig. 9 is
therefore cast in the shape of the hour glass, or cone, thus connoting
the ways in which one's nature is properly seen as transpersonal at the
lower and upper reaches of existence and personal or unique in
Evolutionary Image of Man 135
between. More speculatively (but based on anecdotal reports from
various researchers in the phenomenology of consciousness) we might
add the symbol of infinity for the uppermost reaches of the map, and
the phrase "to the beginnings of evolution" for the lowermost: if the
ancedotal reports are to be believed, infinity and the "beginnings of
evolution" can be subjectively experienced, and when experienced,
tend to merge. F. W. H. Myers has formulated a different but similar
conception, shown below in Fig'. 13.
Subsystem, System, and Supersystem Imagery. The ways in which a person
is a separate and distinct system are but a small part of the ways in
which he incorporates lower-level (sub) systems, and in which he is
part of higher-order (super) systems. Displaying both the independent
properties of wholes, and the dependent properties of parts, the
person is a "holon." Other dimensions could be added as well, but as
Fig. 14 shows, we now have the conceptual basis for a multi-dimen-
sional systems-oriented image of person-in-the-universe that is indeed
integrative in the ways desired.
Before completing this image, we might pause to ask the important
question: If the experience of individuality is but a small slit in all there
is to the totality of our existence, where is the essence of the human
person, the being (as opposed to the class) to be found? Echoing Koestler
(1967), where is the "ghost in the machine;" It is here that the image of
humankind espoused in the Perennial Philosophy probably provides the
best single answer:
The atma, the Self, is never born and never dies. It is without a cause and is
eternally changeless. It is beyond time, unborn, permanent, and eternal. It does not
die when the body dies. Concealed in the heart of all beings lies the atma, the Spirit,
the Self; smaller than the smallest atom, greater than the greatest spaces.
(The Upanishads, WOO B.C.)
\
Group ==
== mind ==
/
Fig. 13. A personal-transpersonal mind/body model. Source: F. W. H. Myers, in Johnson
(1957).
I
I
I
I Gradient of aggregation
I
I
--- --r----+----+------
I
I I
I I I
" ctorns.rrucrobes.cells. organs, body,fdmlly, group, nation, planet,
I I
Transpersonal I Personal I Transpersonal
Fig. 14. Two of "N" possible dimensions of an integrative image of the person.
Finally then, to represent this self that is (in terms of space and time)
a "not-thing," we complete the pictorial version of our proposed
composite image of humankind by adding the center as in Fig. 15. It
might be represented by another shape (e.g. as in Assagioli's model
shown earlier), but the tubular shape is often reported as the "feel" of
those who experience meditation, and we agree in principle with
Wilson (in press) that any adequate image will not be constructed, but
rather seen through experience.
Man as Process. If the vision of the Perennial Philosophy is at all valid,
this Center is the only truly static image. All of the other images of the
human which depict how the self manifests are but temporary, ever-
/
I
I
I
I
I
I
\ I I /
-t------+-
I I I I
I I
I I I I
I I
I I I I
I I
: 1=1 :
I I I I
I I
I I I I
--t----l-
I I I \
" I I \
I I I \
I I \
I \
I
I
I
/
,
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
I I
=1
1
I
___ ~ __ J_
1
1
1
I
=1
I
I
I
------ _ I _ ~ -
I
1 I
I I
I I
I I
,COl
I !
I I
I I
Fig. 15. Transcendent-immanent aspects added to the personal-transpersonal aspects of
an integrative image of the person.
137
changing attributes of that self. As Norbert Wiener (1954) observed:
We are not stuff that abides, but patterns that perpetuate themselves; whirlpools of
water in an ever-flowing river.
How can the vision of the static self "hidden in all things" be usefully
reconciled with the many visions of the quasi-static-but it) reality,
changing-visions of the visible self that we call a person? If the
collective wisdom of the myths of various cultures is to be trusted, the
way of reconciliation is illuminated by the Image of the Center (Eliade,
1952). The idea of "moving from where we are not to where we most
truly are" (William James) is well expressed in a now archaic meaning
of the word "weird" (Anglo-Saxon wyrd), which is a word related to the
German werden, "to become." Standing in direct contrast to the Indian
notion of dharma or the current Western notions of socialization or
conditioning (both of which see the individual as necessarily subject to
the law imposed by society), weird is an unfolding from within of what
is potential. (Note that this is also the essential meaning of the root
word educere, "to bring forth, as something latent," from which our
word educate derives.) In this image of reality-as with Eliot's (1935)
"still point of the turning world.... Where past and future are
gathered"-the metaphysical ground of the person and what has
brought him forth are one and the same. To realize this Center of
Images of man
Divine self
Many-leveled self
(astral, etc.)
Existentiotly- free man
Absurd man
Condi tione d man
Economic man
Animal-bestial man;
Irrnulsive -IrratIOnal
man
Repressed man
Dreaming man
00
I I ~ p ~ k e s m e n
I I I
I The Vedas .Peremio! ptulo soohy.etc.
\ I: /
\ I I I
\ I Rocicrucicns.Theosophv, etc
\ I I I
--l--t-+--'
I I I :
i I Humanists, NeoFreudians
I I Sor t non existent.ousts
I I I I
I I I I
I I Freud, Watson, Skinner
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
: I I I
: I Fr1eud" Lorenz, Ardrey. etc.
-t--I--i--
I
I I Freud \
I I, \
I I I \
I IJung \
I I \
I I \
Fig. 16. Composite metaphor of an integrative, evolutionary image of the person for the
future.
Ol M - K
one's being is said to provide conceptual release from the tyranny of
such polarities as creator and creature, good and evil, I and Thou, and
freedom and determinism.
But as all outward manifestations (or partial images) partake equally
of this Center (as Fig. 16 depicts), we find that we now have the
conceptual framework for an image of humankind which, as we shall
see, comes very close to satisfying the characteristics we earlier pos-
tulated. '*'
Examining the New Image for Conceptual Feasibility
If one agrees that the thrust of evolution seems to be toward greater
"consciousness" (i.e. increasing organization of the bio-system, with
"awareness" as the psychological equivalent or complementary aspect
of that organization), the above framework provides the needed im-
agery for evolutionary growth, direction, and a holistic sense of mean-
ing of life. It gives an open-ended and experimental sense of some-
thing to grow toward (both personally and culturally). Pursuit of higher
states of awareness; increasing ability to integrate knowledge and to
coordinate and balance the relative needs of the subsystem/sys-
tem/supersystem relationships; and exploration of personal, inter-
personal, and transpersonal aspects of existence-each of these con-
tributes to the emergence of an "ecological ethic" and a "self-realiza-
tion ethic"; to coordinated "satisficing"; and to goals of "ephe-
meralization" that are consistent with limits to growth of materialism.
(The term "thrust" has been chosen to describe this progress toward
greater complexity and consciousness, not to denote the goal of evolu-
tion, but rather the path it seems to take. Goal is a term which is
associated with the conceptual paradigm of linear causality; it is this
paradigm that somehow must be transcended, if only in part. It is for
this reason also that we have singled out Dunn's term "process
teleology," because it explicitly avoids the difficulties of the older
concepts of vitalism and teleologv.r)
'" See Note A, p. 160.
t "This is good, but instead of a linear hierarchy (instead of envisioning the system in
terms of our old way of looking at things) how about something on the order of a
circular model (uruborus like)-where the dreaming man of Jung would be circulatory,
cyclicly linked to the superconscious man, in a visual system that implies ongoing
progress?"-Stanley Krippner
"I find this model most interesting, especially the way it incorporates the 'absolutes' of
existence at both of its extremes.... A good starting point for further work." [Para-
phrased from]-Margaret Mead
To illustrate how the holistic image portrayed by this framework
could adequately incorporate and reconcile the more specialized im-
ages of humankind at various levels of development, some additional
discussion is necessary.
We postulate that each of the various specialized images presented in
Chapter 2 and displayed in Figs. 9 and 16 is appropriate to a given
context or situation that has repeatedly been in human experience-
which is why they exist in the image repertory of our various cultures.
We further observe that to the extent which the person cannot manifest
in an appropriate situation any of the various "ways of being" con-
noted by the gradient of awareness, to that extent the person is
deficient in ways that limit his flexibility in dealing with a changing
environment-hence limit the survival potential of the race. The ability
to fight effectively (physically or psychologically) when one's survival
(physical or mental) is threatened; the ability to experience aesthetic
pleasure, to marvel at the mystery of existence, and to transcend one's
individuality in a direct sense of participation in that mystery when
appropriate-each of these is a part of the human experience through
which each of us should be able to flow in and out as fitting. The point
is not that one should necessarily fight, cooperate, or meditate in any or
in all circumstances (nor should one necessarily impugn others for so
doing), but rather that one should be able to do (and accept others
doing) any of these things when they fit. All partake of the Center.
Needless to say, trade-offs are involved and coordination of different
behaviors is required. As Jonas Salk (1973) has observed:
The conflict in the human realm is now between "self-expression" and "self-restraint"
within the individual, as the effect of cultural evolutionary processes has reduced
external restraint upon the individual."
While easy mobility across the various levels portrayed by the
gradient of awareness is clearly in the interests of the survival of the
human race and of the fulfillment of each individual's potentialities,
such freedom needs to be exercised by the restraint that can derive in
our era only from a holistic perspective of life, growth, and evolution.
For these reasons we emphasize the need for development of im-
agery of person-as-(in)-process; for a vision of growth not as in getting
above persons at one level after another (as some occultists are wont to
do), but rather in the expansion of awareness in both more and less
"A reduction of external restraint upon the individual? Tell it to Amalrik, Sol-
zhenitsyn, and Sakharov. For that matter, I would like to see the evidence for such a
trend in this country."-Michael Marien
140
inclusive directions; in the gaining of choices of appropriate behaviors
that partake of all levels but are coordinated by the more inclusive
ones; and in learning to dissolve fixations at any given level, hence
being more able continuously to flow from a predominant orientation
at one level to one at another, according to the needs of the environ-
ment and in appropriately coordinated growth.
It is primarily in the above sense that we believe that a holistic image
such as the framework depicts could adequately integrate the various
aspects and past images of humankind without blurring or invalidating
their uniqueness; for only in this way will we have an ontological basis
for tolerance of difference and change.
There are some difficulties with the framework as presented above.
The main one is that it is-in keeping with the dominant conceptual
paradigm of Western culture-essentially hierarchical in nature. Thus
not only is the conception somewhat culture-bound; it does not easily
integrate newly emerging mutual-causal thoughts in science. Other
cultures have dominant conceptual paradigms that are essentially non-
hierarchical and are more mutualistic as regards knowledge, ecology,
and human development. '*' As the anthropologist Maruyama has poin-
ted out (1960, 1963, 1967, 1973) many functions of concern to a society
are more usefully fulfilled by non-hierarchically structured paradigms.
But Maruyama also notes that when a hierarchical/self-righteous and a
mutualistic/symbiotic paradigm have come into intercultural contact,
the self-righteous paradigm has an almost irresistible tendency to run
over the mutualistic one.
A somewhat different but related problem arises in connection with
the exclusivist interpretation the Judeo-Christian tradition has put on
transcendental images of man. There appears to be a basic contradic-
tion contained in this tradition between the exclusivist (as in "no man
cometh to the Father but through me") and the universalist (God as
omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent, therefore all that is, is God).
The exclusivist is the tendency that has captured the popular im-
agination in the mainstream religious traditions of our culture. But this
turns out to be not so much one side of a contradiction as one arm of a
dialectic, one element of a paradox.
Better understood, these difficulties turn out to be based in misunder-
standings (which is not to say that they will not be very real difficulties
in a communication or political sense). They arise from having to use
"I fail to see how any non-hierarchical system of thought and organization can provide
the needed coordination across different levels of aggregation. What is necessary, is
that the coordination be from the 'inside out' as it were, and not from the top down, as
the hierarchical notion is so often interpreted."-[Paraphrased from] Edgar Dunn, Jr.
141
traditional language to express what are essentially non-traditional,
"non-paradigm" concepts.
Thus we have used words such as "gradient," "thrust," and
"hierarchy" when describing the evolutionary trend toward greater
complexity and consciousness. We have used diagrams and tables
which may seem to imply progression from "primitive" to "sophisti-
cated," or "lower" to "higher." This may seem to imply an elitist view
of human evolution. It might have been helpful to adopt a circular
model in which, for example, the dreaming man of Jung would be
cyclicly linked to the superconscious man in a visional system that
implied on-going process. But substituting one metaphor or visual
image for another simply seemed to change the nature of the difficulty.
The problem appears to be primarily that reality is so much richer,
so much more multidimensional than any metaphor, that all maps of
reality lead to difficulties if they are mistakenly assumed to be literally
true. Thus reality is hierarchical in one sense and not in another, and
man is separate, seeking self-fulfillment and yet part of a unity in a
sense that makes self-fulfillment illusory. The "higher" forms of con-
sciousness may be similar to the psychic abilities of "lower" forms of
life (for example, household pets, dolphins, plants) in a way that makes
the latter as "sophisticated" as the highest transcendental charac-
teristics evolving in the human species.
Thus it would appear that an emergent world-wide image of
humankind, satisfying the conditions identified in Chapter 5, is concep-
tually feasible, providing we remain clear that it is an image, or a set of
metaphors, and that its real function is to lead toward the direct
experiencing of what it can only incompletely and inadequately
express.
OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY OF A NEW IMAGE OF MAN
We want now to examine the conditions under which such a new
image of man might emerge to a commanding position in the society.
One condition, inherent in the fundamental characteristics of Chapter
5, is that it probably cannot be engineered or manipulated into such a
position. Safer, at any rate, is a process whereby the new image is
fostered by some and resisted by others, such that the principles of
checks and balances, and of creative synthesis of differences, are
allowed to operate.
Essentially, we shall:
1. review the process through which both cultures and persons
appear to evolve in response to crisis;
142
2. draw inferences as to how transformational discovery and the
emergence of a new image of man can appropriately or in-
appropriately be fostered;
3. consider various indications that personal and institutional trans-
formation, and the emergence of moral paradigms, are feasible
without being caused to happen.
Evolutionary Transformation in Response to Crisis
It seems clear that today we are living in an ecological system in
which higher-order systems coordinate the interactions of lower-order
subsystems, an ecology in which there is an increasing ability of higher
organisms to make symbolic maps of reality, to test and to improve
those maps. Thus, in the evolutionary battle for survival, it may be
possible "for our ideas to die in our stead" (Popper). In the evolution
from phylogenesis (natural selection through mutation and genetic
recombination) through ontogenesis (the ability of a highly developed
organism to "reprogram" itself within limits and modify its behavior to
suit environmental changes) to sociogenesis (the accumulation of
acquired behavior through symbolic communication), the trend that
stands out is the power and utility of consciousness. This manifests
itself as the ability to map the various dimensions of existence, both
physical and symbolic, and to use those maps for "behavior directed to
changing behavior" (Dunn, 1972).
A crisis is often the catalyst for the redrawing of one's preferred
"map." Inasmuch as this is precisely the direction in which our culture
appears to be heading, it is useful to review the processes of crisis-
oriented transformation in other cultures, in science, in mythology, in
persons. All these may contain insights that could prove applicable to
the resolution of our difficulties.
Cultural Transformations
What happens when, because of environmental changes, military
defeat, or intercultural invasion (e.g. by a new technology), a culture no
longer adequately serves its essential functions? If the degree of per-
ceived crisis is not too great, the classic processes of cultural change
(evolution, drift, diffusion, historical change, acculturation) take place;
if, on the other hand, the degree of perceived crisis is acute, cultural
transformation is likely to occur rapidly.
The anthropologist Anthony F. C. Wallace (1956) in a comparative
study of the crisis-motivated type of cultural change derived a series of
idealized stages through which many such transformations-if success-
ful-have passed. Especially relevant for our purposes are Wallace's
findings on how images of the role of self and society have changed in
other societies in response to crisis. He discovered that unlike classic
culture change, the process of revitalization requires explicit intent by
members of the society and often takes place within one generation:
The structure of the revitalization process, in cases where the full course is run,
consists of somewhat overlapping stages: 1. Steady State; 2. Period of Individual
Stress; 3. Period of Cultural Distortion; 4. Period of Revitalization (in which occur
the functions of mazeway reformulation, communication, organization, adaption,
cultural transformation, and routinization); and finally 5. New Steady State. (p. 264)
The key element in the process of transformation is what Wallace
terms the "mazeway," which the following shows is almost synonymous
with our term "image of man-in-the-universe":
It is ... functionally necessary for every person in society to maintain a mental
image of the society and its culture, as well as of his own body and its behavioral
regularities, in order to act in ways which reduce stress at all levels of the system.
The person does, in fact, maintain such an image. This mental image I have called
"the mazeway," since as a model of the cell-body-personality-nature-culture-society
system or field, organized by the individual's own experience, it includes perceptions
of both the maze of physical objects in the environment (internal and external,
human and nonhuman) and also of the ways in which this maze can be manipulated
by the self and others in order to minimize stress. The mazeway is nature, society,
culture, personality, and body image as seen by one person. . .. Changing the
mazeway involves changing the total Gestalt of his image of self, society, and culture,
of nature and body, and of ways of action. It may also be necessary to make changes
in the "real" system in order to bring mazeway and "real" system into congruence.
The effort to work a change in mazeway and "real" system together so as to permit more
effective stress reduction is the effort at revitalization; and the collaboration of a number
of persons in such an effort is called a revitalization movement. (pp. 266 ff. Emphasis
added)
Whether the revitalization movement IS religious or secular, the
reformulation
... seems to depend on a restructuring of elements and subsystems which have
already attained currency in the society and may even be in use .... The occasion of
their combination in a form which constitutes an internally consistent
structure ... and of their acceptance by the prophet as a guide to action, is abrupt
and dramatic, usually occurring as a moment of insight, a brief period of realization of
relationships and opportunities. The reformulation also seems normally to occur in its
initial form in the mind of a single person rather than to grow directly out of group
deliberations. (p. 270. Emphasis added)
After mazeway reformulation come adaption, cultural transfor-
mation, and routinization, during which the idealism of the original
vision is modified in response to cultural feedback; it tends to be
preserved only in those areas where the movement "maintains respon-
sibility for the preservation of doctrine and performance of ritual," in
other words, it becomes a church, whether religious or secular.
Conceptual Revolutions in Science
Studying the history of science, Thomas S. Kuhn recognized a
similar pattern. In his somewhat controversial The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (1962), Kuhn's use of the "knowledge paradigm" and the
cycle through which knowledge paradigms are replaced is almost
analogous to Wallace's use of the term "mazeway." The term know-
ledge paradigm is used to denote
... the collection of ideas within the confines of which scientific inquiry takes place,
the assumed definition of what are legitimate problems and methods, the accepted
practice and point of view with which the student prepared for membership in the
scientific community, the criteria for choosing problems to attack, the rules and
standards of scientific practice. (p. 11)
Such a knowledge paradigm has a well-understood set of exemplars
or precedents that define a field of inquiry, determine the rules that
govern the formulations of new problems, and specify acceptable forms
of solutions. Thus, the paradigm can only exist if there is a shared
commitment to certain beliefs, such as that the molecules of a gas
behave like tiny elastic billiard balls, or that certain kinds of procedures
should be used for experimentation, or that some topics are ap-
propriate for scientific investigation and others not. Its communicants
must also agree on the meaning of symbolic representations, as in
mathematics. Finally, its communicants must share relevant values,
such as the importance of making predictive versus non-predictive
explanations, the appropriateness of imposing social concerns during
problem formulation, and the degree of simplicity demanded in
theories.
Such a knowledge paradigm bears the same relation to the laws and
rules in a field of scientific inquiry as do the myths and rituals in a
pre-scientific society. That is, they are considered by many to be the
fundamental units influencing the scientific research process."
The excitement generated by Kuhn's work rests not so much with his
formulation of the knowledge paradigm, however, as with his potrayal
of the dynamics with which such paradigms are created and replaced.
Rather than aim at novelty, in Kuhn's view normal science attempts to
See Note B, p. 160
145
actualize the promise offered by the existing paradigm. But it results
almost invariably in the exposure of anomalies between expectations
based on the paradigm and fact. Thus, as noted in Chapter 4, as such
anomalies grow more numerous, we see the recurring emergence of
crises and the development of new paradigms which embrace both the
old paradigms and the anomalous data that the old could not deal with
adequately. Kuhn has noted that this transformational process typically
passes through four stages: preparadigm research, normal science,
crisis, and revolution.
Similarities between Scientific and Cultural Revitalization
Seeking as we are useful patterns from history to guide our thinking
for the future, it is interesting to compare Kuhn's and Wallace's
analyses. >II: In normal times (steady state ': : normal science) the func-
tioning of the dominant images and ways of doing (mazeway :: know-
ledge paradigm) are considered adequate. However, when these
become inadequate (individual stress/cultural distortion :: crisis) the
responses are many and varied, but take predictable forms. Some
individuals avoid facing the difficulties (undergo chronic high level
stress :: avoid the anomalies) and assume that a continuation of
ordinary means of problem-solving will suffice; others call for a return
to fundamentals. Expressions of discontent increase, however, and a
"creative minority" (Martin, 1955) turns from searches for incremental
ways of problem-solving to searches for fundamental reconcep-
tualization of the facts. Inevitably the legitimacy of these searches is
difficult to obtain from the established authorities, unless the percep-
tion of crisis becomes widespread.
Although the discovery and application of the new reconceptualization
(revitalization: : revolution) is a complicated process and occurs over an
extended period of time, the moment of discovery of the desired
conceptual reformulation occurs not by deliberation and interpretation,
but by a relatively sudden and unstructured conceptual event like the
Gestalt reversal. Like the charismatic leaders of revitalization movements,
scientists often speak of "scales falling from the eyes" or of a "lightning
flash" that illuminates a previously obscure puzzle, enabling them to
"The use of Anthony Wallace's analysis of cargo cults as a parallel to Kuhn is very bad;
[it is] an undiscriminating use of material."-Margaret Mead
"The citations from my writing on Revitalization Movements in Chapter 6 very well
represented my views."-Anthony F. C. Wallace
"[The] basic concept that we need a new knowledge paradigm, and the use of
Kuhn/Wallace is excellent. "-Elise Boulding
see its components in a new way. Though such intuitions depend on
experience, both anomalous and congruent, gained with the old
paradigm, they are not logically linked to particular items of that
experience as an interpretation would be. Instead, large portions of
that experience are gathered and transformed into a "rather different
bundle of experience" and "thereafter ... linked piecemeal to the new
paradigm but not to the old" (Kuhn, 1962, pp. 122 ff., also cited in
Wirt, Lieberman, and Levien, 1971, p. 55).
A significant difference between the scientific revolutions and the
cultural revitalization movements stems from the fact that scientific
inquiry can incorporate a much wider range of difference than can the
institutions of a culture-although Kuhn observes that established
scientists often find it difficult if not impossible to convert to the newly
emergent paradigm from the one in which they have invested their
professional lives, so that the new paradigm is often fully accepted only
with a new generation of scientists. Wallace observes that the trans-
formation of an entire culture takes place only when and if the purity
of the original vision is adapted (in response to resistance that is
encountered) by "adding to, emphasizing, playing down, and eliminat-
ing selected elements of it" (1956, p. 274).
Other scholars (e.g. Toynbee, 1935; Quigley, 1961; Mumford, 1956)
who have reviewed the rise and transformation (or fall) of civilizations
have deduced similar series of stages that portray what we might call
"the cycle of transformation." Before trying to deduce the implications
of these findings for our own situation, it is useful to consider similar
patterns that can be found in the literature of mythology and of
psychotherapy.
Mythic Transformations
As various scholars have noted (e.g. Boisen, 1962; Erikson, 1958)
often those individuals who bring the new reconceptualizations to
society have had personal problems which were similar in form or
which were significantly related to those of the larger society. In
resolving their own problems they presented visible resolutions to the
problems of their culture, and vice versa. This characteristic of the
hero is in fact so common throughout the transformation myths of
different times and places that Joseph Campbell (1956) has used the
term "the monomyth" to describe it:
The standard path of the mythological adventure of the hero is a magnification of
the formula represented in the rites of passage: separation-initiation-return: which
might be named the nuclear unity of the monomyth.... (p. 30)
The composite hero of the monomyth ... and/or the world in which he finds
himself suffers from a symbolical deficiency. In fairy tales this might be as slight as
the lack of a certain golden ring, whereas in apocalyptic vision the physical and
spiritual life of the whole earth can be represented as fallen, or on the point of
falling, into ruin.
Typically the hero of the fairy tale achieves a domestic microcosmic triumph, and the
hero of myth a world-historical, macrocosmic triumph. Whereas the former-the
youngest or despised child who becomes the master of extraordinary powers-prevails
over his personal oppressors, the latter brings back from his adventure the means for the
regeneration of his society as a whole. (pp. 37 ff.)
The basic pattern is clear:
Whether the hero be ridiculous or sublime, Greek or barbarian, Gentile or Jew, his
journey varies little in essential plan. Popular tales represent the heroic action as
physical; the higher religions show the deed to be moral; nevertheless, there will be
found astonishingly little variation in the morphology of the adventure, the charac-
ter roles involved, the victories gained. (p. 38)
Just as the mythological here often suffers from a defect that spurs
him on to action, so many of the great men of history have not been
typically the product of carefree, "well-adjusted" homes (Goertzel and
Goertzel, 1962). Nor do such persons typically adjust in a conformist
fashion to personal and social realities which to them seem filled with
anomalies. Rather, they attempt to resolve the dissonant elements
of their life in creative ways, which is the central goal of psycho-
therapy.
Personal Transformations
Although the literature of psychotherapy is so varied that it is
difficult to make any clean and clear-cut generalizations, a pattern does
emerge from writers who attempt to describe the process of crisis-
motivated personal transformation. From the writings of Boisen
(1936/1962), Martin (1955), Sullivan (1953), Fingarette (1963), and Kan-
tor and Herron (1966) we derive the following series of stages that seem
to typify this process:
1. Adequate mastery of one's life: reliance on defense mechanisms
(e.g. denial, repression, sublimation).
2. Inadequate mastery of one's life: anxiety and disintegration.
3. Looking for causes: blame and guilt.
4. Finding causes: acceptance of responsibility.
5. Looking for new solutions: openness to seeing things anew both in
the inner world and in the outer world.
6. Finding new solutions: insights that reformulate one's existential
conceptions and reintegrate the personality.
7. Applying new solutions: learning new modes of behavior that test
and apply the new perspective with increased mastery of one's
life.
8. New level of adequacy: open-ended growth and learning as nor-
mal behavior.
Although there is insufficient space to discuss these stages here, it is
useful to note their similarity to those in science and myth.
Synthesis and Inference
We now draw the various observations of personal, scientific, and
cultural transformation together in order to draw any inferences that
might increase the operational feasibility of a new, more adequate
image of humankind. Table 7 summarizes the idealized stages of the
"cycle of transformation" that has been formulated by different
scholars. * Although numerous examples of creativity can be found
which do not fit this cycle of transformation, the overall pattern seems
typical of the crisis-motivated transformations that have occurred
repeatedly in a wide variety of settings in place and time.
In the general creativity literature the common elements to this cycle
have been termed preparation, incubation, illumination, and
verification (G. Wallace, 1926).
First comes the testing of conventional approaches and finding them
wanting ("preparation").
The next step ("incubation") often necessitates making what P. W.
Martin (1955) has termed "the experiment in depth," the deliberate
setting aside of assumptions that are conventionally made about reality,
and engaging in techniques or activities that open up one's self to more
primal and direct perceptions of reality which are less strongly filtered by
convention. As these sources of creativity are not yet generally under-
stood, access to them is for most persons a rather random and un-
controlled process. Hence the term "incubation," which suggests the
"It should be pointed out that A. F. C. Wallace's theorizing is not conceptually
independent of the psychotherapeutic schools of thought. Being an anthropologist of
the 'culture and personality' emphasis, Wallace was very much influenced by psy-
choanalytic thought. Also it should not be thought that his work tells how crisis-
oriented cultural change actually takes place; rather his work is an abstract construction
of this process. Also his work was not based on his own field studies, but rather on
literature sources. If it had been based on field studies, it is quite possible that his
conclusions (especially about the charismatic leader) would have been very
different. "-Luther Gerlach
Table 7
STAGES OF CRISIS RESOLUTION IN MYTH, CULTURE, SCIENCE, PSYCHOTHERAPY, AND ESSEN-
TIAL CREATIVITY
Monomyth
(1. Campbell)
1. Separation
2. Initiation
3. Return
Cultural revitalization
(A. Wallace)
1. Steady state
2. Period of individ-
ual stress
3. Period of cul-
tural distortion
4. Period of revital-
ization
- reformulation
- communication
- organization
- adaption
- cultural trans-
formation
- routinization
5. New steady state
Scientific resolution
(T. Kuhn)
1. Normal science
2. Growth of anom-
alies
3. Crisis
4. Revolution
5. Normal science
in new paradigm
Psychotherapy
(0. Markley)
1. Normal defence
mechanisms
2. Anxiety and dis-
integration
3. Blame and guilt
4. Acceptance of
res ponsibility
5. Looking for new
solutions
6. Insight/reformu-
lation/reinte-
gration
7. Testing and ap-
plication
8. Open-ended
change and growth
as "normal"
General creativity
(G. Wallace)
1. Preparation
2. Incubation
3. Illumination
4. Verification
~
~
~
~
t.o>
~
~
..a,
~
~
~
c
a
....
c
~
~
~
~
~
~
..a,
~
~
......
~
(.0
150
cessation of deliberate attempts to force insight. *' Two quotations describe
the process:
"Cease striving; then there will be self-transformation."
(Chuang-Tse, Book XI)
"Whosoever shall seek to gain his life shall lose it; but whosoever shall lose his life shall
preserve it."
(Luke 17: 33)
The moment of insight (illumination), as we observed in connection
with the cultural revitalization movements and creation of scientific
paradigms, occurs with vivid clarity and suddenness, is abrupt and
dramatic, "a brief period of realization of relationships" (A. Wallace,
1956, p. 270) that "inundates a previously obscure puzzle, enabling its
components to be seen in a new way for the first time" (Kuhn, 1962,
pp. 122 ff.). Thus, the moment of sudden insight seems to be an
element common to radical discovery and transformation-both mythic
and scientific. We might well apply to this type of reconceptualization
of the Greek word for religious conversion, metanoia, that is, a fun-
damental transformation of mind (Pearce, 1971).
Finally there is the task of validating the knowledge (verification) and
bringing it to fruition for self and society.
Such processes of discovery may be termed heroic not so much
because they parallel the classic stages of separation, initiation, and
return of the hero in the monomyth, but because they require in-
ordinate courage in the face of fear. They involve not only the
possibilities of failure, but require confronting the truly unknown; and
confronting as well the sure knowledge that successful discovery will
inevitably upset the established patterns of one's existence. It will likely
mean drastic personal and psychic change. In this connection, Abraham
Maslow (1962) has written eloquently about "the need to know and the
fear of knowing."
What does all of this mean for our society today? Are we to conclude
that the answer to our problems is to be found in the chance occur-
rence of a revelation or intuitive breakthrough by one or a few
individuals who will then become the charismatic leaders of a true-
believer revitalization movement? Such an occurrence is not at all
unlikely if other approaches have not been developed before the prob-
lems of our late industrial era reach truly crisis proportions, and it
"[Regarding the] operational feasibility of transformation, Reza Arasteh's work should
be included. Like Chuang-Tse, he calls for an 'existential moratorium' so that society
can reintegrate at a higher level. Dabrowski also calls for what he calls 'positive
disintegration' so that a higher level individual integration may take place."-Robert A.
Smith, III.
would undoubtedly result in a high degree of disruption and chaos
throughout society. But other approaches are possible.
We now know something about the nature of the creative person.
For example, a study of research observations that were made during
the process of scientific discovery found that scientists considered to be
unusually creative in productive ways are:
(1) of superior measured intelligence; (2) exceptionally independent in judgment
and resistant to group-endorsed opinions; (3) marked by a strong need for order
and for perceptual closure, combined with a resistance to premature closure and an
interest in what may appear as disorder, contradiction, imbalance, or very complex
balance whose ordering principle is not immediately apparent; (4) unusually ap-
preciative of the intuitive and non-rational elements in their own nature; (5)
distinguished by their profound commitment to the search for esthetic and philoso-
phical meaning in all experience.
(Barron, 1969, p. 102)
Additionally, it now appears possible to combine the insights of
science, art, and religion so as systematically to reduce the fear of (yet)
unknown discovery and to foster the abilities of normal persons to
discover and apply more of their creative potential. Such approaches as
Synectics (Gordon, 1961), group dynamics (Bradford, Gibb, and Benne,
1964), Psychosynthesis (Assagioli, 1965), Scientology (Hubbard, 1954),
psychedelic drugs (Masters and Houston, 1966; -Aaronson and
Osmond, 1970), integral yoga (Chaudhuri, 1965), self-hypnosis (Kripp-
ner, 1969), biofeedback training (Rervik, 1973), small conferencing
(Mead and Byers, 1968), imagistic thinking (Krippner, 1967), specific
educational programs (Barron, 1969), and others (Peterson, 1971) typify
the diversity of ways in which one or a group of individuals, with an
appropriate "set and setting.':" can be helped to make the type of
conceptual breakthroughs here being discussed. If the emerging
"science of consciousness" discussed in Chapter 4 is turned toward
these ends, it seems obvious that even more effective approaches would
result.]
"Set" refers to the expectations of the participant and "setting" to the physical,
psychological, and spiritual context in which a given growth or therapeutic process is
experienced. These two variables have been found to significantly affect the outcomes
of creative processes. See Sherwood, J. N. et al., "The psychedelic experience-A new
concept in psychotherapy," Journal of Neuropsychiatry, Vol. 4 (December 1962), pp.
69-80.
t "All of these techniques are aimed at the individual, rather than his social setting. Until
you can make institutions receptive if not promotive (see John Gardner, Self-Renewal-
infinitely better than anything you mention here) to creativity, there will be a dis-
junction between individual and institution, creating greater frustration for the char-
ged-up newly creative with no place to go. Incidentally, I would much prefer that
emphasis be on the broader concept of excellence."-Michael Marien
Note: See also Elise Boulding's compelling statement of "The Spiritual Dimension of the
Human Person" in Appendix A.
We are not simplistically advocating that society needs a great man to
lead us to a new image of the nature of man. It may be that because of
the new approaches for self-exploration, the communication flow
which makes esoteric ideas and processes more available, and the
exchange of shared and vicarious experience, many persons may find
themselves on the path of the adventurer, reflecting first the stress and
problems of the society, then opening themselves to new insights and
direct perceptions of reality which are less strongly filtered by the
current paradigms and myths, and finally emerging to see the world in
new ways.
As Joseph Campbell (1968) has observed:
For even in the sphere of Waking Consciousness, the fixed and the steadfast, there is
nothing now that endures. The known God cannot endure. Whereas formerly, for
generations, life so held to established norms that the lifetime of a deity could be
reckoned in millenia, today all norms are in flux, so that the individual is thrown,
willy-nilly, back upon himself, into the inward sphere of his own becoming, his forest
adventurous without way or path, to come through his own integrity in experience to
his own intelligible Castle of the Grail-integrity and courage in experience, in love,
in loyalty, and in act. And to this end the guiding myths can no longer be of any
ethnic norms. No sooner learned, these are outdated, out of place, washed away.
There are today no mythogenetic zones. Or rather, the mythogenetic zone is the
individual heart. Individualism and spontaneous pluralism-the free association of
men and women of like spirit, under the protection of a secular, rational state with
no pretensions to divinity-are in the modern world the only honest possibilities:
each the creative center of authority for himself, in Cusanus's circle without
circumference whose center is everywhere, and where each is the focus of God's
gaze. (p, 677)
We would thus hope not for a handful, but for a thousand heroes,
ten thousand heroes-who will create a future image of what human-
kind can be.
Institutional and Personal Change
The needed transformation cannot occur without both personal and
institutional change. Institutional change depends on the actions of
individuals, but it is unrealistic to expect personal illumination to
become effective in any widespread way unless our institutions-which
are locked into the mores of industrialism-are suitably modified. How
can we break this cycle?
Imagining Makes It So
As a result of a career in psychotherapy and facilitation of personal
growth, Frederik S. Perls, the originator of Gestalt Therapy, concluded
that "we cannot deliberately bring about changes in ourselves or in
others," that people who try to do so end up typically "dedicating their
lives to actualize a concept of what they should be like, rather than to
actualize themselves. This difference between self-actualizing and self-
image actualizing is very important" (Perls, 1969, p. 19). This is perhaps
the essence of the difference between what Boulding (1964) termed the
"scientific" approach and the "ideological" approach to progress. The
contrast provides a needed precaution to overzealous attempts to
proselytize on behalf of a new image of humankind for our society.
Although Perls' assertion may seem paradoxical to us, caught up as
we are in the rational-manipulative paradigm of industrialism, it is a
view that has been repeated through history. For example, from a
variety of periods and disciplines come the following conclusions:
Every idea which exclusively occupies the mind is transformed into an actual physical
or mental state. (Brooks, 1022, p. 18)
The efforts we make to conquer an idea by exertmg the will only serve to make the
idea more powerful. (Brooks, 1922, p. 19)
So long as the imagination is adverse to the conscious mind, effort of the conscious
will produces a contrary effect. We must think rightly, or rather must imagine
rightly, before we can will rightly. In a word, our formula must not be "who wills
can," but "who imagines can." (Baudouin, 1922, p. 10)
The most significant phenomena of autosuggestion occur in the domain of the
unconscious. (Baudouin, 1922, p. 10)
The basic law of autosuggestion is: Every idea which enters the conscious mind, if it
is accepted bythe Unconscious, is transformed by it into a reality and forms henceforth
a permanent element in our life. (Brooks, 1922, pp. 54-55)
"Merely to be attracted to any set of ... ideas does not bring with it any
realisation.... A mere mental activity will not bring a change of consciousness, it can
only bring a change of mind. And if your mind is sufficiently mobile, it will go on
changing from one thing to another till the end without arriving at any sure way or
any spiritual harbour. The mind can think and doubt and question and accept and
withdraw its acceptance, make formations and unmake them, pass decisions and
revoke them, judging always on the surface arid by surface indications and therefore
never coming to any deep and firm experience of Truth, but by itself it can do no
more. There are only three ways by which it can make itself a channel or instrument
of Truth. Either it must fall silent in the Self and give room for a wider and greater
consciousness; or it must make itself passive to an inner light and allow that light to
use it as a means of expression; or else it must itself change from the questioning
intellectual superficial mind it now is to an intuitive intelligence, a mind of vision fit
for the direct perception of the divine Truth."-Sri Aurobindo (On Yoga: II, Tome
One, p. 174).
Underneath all the reasoning, inductions, deductions, calculations, demonstrations,
methods, and logical apparatus of every sort, there is something animating them that
is not understood, that is the work of that complex operation, the constructive
imagination. (Ribot, Essay on the Creative Imagination, quoted in Johnson, 1957, p. 38)
[In experiments using altered states of consciousness to increase creativity, we find
that] people get into imagistic thinking. That is, pictorial thinking as opposed to
sequential, verbal thinking. With imagistic thinking, there is a tendency to see whole
constellations of information as a picture, a coded symbol, or a series of flowing
symbolic forms ... such free inter-space exploration was always blocked by religious
dogma on the one hand or by scientific dogma on the other.... Visionary experience
Cf M - L
does tend to be heretical. It is a tuning in on the creative process, and so it will not
obey the laws of any particular religion or political system.... And this imagistic
thinking is often attended by an increase of enthusiasm. (Masters and Houston,
quoted in Avorn, 1973, p. 17)
Man is made by his belief . . . as he believes, so he is. (Bhagavad Gita)
As man thinketh in his heart, so he is. (Proverbs 23: 7 of the Bible)
In order to live wisely, men must have a sense of participation in a uniting purpose
understandable to all, vital enough and noble enough to be the object of a common
sense of dedication. (Andrea, ca. 1700, cited in Hall, 1958, p. 107)
The rise and fall of images of the future precede or accompany the rise and fall of
cultures. (Polak, 1973, p. 19)
If these observations are at all valid (and their validity is essentially
untestable within the presently dominant paradigms of science), they
are important insights from which to draw social-policy implications.
First, it becomes imperative to note the likely consequences of the
type of image that is portrayed in the various artistic media. If the
future is portrayed in primarily dystopian terms, a dystopian image of
humankind will prevail in the collective unconscious of the culture. But
as Margaret Mead has noted (1957):
... all visions of heaven, in this world and in the next, have a curious tasteless, pale
blue and pink quality.... Beside any picture of heaven above or heaven on earth, the
pictures of hell and destruction stand out in vivid and compelling intensity, each
detail strong enough to grip the imagination as the horrid creations of a Wells, an
Orwell, or an Aldous Huxley unroll before our horrified eyes. Where positive
utopias are insipid and a detailed heaven is unbearable to think of as a permanent
abode, the creators of terror have no such problem. So, if utopian visions are the
stuff by which men live, it would seem a legitimate subject of inquiry to ask what is
the matter with them? Why is Hell always so much more vivid than Heaven? (p.
958)
Or as Aldous Huxley once observed, "A dualistic perception of God
may be bad metaphysics, but it makes good art."
These observations seem perfectly valid insofar as they apply to static
conceptions of utopias or to static metaphysical views, but there appear
to be no necessary limitations on artistic creativity to portray the
excitement of constructive, positive images of continuing human
evolution, and in that sense be able to create a vision of "more vivid
utopias."
Second, these insights suggest that the most important component of
planning is based not on the realm of the rational, but rather in those
realms of consciousness that lie beyond the rational. In many if not
"Like so many quotes, the real point-the imagination of children-is omitted."-
Margaret Mead
most cultures throughout history, the executive leaders maintained
access to seers (shamans, prophets, "fools," medicine men, etc.)." In
keeping with the seriousness of the problems our society faces and the
resulting need for a more valid sense of the whole context in which we
live, the opening up of these aspects of consciousness-not for the few
but for the many-seems of vital importance.
Third, these insights suggest that "ordinary" attempts to shift the
prevailing image of humankind by rational-manipulative means would
likely prove ineffectual. Other evidence, however, suggests that such a
strategy (if it uses "extraordinary" means) might well be effective, but
ultimately dysfunctional: Kinser and Kleinman (1969) have written a
provocative book, The Dream That Was No More a Dream: A Search for
Aesthetic Reality in Germany 1890-1945, which contends that during this
recent era, the German government undertook to deliberately shape
the image of man, to create a "myth" that would resolve the German's
identity crisis. Using all means at their disposal, some conventional (e.g.
visual art, songs, slogans, and propaganda) and some unconventional
(e.g. arm-in-arm rocking, goose-step marching, and other somewhat
more esoteric ways of releasing primal energies in a structured form-
some of which have appeared from time to time in the American
human potential movement), Germany created for itself "a sense of
national density in accord with the universe." Kinser and Kleinman
assert that the central equation in this process was that:
Myths shape perception. Perceptions produce policies, policies cause events and
situations. And events require explanation. How can one separate the beginning of
the circle from the end, the mythic invention from the archetypal situation, or the
fabrication from the candid recognition of a geopolitical fact? The first feeds the last,
and the last vindicates-and reinstates-the first. This cycle is what Freud meant by
"self-fulfilling prophecy"-the manufactured statement that creates historical reality
thereby validating itself.
The recent appearance of such wntmgs as The Image (Boorstin,
1971), The Selling of the President (McGinnis, 1968), Catch a Falling Flag
(Whalen, 1972), The Image Makers (Lawton and Trent, 1972), and
"Friendly fascism" (Gross, 1970) would indicate that the German ap-
proach of image manipulation and myth creation is all too feasible in
.. "Today the seers are scientists and 'experts.' See Guy Benveniste, The Politics of
Expertise, Glendessary Press, 1972."-Michael Marien
Agreed, which is why the necessary future emphasis is on holistic knowing as opposed to
specialized knowing.
156
the United States." Image manipulation is practiced in our society, but
it has not yet reached the proportions that were practiced in Germany
before World War II. As we note in the next chapter, however, an
extrapolation of current trends makes this possibility seem almost
expected. Martin, writing almost two decades ago, concluded that:
The whole world is in imminent peril from the totalitarian technique.... The free
peoples, because they are still free, have the means of making the withdrawal-and-
return, of rediscovering the creative contact by rediscovering themselves. There can
be no assurance that they will fully realize this peril or make use of these means. But
if they do, a fundamental change can come over the world .... There is in this
present age a possibility of greatness exceeding all that has gone before, the
possibility that our time of troubles can become the timeless moment, the moment of
vision and commitment. (1955, pp. 264 ff.)
And,
In fairness to the reader, it should be emphasized that this creative contact is not an
armchair pursuit. What is proposed is an experiment, an experiment involving risk,
making heavy demands on those who undertake it, with no guarantee of results.
Mythos meant originally the words spoken in a ritual, the means of approach to the
God ... there are a variety of modern means of approach to the creative process
working in and through man. And, as always, the creative is dangerous. (1955, p. 15)
Although not without danger, the democratic assumption is that
pluralistic creativity is always more to be trusted than is fascistic
manipulation (d. Mead and ayers, 1968).
New Paradigms from Old
We spoke earlier of the need for what we termed a "moral science"
and a "moral economics" denoting by the terms "moral" paradigms
that would be consistent with what Dunn (1971) has termed a "process
teleology"
... where human beings ... establish the process of human development as the goal
of the process of social evolution, both the process and the goal being understood to
be open to further transformation as we advance in the practice and understanding
of them.
"While you note briefly the societal mampulations of the Third Reich under Hitler,
you do not deal with the consequences of this tragedy. I would urge that Ernst
Cassirer's work, The Myth of the State, be included in your review of relevant literature.
I also suggest the tremendous impact of Mao should be included and that the classic of
Edgar Snow, Red Star Over China, showing the transforming effect of the great march
on a total population cannot be ignored. The image of the pilgrim remains important
and its consequences dramatic. "-Robert A. Smith, III
157
The translation of such a conception into operational terms seems
especially crucial given the problems discussed earlier. As the
economist Robert Heilbroner observed (1968),
... the central problem which is likely to confront the socienes of tomorrow is
nothing less than the creation of a new relationship between the economic aspect of
existence and human life in its totality. (p. 631)
It seems evident that the characteristics we postulated for an
adequate image cannot be fulfilled unless such a new type of policy
paradigm comes into existence-a paradigm that provides a far closer
reconciliation of C. P. Snow's "two cultures" (the sciences and the
humanities) than has heretofore seemed feasible. Central in this pur-
suit would be the reconciliation of the objective inquiry methods found
suitable for learning to manipulate the external/physical environment
and the inquiry methods which are emerging to similarly explore the
subjective/internal/psychical environment of our living.
Likely such an umbrella paradigm will not be possible without the
emergence of other, somewhat more specialized but nevertheless holis-
tic,paradigms to support it. An adequate policy-relevant paradigm for
understanding the subtle complexities of ecology, for example, will
likely require a creative synthesis of those disciplines we call biology,
anthropology, ethology, and possibly even parapsychology. Similarly,
an adequate new science of "internal states" (which would deal with
topics as varied as psychosomatic medicine, creativity, quality of life,
and so-called psychic abilities), if present trends are any indication, will
require a synthesis of Eastern wisdom, Western psychology, electronic
engineering, physics, physiology, etc. * Donald Michael's book On the
Social Psychology of Learning to Plan-and Planning to Learn (1972)
contains numerous insights on how this difficult task might more
adequately be approached.
Considerations of Operational Feasibility
But what indications are there that pervasive personal and in-
stitutional transformation and a creative mushrooming of new
paradigms are feasible without their being "caused"?
"You ... fail to indicate how these might merge. Perhaps if you update Assagioli, using
Youngblood's Expanded Cinema, and suggest new musical and art forms for global
audiences through the moog synthesizer, ballet and satellite communication, you could
provide a world stage for Transformation. "-Robert A. Smith, III
There can be no easy answer to this question, of course. The forces
against fundamental conceptual change appear almost insuperable.
Virtually every institutionalized aspect of our society, but especially the
image-creating media (whose revenues, hence editorial policy, cur-
rently derive primarily from advertising), indirectly support the cur-
rent industrial paradigm. The physical aspects of our culture (urban-
centered factories, freeways, automobiles, etc.) all reinforce it by
shaping our perceptions, incentives, and habits.
However, there appear sufficient indications of a new image emerg-
ing that continued work in this direction is indeed appropriate. We
outlined in Chapter 4 an historical analogy between the present and the
post-Medieval period that is suggestive of various forces at work which
are creating the conditions for a transformation. Added to that line of
argument are the following assessments of societal conditions that
together indicate, with appropriate stimulation, the feasibility of a
"new renaissance" which would have the characteristics set forth in
Chapter 5.
There is need. Societal problems (such as those described in Chapter II) are
mounting that appear to be intrinsic to the very structure of the mature industrial
society. Similarly there is growing evidence that a variety of goals cannot be
adequately realized due to intrinsic limitations of the essentially objective and
reductionistic paradigm of science that is currently dominant in our society."
There are motivation and progress. Although the societal trends that appear to be
dominant (e.g. the "multifold trend" noted in Chapter 1) and the overall momen-
tum of industrialism do not point to the emergence of a new and more adequate
image of the human, there are various signs indicating increasing desire for the
progress toward such an emergence. For example:
1. Interest in cultural survival, in Eastern thought, in self-exploration, in holistic
understanding of complex systems, in personal and cultural transformation is in
the ascendant. Surveys and polls show this growing trend, most noticeably in the
Yankelovitch data on the new naturalism among such groups as student elites and
corporate executives who are increasingly turning away from economic values
(Yankelovitch, 1972; Seligman, 1969). A survey of major public libraries made in
connection with this study reveals an unusually strong demand for books on
wholesome living (natural/organic foods, yoga for health, etc.); the occult
(extrasensory processes, divination, esoteric wisdom, etc.); and Eastern practices
(zen, yoga, meditation, etc.). While the more fundamentalist of the traditional
churches are growing at a rate about equal to the decline of the more ecumunical
"There is still a vast amount of support for the notion that a variety of goals can be
adequately realized by more of the same type of science and technology that we have
had. You are not providing an adequate counter-argument to Daniel Bell, Herman
Kahn, the Nixon administration, and most of academia and the American people.
Consonant with established cognitive systems is the fact that societal problems are not
seen as severe enough to require the system break that would lead to the 'new
renaissance.' "-Michael Marien
traditional churches (Kelley, 1972), other voluntary organizations, especially in
what is called the "human potential movement," are growing far more rapidly."
2. Population growth is declining, environmentalism is growing, new legislation is
being considered that might promote more holistic understandings of societal
problems-for example, Senator Humphrey's recent bill on national growth
policy. Increasing numbers of technical symposia and ad hoc groups are being
formed on the theme of survival-motivated transformation, e.g. the World Order
Models Project, the Club of Rome, the Blueprint for Survival Project, The
International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis, Projects of the National and
World Council of Churches.
There are recognizable processes of transformational discovery. The historical record
of cultures and individuals which successfully coped with crisis-motivated change,
the process of "new paradigm" discovery in science, and the process of general
creativity show some remarkable parallels. Two characteristics which stand out from
the record of such discoveries are:
1. That they are intuitively rather than rationally based. In most descriptions of
transformational discovery, the tapping of imagistic, intuitive, and supra-rational
aspects of consciousness appears as a central element of discovery. Only before
and after the new Gestalt is recognized do the more rational processes serve the
useful functions of evaluation, planning, and so forth.
2. That they reformulate rather than replace previous ideas. Although both types of
creativity occur in times of crisis, the type of discovery that has led to revitalization of
a culture is that in which the creative thrust was more a reformulation and
combination of ideas already having good currency than a revolutionary change to
radically different ideas. Thus cultural transformation seems feasible without
revolutionary disruptions, to the extent that the transformed society can meet the
unique and habitual needs of diverse groups while at the same time providing a
unifying framework for the entire culture. Techniques exist with which trans-
formational discovery can be fostered; others can be discovered.
There is timely stimulation of attempts-both individual and collective-to foster an
evolutionary transformation. The majority of the society do not perceive the need or
have the motivation noted above. This is perhaps fortunate, for it gives time to
create the needed ideas before charismatic leadership and/or simplistic attempts at
reform are demanded. Although there is (among an increasing number of elites) a
perceived need, motivation, some progress, and proper tools (yet small in proportion
to the need), most funding understandably goes into work that fits within the
present paradigms of our culture. The efficacy of transformational research and
working toward more adequate paradigms has yet to be demonstrated to the
mainstream institutions of society. Thus support of this kind of activity could prove
to have "high leverage" in terms of building the kinds of knowledge and necessary
experience that might turn cultural crisis into creative transformation.
We emphasize the stimulation of transformational thinking and
experimentation not because we see it as necessary for the emergence
of a new image of humankind and/or new "moral" paradigms, but
because of urgency.r Although it is impossible to prove, we suspect that
See Note C, p. 161.
t "Again, I stress that the 'urgency' is not perceived by others; or, if perceived, there are
totally different prescriptions."-Michael Marien
if either is to emerge at all, they will do so whether or not any given
individual, group, foundation, or government agency chooses to deli-
berately support-or to fight-their emergence. To be sure, their
emergence depends on the actions of individuals, but scientific and
cultural transformation is a far bigger and more amorphous agenda
that can be dealt with by rational/deliberate attempts to make it
happen, as, one would say, a moon shot. The emergence of a new
image and/or new paradigm can, however, be hastened or slowed by
deliberate choice. Furthermore, and most importantly, the degree of
social disruption accompanying such a change can be affected by the
degree of understanding of the forces bringing it about.
Given the uncertainty as to the likely severity and the timing of the
societal crisis that may be ahead, appropriate actions which prepare for
the crisis need to be stimulated. Only if we have the necessary concepts
and tools-both individually and collectively and in time-can we hope
to ride at all smoothly through to a better society on the other side of
the transition. Thus the fostering of conceptual reformulations which
do not reject but rather reconcile previously dominant ideas into a
higher-level integration appears most timely.
NOTES
Note A
"Two criticisms: one, that there have been a concomitant increase in consciousness
together with the generally increasing complexity and differentiation of evolving biologi-
cal systems does not mean that the thrust of evolution is toward greater consciousness (as
the study infers); it could mean, for example, that consciousness is merely an
epiphenomenon of complex organization. In my view it is more reasonable to assume
that consciousness is a resultant of biological evolution.... I believe that the spectacle of
evolution can give meaning to existence and a sense of holistic direction without
embracing the controversial premise of a vitalistic-anthropomorphic thrust toward
consciousness [see Chapter 14 in Laszlo (1972)], and it is more rational to place one's
hopes for a new meaning in life on an objectively evolutionary, rather than an anthro-
pomorphizing thesis.
"My second criticism is that the meaning of 'consciousness' is not made clear.
... Consciousness as self-awareness can be explained without recourse to grand
assumptions about evolutionary thrusts simply by noting the selective advantage it
confers on systems that increasingly rely on computed-extrapolated strategies for their
existence. Like a prehensive tail, it is an instrument of survival and a factor in ... biolo-
gical evolution. "-Ervin Laszlo
Note B
"I believe many readers, especially those in the stricter sciences, will not appreciate the
diffusive and wildly ambiguous qualities of the word paradigm, which is used excessively
(even from the point of view of good prose!) in the latter parts of the document. My early
classical training forces me to associate the word paradigm with the sober word example.
Its main use is in grammar, where it is used as an example to illustrate a declension or a
conjugation. It might also mean, more generally, an illustration. But it has none of the
far flung meanings you have assigned to it (following Kuhn). You have employed it as a
synonym for general belief, tenet, hypothesis, dominant theory, prevalent view, prevail-
ing philosophy, general understanding, accepted thesis, scientific world picture of the
time, temporarily confirmed assumption.... Each phrase in this list is clearer than
paradigm, and I suppose it might be well to choose from it on occasion. "-Henry
Margenau
Our usage of the word paradigm is indeed extended from its original meaning and is in
keeping with our search for metaphors which catch the "sense" of our time. We use it to
refer to a scientific (or generally held) world view, including any assumptions about
reality and rules of operation. Kuhn (1962) describes his usage as referring to 'universally
recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions
to a community of practitioners' (p. x). This corresponds to the common meaning of
paradigm as a model or pattern.
Note C
"Do you think that the cultural survival lobby, broadly defined, outnumbers the
supporters of Maharaj Ji? The John Birch Society? Would you care to contrast the
readership of any five new culture periodicals to the 160,000 subscribers to Street Chopper
Magazine, or the 175,000 subscribers to Off/Road Vehicles Magazine (the latter group, I
understand, is destroying the California desert).
"Also, I think it is very problematic as to whether environmentalism is growing,
particularly with newly announced scarcities in electricity, natural gas, and gasoline. If it
is growing, we need a sober head count: growth from 3% to 4% doesn't count for much,
if 80% are ready to vote to maintain their comfort.
"In fact, I disagree with this entire section. I would like to see the signs of a positive
emerging image, but I will not let my enthusiasm be confused with a sober analysis of the
data around me. As is quite clear, students are turning away from 'The New Natural-
ism' toward quietude, fundamental Christianity, alcohol instead of drugs. Shows the
hazards of extrapolating data and cheering when what we are watching is a cultural
pendulum. As for the 'cultural indicators' you had best be more specific, e.g. what books
read by whom and with what result? (As a quick indicator, look at the top ten non-fiction
list for the last few years to see what is in fashion. Whereas Future Shock was big a couple
of years go, there is nothing in the top ten today-other than The Sovereign State of
ITT-that has anything to do with the new naturalism, public policy, or wholistic science.
Rather, people are concerned with Dr. Atkins' diet, and the Joy of Sex.) Be precise about
any interest in the growth of holistic science; I fail to see any good signs, such as the
RANN budget in NSF or significant developments in SGSR. The control of internal
states, books on wholesome living, the occult, etc., are to some degree current fads-and
there is a great deal of balderdash mixed in with serious sentiments that you and I favor.
Failure to distinguish between the serious and the rip-off is one of the quickest ways to
weaken if not kill off the evolutionary transformationalist movement (or whatever we
wish to call it-another problem being a profusion of titles).
"Finally, you should be very cautious about the 'humanistic capitalism' professed by
the corporations (most notably in John Rockefeller's recent book, The Second American
Revolution). Haven't you ever heard of co-optation? See Roszak's comments on 'suave
technocracy'in Where the Wasteland Ends."-Michael Marien
We agree. See our "last work" (p. 268).
Reproduced by permission of the New Yorker Magazine, Inc. Drawing by Starke.
1977.
162
CHAPTER 7
Societal Choices and Consequences of Changing Images
Massive and rapid change confronts virtually every person and sector
of our society. Paradoxically, such rapid change-leading to "future
shock" in the words of TofHer-seems to be the only constant of our
time. This change has contributed to a contemporary feeling of pur-
poselessness and meaninglessness:
It creates uncertainty about the future and lessens the time "durability" of our
images of humankind.
Associated with this change has been the emergence of a societal structure of
virtually incomprehensible size and complexity.
Also corresponding to this rapid change has been a proliferation of segmented roles
for the individual to play, supported by fragmented imagery.
Such rapid rates and magnitudes of change would be tolerable to many
people if it seemed purposeful. Indeed, as Gerald Heard once noted,
"Life does not need comfort, when it can be offered meaning, nor
pleasure, when it can be shown purpose." Since a primary function of
images is to provide meaning in life, our present alienation and loss of
purpose is reflective of the inability of contemporary images to inspire
within people a feeling of meaningfulness.
Our survival and our continued evolution depend upon our acting,
soon and wisely. On what basis do we choose one societal trajectory
over another?
Many of the different images that we have surveyed provided differing
normative standards from which to evaluate ethical decisions. Precisely
because different conceptual paradigms provide differing standards for
evaluation, it is not possible to prove that one image of humankind is
ultimately better or more valid than another. '*' It is therefore useful to
compare the likely societal outcomes of the different images.
We choose to compare the societal consequences of two images, both
of which seem feasible within the near-term future of the United
"But you can prove that one is held more frequently than another through the use of
survey research. An image of man survey of what is and what ought to be, parallel to
Hopes and Fears of the American People (Universe, 1972), should be conducted."-
Michael Marien
163
States, each of which would lead to a very different type of future. One
of these is based on an extrapolation of the images that underlay the
industrial state (i.e. it portends a post-industrial future with industrial
images of the human); the other is based on a transformed image of
the human similar to that we have postulated as being needed for a
desirable post-industrial society.
In creating such an idealized polarity, or dialectic, we do not expect
that either will come to pass in a pure form, but rather hope that a
clear-cut contrast between possibilities will foster a continuing debate
which will in itself help create a more responsible future society.
CONTRASTING FUTURE TRENDS AND IMAGES
The nature of a future based on continuing dominance of the
industrial state mentality is aptly characterized by a distillation of the
"multifold trend" developed at the Hudson Institute and described
earlier. It envisions a society with the following developmental trends:
1. Increasingly empirical, secular, pragmatic, manipulative, explicitly
rational, utilitarian.
2. Centralization and concentration of economic and political power.
3. Continued rapid accumulation of scientific and technical know-
ledge.
4. Increasing reliance upon specialists and "knowledge elites" des-
pite anti-intellectual trends.
5. Increasing affluence and the institutionalization of leisure.
6. Increasing use of social, economic, political, and behavioral
engineering.
7. Increasing urban concentration and the emergence of megapoli-
tan/regional urban areas.
This trend set might well be termed a "technological extrapolationist"
future. An image of humankind that is supportive of this future would
likely have the following characteristics:
The individual by nature is aggressive and competitive, largely determined in his
behavior by hereditary and environmental forces.
The group is emphasized, to the relative detriment of individualism.
Sexuality, territoriality, materialism, rationalism, and secularism are emphasized.
There is an increased demand for and implied reliance upon technological solutions
to our societal problems, and upon centralized regulation of technology application
to provide needed controls.
Contrasting rather sharply with the foregoing trends and supportive
image is a cluster of trends that is compatible with the characteristics
Societal Choices and Consequences 165
postulated as desirable in Chapter 5. These trends and supportive
image might lead to what could be termed an "evolutionary trans-
formationalist" future. This future does not assume the logical exten-
sion of existing societal trends as does the technological extrapolationist
view; rather it presumes a substantial departure from current trends,
with the following trend characteristics resulting:
I. Increasingly balanced between dimensions such as empirical/in-
tuitive, manipulative/pan-determined, rational/intuitive, utili-
tarian/aesthetic.
2. Stabilizing population; decentralization of urban areas so that
population is distributed with greater balance; a greater diversity
of living environments to express a larger range of life-style
alternatives.
3. Increasing affluence for a time but then tending toward a steady-
state society without substantial income/wealth differentials; a "do
more with less" technology; more creative/participative leisure
activities.
4. A decrease in the use of social, economic, political, and behavior
engineering except where this was chosen by a group as the
preferable mode of organizing and directing life-activities within
their societal subsystem.
5. Increasing reliance upon specialized and general (holistic) skills of
"knowledge elites" with greater legitimization and use of diver-
gent thinking; also greater participation in the planning processes.
6. Continued accumulation of scientific and technical knowledge but
of a sort which fits within the framework of a new "moral"
paradigm.
7. Decentralization and deconcentration of economic and political
power to allow "full valued participation" of people in their
political and productive processes.
An image of humankind that would be supportive of this trend
cluster would likely have the following characteristics:
The individual's behavior is determined partly by hereditary (biological) and
environmental (social) sources, which can be for either good or ill, but also there is a
significant potential within the individual for behavior which is free from such
deterministic influences.
The individual has primacy but there are recognized needs of the societal system for
its own maintenance as a supportive environment for individual growth/actualiza-
tion.
Thus, the self, along with societal structures, evolves toward higher states of
awareness such that societal and individual-diversity is hopefully integrated at a
higher order of complexity and "self" becomes an experiential concept having
transpersonal as well as individual aspects.
An emphasis upon loving sexuality leading to a deemphasis of possessiveness.
Rationalism and secularism are balanced by an equal regard for the significance of
the intuitive and spiritual.
An implied reliance is placed upon the individual's alteration of internal states for
the solution of many societal problems.
Clearly, the technological extrapolationist and evolutionary trans-
formationalist images present us with sharp contrasts-both direct, and
in terms of the societal trends they support. The plausibility of each of
these divergent images can be partially inferred from an examination
of the potency of their historical roots-these are presented in Tables 8
and 9. Table 10 contrasts the ethical attributes that we might associate
with these two images. With this as background, we now consider the
societal consequences that would accrue in the technological extrapola-
tionist and the evolutionary transformationalist futures.
Table 8
HISTORICAL ROOTS OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL EXTRAPOLATION1ST
IMAGE
1. Hobbesian Man-Hobbes saw humankind as elaborate machines whose "vital
motions" were determined by outward stimuli. One seeks the power to insure the
continuation of favorable stimuli and in that egoistic concern one comes into strong
conflict with other people acting in like manner. What is required to insure peace is
a sovereign with absolute power over the citizenry.
2. Economic Man-Is rationalistic (able to calculate what will maximize one's utility),
self-centered (acquisitiveness constrained only by the self-seeking of others),
mechanistic (a factor in the production process), individualistic (responsible for
taking care of one's self), and materialistic (with an overriding concern for one's
own material welfare).
3. Freudian Man-Freud saw people as being driven by the dual instinctual forces of
eros (the sex drive) and thanatos (the will to destruction of self or, when turned
outward, the wilI to aggression). Civilization suppresses these potentially destructive
instincts and in doing so it increases the individual's internal tensions. Therefore,
civilization is bought at the price of an increase in personal frustration.
4. Ethological Man-An aggressive animal with a veneer of civilization holding this
aggression back. Man is instinctualIy programmed from his hunter origins toward
war, destruction, and territoriality, and this cannot be unlearned or outgrown but
can only be sublimated, redirected, or repressed. This any civilized society must do.
5. Behavioristic Man-One's actions are completely determined by hereditary and
environmental factors. A recent emphasis is upon behavior modification through a
stimulus-reinforcement-response process. Freedom and dignity are thought to be
the illusory constructs of an individual who views himself as having autonomy. The
survival of a culture is likely dependent on the systematic "shaping" of human
behavior.
SOCIETAL CONSEQUENCES OF A TECHNOLOGICAL
EXTRAPOLATIONIST IMAGE
Assuming that the cluster of societal trends and images identified
under the rubric of "technological extrapolation" becomes dominant in
Societal Choices and Consequences
Table 9
HISTORICAL ROOTS OF THE EVOLUTIONARY
TRANSFORMATIONALIST IMAGE
167
1. Lockean Man-For Locke, the pre-social condition of the human being was not
mutual hostility but mutual tolerance. Nor was man's social contract a surrender
pact drawn up between the people and the sovereign; it was a limited agreement
among the people to allow regulation of some natural rights so as to gain protection
for the remaining ones. Innate ideas or instincts were not the source of knowledge
and character, but rather experience and awareness.
2. Emergent "Humanistic Capitalism"-Would replace the economic growth ethic with
self-realization and ecological ethics, and holds that the appropriate function of
social institutions is to create environments conducive to that human-growth
process which would ultimately transcend a materialistic orientation.
3. Perennial Philosophy-" ... the metaphysic that recognizes a divine Reality substantial
to the world of things and lives and minds" (Huxley, 1945). The individual can,
under certain conditions, attain to a higher awareness, a "cosmic consciousness," in
which state he has immediate knowledge of a reality underlying the phenomenal
world. "Rudiments of the Perennial Philosophy may be found among the
traditional lore of primitive peoples in every region of the world, and in its fully
developed forms it has a place in everyone of the higher religions." It is then, the
highest common denominator among the religions and thereby has tremendous
integrative potential while recognizing the diversity of peoples.
4. The "Other" Ethology-From this perspective, aggression is not inherent in human
nature. The environment more than instincts is the source of aggression. To the
extent that aggression, territoriality, etc., are learned rather than innate attributes,
then they can be unlearned.
5. Systems Theory-The person is an interdependent part of the progressive
differentiation and higher-order reintegration of bio-social systems; the next phase
in this evolutionary process is for the person to become conscious of his own
evolution and to make the process purposeful so that there can be reconciliation of
subsystems into large systems without loss of uniqueness. The underlying goal is the
enhancement of individual fulfillment through the actualization of the best
potentials there are within the person.
our society, what might be the likely consequences? Our society suffers
from fundamental problems which are intrinsic to the very structure of
mature industrialism. The cluster of multifold trends embodied in the
extrapolationist perspective will likely exacerbate these problems. In-
deed, given the present nature of our societal problems, we can expect:
Continued acceleration of industrial development through massive transnational
corporations which, because they transcend national boundaries, will be difficult or
impossible to regulate adequately.
Intensification of ecological problems, and of marathon competition to exploit
vanishing resources.
Increasing discrepancies in the distribution of affluence;
Intensification of "revolutions of rising expectations" and of strife among interest
groups.
Increasing danger of sabotage, and increasing concern for personal and institutional
security; development of new "security technologies."
A shift from basic research to applied research and development.
Increasingly unwieldy urban agglomerations whose political, financial, and total-
systemic stability becomes uncertain.
Table 10
ILLUSTRATIVE CONTRASTS BETWEEN ALTERNATIVE IMAGES
...-
O"l
00
1. Mind and Matter: Is the
human essentially a com-
plex and sophisticated
but physical machine, or
is his essence that of
mind or consciousness?
2. Freedom and Determinism:
To what extent is the
human free in his choices
and actions?
3. Good and Evil: Is the
human's nature essen-
tially good or evil?
4. Individual and Collec-
tive: Does ultimate
significance rest with
the individual or the
societal collective?
Is the individual more
subject to the collec-
tive, or vice versa?
Technological extrapolationist image
The human is definitely viewed as mecha-
nistic, rationalistic, materialistic.
The human is viewed as being more or less
determined in his behavior patterns-
either by instinctual forces or by the
behavior-shaping forces of his external
environment.
The person tends to be viewed as in-
nately antisocial-aggressive in the
ethological perspective, competitive/
acquisitive in the economic point of view
In spite of the strongly individualistic
roots of this composite image, the
collective aspects of human existence
are emphasized to the virtual exclusion
of the individual aspects. (Behaviorism
denies individuality.) A collectivist
response is necessary to control the
antisocial aspects of behavior.
Evolutionary transformationalist image
Both mind and matter are embraced as
interdependent and interactive components of an
evolving system which includes the person and
his society. While some tend to emphasize the
human as being essentially mind or spirit, the
evolutionary thrust is toward increasing
consciousness.
The human is potentially more or less free.
Although he has a genetic inheritance which has
stronger influence at the "lower levels" of his
functioning, he is somewhat determined by the
social environment learning process, and to the
extent that he is the creator of his social/cultural
learning environment, then he is relatively free to
foster his own evolution.
The person is essentially neither good nor evil but
conditioned by his environment, unless or until
he wakes up and sees how things are or can be at
a more profound level of awareness.
Individuality and wisely chosen autonomy are
paramount concerns, although there is utility in
the collective aspect of existence-particularly in
the ways it can be supportive of evolutionary
development.
Q
~
;:!
aq
....
;:!
aq
l
~
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;:!
Increasing dominance of institutional needs over human needs.
Increasingly questioned legitimacy of the entire socioeconomic system.
169
What kind of society might emerge? On the one hand, our wisdom and
good luck could combine with ineptitude and misfortune in such a way
as to cause our nation to just about break even in our efforts to deal
with the growing problems. There may be (though it appears unlikely)
neither disastrous failures nor remarkable successes. Our shortcomings
could be offset by the traditional poultice of an increasing income for
the majority, a greater amount of time for leisure pursuits, and the
certainty of a greater quantity and variety of goods and services to be
consumed.
On the other hand, it seems entirely plausible that these trends could
exacerbate our societal problems and bring demands for immediate
and drastic solutions to ensure the stability and survival of the society.
Methods of regulation that severely reduce individual freedoms could
be welcomed in the face of severe disruptions. We could quickly or,
more likely, gradually emerge into the kind of society that Bertram
Gross (1970) has termed "friendly fascism." This is a fascism that "will
come under the slogans of democracy and 100 percent
Americanism ... in the form of an advanced technological society,
supported by its techniques-a techno-urban fascism, American style"
(p. 44). Gross describes it as:
... a new form of garrison state, or totalitarianism, built by older elites to resolve the
growing conflicts of post-industrialism. More specifically: a managed society [which]
rules by a faceless and widely dispersed complex of warfare-welfare-industrial-
communications-police bureaucracies caught up in developing a new-style empire
based on a technocratic ideology, a culture of alienation, multiple scapegoats, and
competing control networks .... Pluralistic in nature, techno-urban fascism would
need no charismatic dictator, no one-party rule, no mass fascist party, no
glorification of the state, no dissolution of legislatures, no discontinuation of elec-
tions, no distrust of reason ... this style of management and planning would not be
limited to the economy; it would deal with the political, social, cultural, and
technological aspects of society as well .... The key theme, therefore, would not be
the managed economy, but rather, the managed society. (pp. 46 ff. Some emphases
omitted)
What conditions would be required for such a pernicious future to
emerge out of the extrapolation of the present? We think the fol-
"A somewhat later and considerably more scholarly piece by Gross, contrasting
techno-urban fascism vs. humanist reconstruction, is offered in a lengthy essay,
'Planning in an Era of Social Revolution,' Public Administration Review, May/June 1971,
pp. 259-297. Gross is also writing a book on friendly fascism, to be published in late
1974."-Michael Marien
The book finally appeared in 1980 and is a most sobering appraisal of (now) current
trends.
Cl M _ M
170
lowing:
The need-Our societal problems might combine with the multifold trend to create
the need for such a friendly sort of totalitarianism. Perhaps this feeling of benign
need was presaged in a recent statement by the White House Chief of Telecom-
munications: "A great many people in '1984' like what Big Brother was doing
because he was doing it in their interest and concern" (Whitehead, 1973).
The ability-Although one may fault the metaphysical implications of behavior
modification, one cannot deny that it works. Today we are seeing the rapid
emergence of "psycho-technologies" which could efficiently shape and modify pat-
terns of behavior as well as motivational and emotional states. This could take the
form of directed emotional conditioning in childhood; objectively constructed rein-
forcement patterns in adult life; the use of a wide variety of drugs; electrical brain
implants; the modification of genetic makeup to activate different human potentials;
the use of sophisticated electronic surveillance mechanisms to detect "aberrant"
behavior patterns.
A supportive image of man-The use of and dependence upon such psycho-tech-
nologies might well lead gradually to a pernicious form of the extrapolationist image
of man. This is plausible in a self-validating way, since many aspects of the current
form of the extrapolationist image seem supportive of the increasing use and
dependence upon these technologies. Man is viewed as a sophisticated machine
(therefore, master human nature as we have mastered physical nature); man is
thought to be largely determined in his behavior (therefore, objectively shape his
behavior in the most efficient way); man is innately antisocial (therefore, restrain
antisocial tendencies with the aid of new technologies); individual man is subordinate
to the needs of the collective (therefore, impose upon the individual whatever is to
the benefit of the larger society).
The acquiescence-Many psycho-technologies are already in limited use in our society
and they would appear to be quite palatable to the general public if they were
assimilated gradually while being couched in the appropriate language; e.g. rather
than discuss the control of emotional and motivational states, we can talk of insuring
peace and harmony by modifying the behavior of those "irrational" persons who
threaten the stability and security of our society.
Quarton (1967) examined the plausibility of widespread use of such
processes and concluded:
If these protective and avoidance patterns are greatly extended in the future, one
can imagine a society that allows widespread use of drugs to prevent pain and
anxiety, brain surgery to prevent both suffering and any aggressive actions by
individuals, and extensive use of monitoring equipment to restrict individual
behavior with a destructive potential. (p. 850)
There are already signs of the emergence of key elements In Gross's
"friendly fascist" scenario:
Application of military surveillance technologies to urban police problems.
Utilization of behavior-changing drugs and operant conditioning in schools.
Government attempts at management of news.
"Personality screening" and maintenance of files on "pre-delinquent" children,
through cooperation between elementary school administrations and local, state, and
federal authorities.
The cross-correlation of computer-based files containing personal data (e.g. credit,
employment records, tax status, insurance, criminal record, education).
The introduction of legislation to control access to techniques for self-initiated
alteration of consciousness (both non-drug and drug induced).
Although the above pictures an extreme outcome from the tech-
nological extrapolationist image and trend, nonetheless it is an alter-
native future for the United States that is even now proving its
feasibility by its growing emergence. This future would seem unin-
tended to most people; yet, by not "rocking the boat" and by pursuing
what is a familiar societal path, it seems clear that we could reach a
societal future which was quite different and far worse than was
originally anticipated. This future is by no means inevitable but it does
confront us with profoundly important choices-both individual and
collective. '*'
SOCIETAL CONSEQUENCES OF AN EVOLUTIONARY
TRANSFORMATIONALIST IMAGE
Whereas the technological extrapolationist response represents the
logical extension of currently dominant societal trends, the evolu-
tionary transformationalist response presumes a qualitative and quan-
titative departure from them. However, in the early stages at least, the
transition to an evolutionary transformationalist post-industrial society
would create some degree of disruption and disorientation.
Assume for a moment that the industrial state does have problems
that are fundamentally unresolvable within the context of the present,
and further assume that the evolutionary transformationalist image
points the way to a resolution of the difficulties engendered by the
industrial era. It might seem that our society would welcome the
coming of such a transition with open arms. More likely, we would
welcome such a societal change no more than the Middle Ages wel-
comed Galilean science, no more than the neurotic welcomes the
changes in perception and behavior necessary to extricate himself from
his unhappy condition. Such a new image and the societal con-
sequences it implies would be viewed as a real threat to the established
order. The emphasis on inner exploration would look like escapism,
and the new interest in psychic phenomena and spiritual experience
would be put down as a return to the superstitions of a less scientific
and more gullible age. The increased reliance on intuitive processes
See Note A, p. 179.
would be interpreted as an abandonment of rationalism. The shift in
priorities away from material and toward spiritual values would appear
as a weakening of the work ethic and as a turning away from economic
goals-imperiling both the state of the economy and the stability of
economic institutions. The ethic of love and community would seem
subversive to the national defense. Such interpretations would not be
totally unrealistic, since the world in general is far from ready for such
drastic value-changes, and partial moves in these directions would
likely be interpreted as weakness.
At a more fundamental level, the implied responsibility of the
individual for his own growth and development, in the evolutionary
transformationalist view, can by itself evoke a resistance to entertaining
this new image of humankind. Maslow (1962) described this
phenomenon succinctly in a chapter entitled "The Need to Know and
the Fear of Knowing":
The great cause of much psychological illness is the fear of knowledge of oneself ....
We tend to be afraid of any knowledge that could cause us to despise ourselves or
make us feel inferior, weak, worthless, evil, shameful. We protect ourselves and our
ideal image of ourselves by repression and similar defenses, which are essentially
techniques by which we avoid becoming conscious of unpleasant or dangerous
truths .... But there is another kind of truth we tend to evade. Not only do we hang
on to our psychopathology, but also we tend to evade personal growth because this,
too, can bring another kind of fear, of awe, of feelings of weakness and inadequacy.
And so we find another kind of resistance, a denying of our best side, of our talents,
of our finest impulses, of our highest potentialities, of our creativeness .... It is
precisely the god-like in ourselves that we are ambivalent about, fascinated by the
fearful of, motivated to and defensive against. (pp. 60-61)
Thus, at both the individual and societal levels, the implications of an
evolutionary transformationalist image are bound to engender strong
resistance. This would contribute to the disruption that inevitably
accompanies a period of rapid societal change, such as the present
transition from an industrial to some type of a post-industrial society. A
paradoxical situation thus arises: even if the evolutionary transfor-
mationalist image is essential to a satisfactory resolution of the prob-
lems of advanced industrialism, actions designed to force the emer-
gence of such a transformation could be socially disruptive. '*'
Let us turn now to a longer time perspective and the plausible
characteristics of a society in which this image of humankind had
become established. These must be considered tentative and incom-
plete speculations; but they do provide a basis for further discussion.
See Note B, p. 179.
Individual and Social Goals
173
The evolutionary transformationalist image must begin with the
relatively deterministic confines of our socio-economic system. This is
simply a recognition that, to a substantial degree, people's general
pattern of behavior, perception, and motivation is conditioned by the
imprinting force of our urban-industrial living environment:
Instead of the economy being embedded in social relations, social relations are
embedded in the economic system .... For once the economic system is organized in
separate institutions, based on specific motives and conferring a special status, society
must be shaped in such a manner as to allow that system to function according to its
own laws.
(Polanyi, 1944, p. 57)
Rather than accept and adapt to this societal context, the evolutionary
transformationalist response would affirm the relative primacy and
existential autonomy of the individual while still recognizing the
deterministic socialization and stringent demands made by a highly
developed society. Given the power of the industrial dynamic, the
nature of the transformationalist task is substantial, and it seems not
unfeasible that a variety of social and psychotechnologies would be
embraced-but not in the mode of control. Thus, for example,
behaviors consistent with operant conditioning might become com-
monplace not as the linear control (which most people fear), but as
reciprocal influence (which is what it seems Skinner is talking about). *
Taking precedence over the dominant economic goals of growth and
efficiency would be two complementary guiding ethics, the ecological
ethic and the self-realization ethic. The ecological ethic expresses a
concern for all peoples and life on the planet (a geographic dimension),
for future generations of life (a time dimension), and for the inter-
relations of peoples, their states of consciousness, cultures, and in-
stitutions over time (a societal dimension). The self-realization ethic
would highly value "life, liberty, and the pursuit of self-actualization."
A central activity of the self-realization ethic is the pursuit of one's
vocation, which would include work-play-learning, all intertwined. A
central societal goal, then, should be the full participation in this
expanded vocation so that all individuals have access to one or more
satisfying work-play-learning ways of life. This expanded sense of
vocation would vastly increase the activities in which persons could
receive affirmation by society and thereby develop and hold a healthy
"I am not sure that 'reciprocal influence' is exactly what I am talking about. I am very
much concerned about the future and certainly adopt what you call the ecological ethic
rather than the self-realization ethic, which I regard as a rationalization of
selfishness."-B. F. Skinner
self-image. It would also legitimate the purposeful thrust of sociocul-
tural revolution to include individual self-evolution-of-consciousness.
For such an expanded sense of vocation to become a reality, material
goals would have to be deemphasized, we would tend toward a steady-
state economy, routine work tasks would become increasingly cyber-
nated, and only a fraction of the work-play-learning force would be
required to pursue activities directed at supplying material goods and
services to society. The many other activities in individualistic com-
bination should be meaningful, non-stultifying, and non-polluting.
There is one area of activity which in particular might meet these
conditions-learning-which in the broad sense includes personal
exploration and research as well as social learning activity. Robert
Hutchins (1968) describes "the learning society" as one that will have
transformed:
... its values in such a way that learning, fulfillment, becoming human, had become
its aims and all its institutions were directed to this end. This is what the Athenians
did .... They made their society one designed to bring all its members to the fullest
development of their highest powers ... Education was not a segregated activity,
conducted for certain hours, in certain places, at a certain time of life. It was the aim
of the society .... The Athenian was educated by the culture, by Paidea.
The central educational task fostered by Paidea was "the search for
the Divine Center" (Jaeger, 1965). But the post-industrial society would
differ from that of Athens in important respects. Its slaves will be
machines, with the Faustian powers of its technology introduced to a
new level of responsibility. It thus must become not only a social-
learning society but a social-planning society. Helping to choose the
future, then, would be a primary responsibility of citizens.
Another important area of change would be in the goals of cor-
porations and particularly multinational corporations. As the latter
become more powerful than most nation-states, it becomes essential
that their operative goals shift to resemble those of public institutions.
This means, specifically, that the priority in corporate goals would
become something like the following: (1) to carryon activities that will
contribute to the self-fulfillment of the persons involved, (2) to carryon
activities that contribute directly to satisfaction of social needs and
accomplishment of societal goals, and (3) to earn a fair profit on
investment, not so much as a goal in itself (as at present) but as a
control signal which monitors effectiveness. How might such a utopian-
sounding situation come about? Does it not sound impractical and
preposterous that corporations would be willing to relegate profitmak-
ing to third priority? The social force that might bring about such a
revolutionary change in operative goals is the subtle but powerful (and
poorly understood) influence of granting or withholding legitimacy.
Governments have often felt the potency of legitimacy withdrawal. In
mid-eighteenth century, as we have already noted, the suggestion
would have seemed preposterous that a monarchy would soon be
declared not legitimate by contrast with governments "deriving their
just powers from the consent of the governed." Giant corporations
today are feeling the challenge put to the divine right of kings two
centuries ago. It assumes many forms-movements of consumers and
environmentalists; civil rights and women's liberation; truth-in-ad-
vertising pressures; worker demands for improved quality of work
environment; stockholder revolts. Awareness is growing that the largest
corporations, at least, are in an important sense public institutions.
Directly or indirectly (through life insurance policies, annuities, mutual
funds, etc.) they are owned by a large fraction of the public and employ
a large portion of the people; the public uses the goods and services
they produce, and suffers the environmental degradation they
produce. The wave of public challenge is forming.
Institutions
Many of our institutions seem to have inadvertently reached a critical
size beyond which they are virtually uncontrollable in any coherent
fashion. This fact of life was aptly described by Richard Bellman, in
accepting the first Norbert Wiener prize for applied mathematics
(1970):
I think it's beginning to be realized that our systems are falling apart. We don't know
how to administer them. We don't know how to control them. And it isn't at all
obvious that we can control a large system in such a way that it remains stable. It may
very well be that there is a critical mass-that when a system gets too large, it just
gets automatically unstable.
We see these problems in our educational systems, in our legal systems,
in our bureaucratic systems, in our transportation systems, in our
garbage-collection systems, and so on. The inability to sustain stable
subsystems (let alone the macro-system) suggests that a strong thrust
toward decentralization would be a plausible concomitant to the trans-
formationalist image of humankind." Relatively autonomous sub-
systems would enhance diversity in our society, which is increasingly
confronted with an underlying (and, at times, overriding) homogeneity
See Note C, p. 179.
of physical structures, life-styles, and living environments generally.
Relatively autonomous subsystems (whether in government, business,
education, or elsewhere) that are oriented toward human growth
would give many more citizens a greater sense of significance and
meaning in a more approachable institutional environment.
As the social system becomes increasingly interdependent and com-
plex, the need for accurate information becomes greater. Such ac-
curacy presumes a fairly high degree of trust, honesty, and openness.
Highly complex task operations, such as putting men in space or
resolving the impending energy crisis, require a high level of honesty
and trust; so too would building a humane society. For quite practical-
as contrasted with moralistic-reasons, then, the demanded level of
honesty and openness in an evolutionary transformationalist type of
post-industrial era could be expected to increase, especially affecting
such activities as advertising and merchandising. '*'
Similarly, as the complexity of societal operations increases, auto-
cratically and hierarchically organized bureaucratic structures (whether
business, education, government) tend to develop communication
overloads near the top and discouragements to entrepreneurship and
responsibility lower down. In order to sustain our complex societal
system, we may systematically reconstitute massive bureaucratic struc-
tures into organizations with relatively autonomous subsystems (in
effect, decentralization). This adaptive form of organization would
seem better suited both to cope with complex tasks and to provide
more satisfying work for the people involved.']
Another societal consequence might be the growth of the family
from an atomistic unit of refuge to an extended unit, a larger source of
meaning and significance. Experiments with a variety of family struc-
tures would be a legitimate endeavor in a society that encourages
individual and interpersonal exploration of human-growth processes.
In an extended context, the family might regain some of its traditional
meaning as a source of education, broadly defined, and as a unit for
work.
Given a relative deemphasis of economic growth and efficiency, and
an enhanced concern for social, psychological, political and environ-
"If honesty and openness are correlated with an evolutionary transformationalist era,
the possibilities for such an era would seem bleak if, as I fear, trust is eroding. We must
still hope, but we must accurately assess the strength of the enemy amongst us."-
Michael Marien
t "I believe you could make a real case for computer conferencing ala Murray Turoff,
and electronic consensus taking, a la Etzioni, as means for decentralizing or making
more democratic what could become a terrifying 'robopathic' way of life in affluent
bureaucracy."-Robert A. Smith, III
mental matters, it seems plausible to think that the trend toward huge
urban agglomerations would be reversed and populations would be
redistributed with greater balance. There would likely be experiments
with a diversity of living environments to allow people a greater range
of trade-offs in selecting a community. In such a context, there may
emerge increasingly sophisticated communal types of living environ-
ments which experiment with new institutional forms.
The societal changes we have discussed under the rubric of the
"evolutionary transformationalist" may appear at first to be too radical.
On the contrary, they are probably too conservative. Our task is the
equivalent of standing in the Middle Ages and attempting to describe
the culture and institutions after the Industrial Revolution.
We can hardly claim to have demonstrated that a shift toward the
evolutionary transformationalist image of human-in-the-universe is
well underway-especially since such a fundamental shift is historically
so improbable. We may simply have made the hypothesis plausible. If
so, then the questions raised here about the characteristics of a society
dominated by the new image are of extreme importance. The greatest
hazard in such a transition is that the anxiety level can raise to where
the society responds with irrational and self-destructive behavior. The
best safeguards are widespread understanding of the need for trans-
formation and reassurance that there is someplace good to get to on
the other side."
SUMMARY
Winston Churchill stated that, "We shape our buildings and then our
buildings shape us." Similarly, but in a larger and more pervasive
sense, we are being irrevocably shaped by our unprecedented urban-
industrial environment which is premised upon images of humankind
whose historical origins are far removed from contemporary reality.
The decision to suppress image change or to allow societal and image
transformation confronts us with an important branch point in our
history. The consequences of our decisions in the next few decades will
"Well, I agree with that! I find the 'hazard' almost inevitable, and the 'safeguard-
widespread understanding' very unlikely! I do not want to be naively 'super-sophisti-
cated' or on the side of those saying 'I told you so' when western civ. or mankind
collapses ... in fact I find the 'someplace good to get to' both in the present and in the
future Image you postulate ... but I do feel that your presentation of the 'evolutionary
transforrnationalist' imagery suffers (as does Reich's 'Greening') from a one-sided
optimistic or romanticized Imagery that undermines its credence. "-David Cahoon.
endure long into the future:
The environment men create through their wants becomes a mirror that reflects
their civilization; more importantly it also constitutes a book in which is written the
formula of life that they communicate to others and transmit to succeeding genera-
tions.
(Dubos, 1968, p. 171)
Human beings can become adapted to almost anything and, since
our physical and psychological endowments give us a wide range of
adaptive potentialities, it is crucial to distinguish between those images
that foster a short-term tolerable living environment and those that
foster a long-term desirable living environment. The dynamic character
of adaptability is illustrated by a laboratory demonstration in which a
frog was placed in a beaker of boiling water and immediately jumped
out; when the frog was placed in a beaker of cold water that was slowly
warmed to boiling temperature, however, the temperature change was
gradual and the frog adapted in increments, making no attempt to
escape until he finally died. Analogously, the mere fact that a society
can generate an image of the human and, for a time, adapt to it does
not necessarily ensure that it would be a desirable thing to do. We can
make errors and inadvertently accept images which may prove lethal
both to our existence as being seeking to unfold our potentials, and to
our' physical existence as an evolving species. Given our capacity to
adapt-even to the point of virtual self-destruction-it is difficult to
know whether or not we may have already gone too far with our
industrial images. Given the apparent momentum of the industrial
dynamic, it is difficult to know whether we could turn back even if it
seemed we had gone too far.
Nonetheless, we are still confronted with the existential choice:
"... in matters of life ... it does not matter whether the chance for cure
is 51 percent or 5 percent. Life is precarious and unpredictable, and the
only way to live is to make every effort to save it as long as there is a
possibility of doing so" (Fromm, 1968, p. 141). We can either involve
ourselves in the recreative self and societal discovery of an image of
humankind appropriate for our future, with attendant societal and
personal consequences, or we can choose not to make any choice and,
instead, adapt to whatever fate, and the choices of others, bring along.
Life is occupied both in perpetuating itself and in surpassing itself; if all it does is
maintain itself, then living is only not dying.
(Simone de Beauvoir)
To a significant extent, society is waiting, hoping that the impulse for change will
settle around certain fundamental attributes of the American ethic. At the present
time, however, no consensus about the nature of these fundamentals exists. We are
all looking for values that have deep roots as we attempt to sort out the durable from
the ephemeral.
(Wall Street Journal)
NOTES
Note A
"Given my own pre-paranoid selective-perception 'set', the most convincing discussion
of all is the drift into the Gross 'friendly fascism'! It is comforting to hear you affirm that
this is 'an extreme outcome from the technological extrapolationist image and trend',
and 'unintended to most people' but it seems to me we are well into it! The very crisis
nature of our future seems to me to most likely increase the garrison-state dynamic:
dissent, repression; more dissent, more repression;
complexity-breakdown, engineered solution; more complexity-breakdown, more
engineered solution;
fear, surveillance; more fear, more surveillance ... etc., etc., ETC.!!.
"I wish I could see this whole thing more positively and creatively, but so far I can't, and
your discussion just seems to reinforce my pessimism, though I'm certain the opposite is
your intent! "-David Cahoon
Note B
"The 'genius' of the industrial-state paradigm is that it did appeal to and unify the three
levels of the self (unconscious, conscious, super-conscious) you identify in Ch. 6. This was
not a rational, conscious, intentional event, but what Tillich calls a 'kairos' historical form
of a God-Destiny-Evolution consciousness-transformation ('an idea whose time has
come'). Our 'transition' period in history and evolution consists in this; that the old kairos
paradigm image is tarnished and dysfunctional, has lost its 'spirit' in the sense that it
doesn't unify and inspire, and no longer 'points beyond itself to Being-Itself' consciously
or unconsciously (Tillich's language in The Courage To Be, 'The Religious Symbol'). The
new unifying 'kairos' imagery and vision of the post-industrial era has not yet coalesced,
been evoked, been created, germinated.
"Now, what seems right to me in your analysis is that the 'evolutionary-trans-
formationalist' symbols, metaphors, images, etc .... catch up the conscious and supercon-
scious components of the new emerging 'kairos' imagery; what seems weak or missing is
the unconscious component, and as you rightly emphasize in this beautiful paragraph
this cannot be consciously engineered or speeded up. "-David Cahoon
Note C
"There are a couple of places in the text where you use language and make assertions
that are not fully consistent with your general system theory concepts, [e.g.] the necessity
for organizational decentralization. I am afraid that in the minds of most people this
language evokes the classical centralization-decentralization dichotomy. The work of
Lawrence and Lorsch at the Harvard Business School makes clear how misleading this
image can be (see Lawrence, Paul R., and Lorsch, Jay W., Organization and Environment,
Irwin, 1969). In a similar vein [below] you speak of the communication overload that
attends hierarchical organization. This would be true only in the case of a linear nested
hierarchy that seeks to maintain direct point-by-point control. General systems theory
makes plain that it is the partial decoupling of information processing systems that yields
180
precisely that hierarchical form of organization necessary to the conservation of in-
formation and the regulation of complexity. But this is a far cry from simple decen-
tralization as conceived by classical organizational concepts. I'm afraid that the 'New
Federalism' suffers from this same defect. There is an essentially valid principle here that
founders because the conventional expression fails to understand the epistemology of
social processes.
"In general, the principal weakness of [your report] reflects the principal weaknesses
of the literature that it synthesizes. There is no real understanding or expression of the
nature of the very difficult problems of organizational transformation that must attend
the transformation processes advanced as essential for the survival and evolution of an
'open society.' My Wiley book deals partially with these issues."-Edgar S. Dunn, Jr.
Reproduced by permission of Jules Feiffer. 1980. Distributed by Field Newspaper
Syndicate.
182
CHAPTER 8
Guidelines and Strategies for Transformation
In this final chapter we approach the difficult Question from the
practical person-what is to be done? What sorts of actions and programs
do the foregoing arguments suggest? What could be accomplished by
corporations, foundations, political agencies, voluntary associations?
We have not found it possible to respond satisfactorily without
casting this discussion at a more personal level than the material of the
first seven chapters. This is mainly because the actions that appear
appropriate depend upon how one interprets the substance of the
preceding discussion. One of the more frequent responses we received
to an earlier version of this report was a request for candor, for a
forthright statement of the conclusions we reached after immersing
ourselves for some months in this material. This chapter starts with
such a statement. The discussion reflects hope. It is an affirmation that
what could be is worth examining even if the likelihood of its coming to
pass seems small. Our honest observation is that our society is traveling
full speed down the technological extrapolationist path described in
Chapter 7, and that by the time the danger lights begin to glow
brightly, it will be terribly late.
No blueprint will emerge from this examination, no specific set of
research programs and institutional changes. If there are forces push-
ing toward an evolutionary transformation of the sort described in
Chapter 7, they are firmly rooted in the past and their present momen-
tums will have a major shaping effect on the future. Thus, a successful
strategy probably needs to be an incremental and an adaptive one.
SOME PREMISES FOR THE PRESENT DISCUSSION
We start with five premises that grow out of the preceding discussions.
1. An interrelating set of fundamental dilemmas, growing apparently ever
more pressing, seem to demand for their ultimate resolution a drastically
changed image of man-on-earth. We seem able to tolerate neither the
ecological consequences of continued material growth nor the
economic effects of a sudden stoppage. We fear the implications of
183
184
greatly increased control of technological development and application,
yet sense that such control is imperative. We recognize the fatal
instability of economic nationalism and a growing gap between rich and
poor nations, yet seem unable to turn the trend around. We seem unable
to resolve the discrepancy between man's apparent need for creative
meaningful work and the economic imperatives that cause much
human labor to become superfluous or reduce it to makework. A
massive challenge is growing to the legitimacy of a business-govern-
ment system wherein pursuit of economic ends results in such coun-
teracting of other human ends. We face a cultural crisis of meaning-it
is not clear who is at the helm, how the ship is steered, nor what distant
shores we should be aiming for. In a way it is a crisis of awareness, a set
of situations which with less awareness might seem more tolerable.
A serviceable image of humankind must reflect interdependence of
the Nature that modern man once misguidedly sought to "control,"
and with the social-technological systems on which his survival has
come to depend, and whose complexity he is yet unable to com-
prehend. It must provide humanity with a meaning for its struggles,
above and beyond that involved in learning to manipulate the physical
environment. It must enable humankind to appreciate and deal with
the peril which its unbridled Faustian powers of technology have
brought upon it.
2. There are increasingly evident signs of the imminent emergence of new
"image of man." It is a new image in the sense of being very much a
challenger to the dominant scientific world view as that has evolved
over the past few centuries, and also to the image of materialis-
tic "economic man" that become enshrined in the institutions and
economic theories of the industrial era. Yet it is not new, since traces of
it can be found, going back for thousands of years, in the core
experiences underlying the world's many religious doctrines, as repor-
ted through myths and symbols, holy writings, and esoteric teachings.
The staying power of the new image is suggested by the facts that it
reactivates the cultural myths whose meaning had become forgotten,
and it seems to be substantiated by the further advances of the science
which earlier played a role in seemingly discrediting it (see Chapter 4).
Chapter 6 described some characteristics of the "image of man"
which is at once compatible with the reemergent "Perennial Philoso-
phy" and is well adapted for dealing with humankind's contemporary
dilemmas. Of special interest to the Western world is that Freemasonry
tradition which played such a significant role in the birth of the United
States of America, attested to by the symbolism of the Great Seal (on
the back of the dollar bill).
Guidelines and Strategies 185
Fig. 17. U.S. one-dollar bill.
In this version of the transcendental image, the central emphasis is
on the role of creative work in the life of the individual. (In "true
Freemasonry" there is one lodge, the universe-and one brotherhood,
everything that exists. Each person has the "privilege of labor," of
joining with the "Great Architect" in building more noble structures
and thus serving in the divine plan.) Thus this version of the "new
transcendentalism" (perhaps more than other versions imported from
the East more recently) has the potentiality of reactivating the Ameri-
can symbols, reinterpreting the work ethic, supporting the basic
concepts of a free-enterprise democratic society, and providing new
meanings for the technological-industrial thrust. At the sallie time, it is
compatible with other versions more indigenous to other parts of the
globe.
3. There is a serious mismatch between modern industrial-state culture and
institutions and the emerging new image of man. This mismatch produces
such reactions as the growing challenge to the legitimacy of business
institutions whose primary allegiance appears to be to their stock-
holders and managers, the growing disenchantment with the technocratic
elite, the decreasing trust and confidence in governments, all revealed in
recent survey data. The mismatch could result in serious social dis-
ruptions, economic decline, runaway inflation, and even institutional
collapse. On the other hand, institutions can modify themselves and adapt
to a new cultural paradigm, though probably not without a relatively
traumatic transition period.
4. There is, and will continue to be, deep psychological resistance to both the
new image and to its implications. No aspect of a person's total belief-and-
value system is so unyielding to change as his basic sense of identity, his
Cf M - N
self-image. It is a well-known phenomenon in psychotherapy that the
client will resist and evade the very knowledge he most needs to resolve
his problems. A similar situation probably exists in society and there is
suggestive evidence both in anthropology and in history that a society
tends to hide from itself knowledge which is deeply threatening to
the status quo but may in fact be badly needed for resolution of the
society's most fundamental problems. The reason contemporary
societal problems appear so perplexing may well be not so much their
essential abstruseness and complexity as the collective resistance to
perceiving the problems in a different way.
5. The degree to which the needed characteristics described in Chapter 5 are
realized may well determine the degree to which highly undesirable future
outcomes (economic collapse, a garrison-police state) can be avoided. The
emerging image of humankind has increasingly widespread acceptance
and long historical roots. It can be opposed and suppressed, but
probably at great social cost. The necessary condition for a stable
society in the medium-term future (say 1990) is that the behavior
patterns and institutions of the society shall have transformed them-
selves to be compatible with the new image.
These five premises are in their essence not demonstrable. Thus, we
make no pretense of having proven, them in any sense. They are in
general supported, however, by the evidence and arguments presented
in the previous chapters. They can be checked against new information
as it becomes available, to verify whether or not they receive further
support. Thus, it is appropriate to explore what sorts of actions would
be indicated if these propositions were to be accepted.
COMPARISON OF BASIC STRATEGIES
In the following analysis we concentrate on strategies for the United
States. They would be similar, but with important differences, for other
parts of the industrialized world, especially the nations with planned
economies. Significantly different strategies would be appropriate for
those Third-World nations with resources valued by the industrialized
world (mainly fossil fuels and minerals). The situation is still more
different for that residual "fourth world" of nations that have no
resources other than poor land and poor people.
Furthermore, we emphasize the roles of the powerful political and
economic institutions of the technologically advanced world because it
appears to be there that the main decisions will be made which will
determine the smoothness or disruptiveness of the transformation. It is
our purpose not to list specific tactics, other than as exemplars, but
rather to indicate guiding criteria for decisions and actions.
It will be useful to contrast five different basic strategies through
which a desired transformation might be fostered. These are restorative,
stimulative, manipulative, persuasive, and facilitative.
The fundamental goal of a restorative strategy would be to restore the
vitality and meaning of past images, symbols, institutions, and ap-
proaches to problems, which are believed to have worked successfully
in some prior period and hence are judged to be appropriate in the
present. Wallace, in his study of cultural revitalization movements
(1956), found that this strategy has particular appeal during the begin-
ning stages of the revitalization cycle, when the extent of the crisis has
not yet been recognized. In later stages, however, attempts to revert to
earlier forms come to be seen as clearly inadequate; hence, other
strategies are then adopted.
A stimulative strategy has as its fundamental goal the emergence of
new images, approaches, or actions that are desired but that are
"premature"-they do not fit the prevailing paradigm and hence
would not be very likely to attract support from mainstream institutions
in the society. The foci of stimulative strategies would tend to be
actions that anticipate a new paradigm, but do not yet have much
visibility or legitimacy. Such a strategy is especially appropriate when it
is becoming clear that a crisis exists and the inadequacies of the old
structures and concepts in-a society (or a science) are being revealed.
(Wallace calls this "cultural distortion" and Kuhn terms it a "crisis"
involving a breakdown of the old paradigm.)
While a stimulative strategy seeks to alter the institutions, values, and
behavior patterns of society in such a way as to honor or increase the
freedom of choice of individuals in the society, a manipulative strategy
attempts to accomplish a similar result through overtly or covertly
reducing individual freedoms. Some manipulative tactics may be direct
(as with the passage of a law); others may be more indirect (as with
editorial policies in the media, or "confrontation politics" in the coun-
ter-culture). This approach is more likely to be used by well-established
interests that are challenged by newer ones. As we saw, however, it was
effectively used in Germany to bring about dominance of a new image
of man and of the Fatherland, and it could be so used again.
A persuasive or propagandistic strategy has as its goal persuading
others of the rightness, utility, and attractiveness of a given image,
conception, or way of acting. This strategy is an essential part of the
political process, whether in the governmental activities of pluralistic
democracies and totalitarian states alike, or in the deciding between
com peting scientific theories.
188
A facilitative strategy seeks to foster the growth of new images and
patterns that are visibly emerging. The main purpose of the support
may be less to hasten or ensure the development than to help bring it
about with lowered likelihood of social disruption.
If we examine these five approaches in the context of the five
premises listed earlier, some seem appropriate and others much less so
to the transformation under consideration (from the industrial-era
image to the emergent transcendental-ecological one). The manipula-
tive type of strategy, for instance, is in such direct conflict with the
self-realization ethic that it could not be used without risking severe
distortion of the state it seeks to bring about.
Restorative strategies can play an important role in the present
transformation because of the fact that the new, emerging image is
essentially that of the Freemasonry influence which was of such im-
portance in the shaping of the nation's foundations. The activities of
the "Heritage" segment of the American Revolution Bicentennial are
mainly an attempt to recapture a waning American spirit, although
they could serve to promote the new image by reminding us of the
transcendental bases of the nation's founding (e.g. the all-seeing eye as
the capstone of the pyramidal structure in the Great Seal).
It is relatively easy to generate stimulative strategies from the
discussions of earlier chapters. For example, practically all the areas of
scientific research listed in Chapter 4 would furnish likely candidates-
altered states of consciousness and psychic research to name a couple.
Also, various educational and institutional-change strategies come to
mind. Appendix E lists a number of such stimulative strategies. There
is a caution to be kept in mind, however. Once a societal trans-
formation is underway, as this one appears to be, social stability
becomes a central problem. It is essential to have as accurate a picture
as possible of the total state of affairs, so that research related to
anticipating the nature and characteristics of the transformation rightly
assumes high priority. Widespread anxiety and the hazard of inap-
propriate and irrational responses can be kept lower with accurate
information. On the other hand, stimulative actions that result in too
rapid a change could be overly disruptive. It is even conceivable that
once into the transition period, actions contributing to social cohesion
might be much more constructive than actions to increase the polariza-
tion between the transformation enthusiasts and the conservatives.
Other than in the passage of laws, manipulative strategies, insofar as
the five initial premises hold up, would appear to be incompatible with
the emerging image. No doubt existing consciousness-changing,
behavior-shaping, subliminal persuasion, and other conditioning tech-
niques could be used to accomplish some sort of transformation of
sobering proportions (we ought to be able to be more effective than
Nazi Germany). However, the use of manipulative techniques for this
particular transformation conflicts fundamentally with the goals im-
plicit in the transformation. Thus, they would probably in the end be
disruptive and counterproductive.
Persuasive techniques that fall short of manipulation are unlikely to
be very effective. The reason is that one characteristic of such a
transition period as we seem to be entering is low faith in, dis-
enchantment with, and cynicism regarding both scientific and political
leadership.
The most appropriate strategies, if the initial premises are accepted,
would appear to be facilitative ones. The transformation has its own
dynamic; it can probably not be slowed down or speeded up very much
by political action, once it has enough momentum to be visible. But the
trauma of the transition, the amount of social disruption, economic
weakening, and political confusion can probably be affected a great
deal by the degree of understanding of what the transformation
process is, why it is necessary, and what the inherent goals are. To use a
biological metaphor, the woman beginning to experience labor pains
and associated physiological changes is much more likely to approach
the birth experience with low anxiety, and hence to avoid tensing up
and doing the wrong things, if she understands the nature of preg-
nancy and its inherent goal, than if she had no idea of the process or
where it leads.
Perhaps another comparison is even more pertinent. We have earlier
noted that societies in transformation bear a certain resemblance to
individual behaviors accompanying a psychological crisis. The dis-
location known as a psychotic break is sometimes brought on by the
total unworkability of the person's life pattern and belief system, such
that the whole structure seems to collapse and need rebuilding. Prior to
the crisis the person, to a disinterested observer, is seen to be engaging
in all sorts of irrational behavior in his frantic attempts to keep from
himself the awareness that his personal belief, value, and behavior
system was on a collision course with reality. Under favorable circum-
stances the individual goes through the crisis, uncomfortably to be
sure, and restructures his life in a more constructive way. In an
unfavorable environment, of course, the episode can escalate into a
catastrophe. In the case of a society a parallel condition to the psychotic
break can occur, with a relatively sharp break in long-term trends and
patterns. The analogues of irrational individual behavior may appear
(social disruptions, violent crime, alienation symptoms, extremes of
hedonism, appearance of bizarre religious cults, etc.). Massive denial of
realities may occur (e.g. with regard to exponential increases in popu-
lation or energy use). The society may go to extreme measures to hide
from itself the unworkability of the old order and the need for
transformation. The transformation itself, like the psychotic break,
may come almost ineluctably-and as with the individual, favorable and
unfavorable outcomes are both possibilities. What we have termed
facilitative strategies can be likened to the sort of care that may help
bring about a favorable outcome.
SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRANSFORMATION
Assuming, then, that primary emphasis should be placed on strategies
to facilitate a non-disruptive transformation, it follows that those stra-
tegies will be incremental ones, dynamically adapting to a rapidly
changing situation, and guided by an understanding of the nature and
necessity of the transformation and of the essential conditions for a
favorable outcome from a traumatic transition period. We need,
therefore, to examine the salient characteristics of the tranforrnation."
Nature of the Fundamental Anomaly
The central feature of the hypothesized transformation is that its in-
eluctability comes about, as indicated in Chapter 3, because of a major
and growing discrepancy between the cultural and social products of
industrialization, on the one hand, and generally desirable human ends
on the other. A fundamental anomaly exists of the following sort:
The basic system goals that have dominated the industrial era (material progress,
private ownership of capital, maximum return on capital investment, freedom of
enterprise, etc.),
and that have been approached through a set of intermediate goals that include
efficiency, economic productivity, continued growth of technological-manipulative
power, and continued growth of production and consumption,
have resulted in processes and states (e.g. extreme division of labor and specializa-
tion, compulsive replacement of men by machines, stimulated consumption, planned
obsolescence, exploitation of common resources, environmental degradation, wor-
sening world poverty) which
culminate in a counteracting of human ends (e.g. enriching work roles, self-
determination, conservation, wholesome environment, humanitarian concerns,
world stability).
Put another way, the fundamental anomaly is that "good" micro-
decisions, i.e. local decisions made in accordance with prevailing rules
and customs, currently do not add up to socially good macro-decisions.
Anthropologist Virginia H. Hine's thinking about "The Basic Paradigm of a Future
Socio-cultural System" (reprinted in Appendix F) is relevant to this discussion.
Individuals, corporations, government agencies in the course of their
activities make micro-decisions (e.g. to buy a certain product, to employ
a person for a particular task, to develop and market a new technology,
to enact a minimum-wage law) that are guided by a web of cultural and
habitual behavior patterns, common values and beliefs. These micro-
decisions interact to constitute a set of macro-decisions of the overall
society (e.g. a 4 percent annual growth rate in energy usage, degrada-
tion of the environment, depletion of non-renewable resources) which,
if Adam Smith's "invisible hand" were working properly, would be
compatible with the cultural aims and objectives of the society. The
degree of compatibility has for some time been visibly deteriorating.
The response to this fundamental anomaly is a massive and in-
tensifying challenge from consumers, environmentalists, minorities,
workers, civil libertarians, youth, and others, to be the legitimacy of basic
system goals and institutions. If economic and business goals do not
appear to be congruent with social goals, if "good" business decisions
lead to "bad" social decisions, this suggests the need for fundamental
changes in dominant institutions and social paradigms, to bring the
functioning of the society into harmonious relationship with the
dominant cultural image of human life. To this end some have pro-
posed one and another form of "new socialism" to increase the
governmental regulatory responsibilities over the micro-decision-mak-
ing of the citizenry and private-sector institutions.
It is important to note, in this connection, that the fundamental
anomaly described above is essentially a characteristic of technological
and industrial success, not of a particular form of government. Thus,
although its form is somewhat different, a similar sort of fundamental
dilemma is found in industrially advanced collectivist nations with
centralized social planning.
Essential Conditions for Resolution of the Fundamental Anomaly
This is not the place for an exhaustive discussion of the changes
necessary for society to resolve this basic dilemma. It is important to
our aims, however, to understand some of the conditions that will have
to be met as we muddle or plan our way through to a satisfactory
resolution.
In the first place, there will have to be some satisfactory coming to
terms with the "new scarcity." Scarcity (of food, potable water, con-
struction materials, etc.) has always been an aspect of the condition of
human life. It has in the past rather successfully been considered as
remediable by advancing frontiers and adequate technology. In some
sense it has thus been all but eliminated in the advanced nations. The
"new scarcity" is of a different sort. It arises from approaching the
finite planetary limits (1) natural storehouses of fossil fuels and strate-
gic materials, (2) the ability of the natural environment to absorb the
waste products of industrialized society, (3) fresh water, (4) arable land,
(5) habitable surface area, and (6) the ability of natural ecological
systems to absorb interventions without risking ecological catastrophes
that threaten human life. (In speaking of "finite limits" we recognize
that the limits are not rigid constraints, and are interdependent. Were
"clean" fossil fuels available in unlimited supply, for example, limits in
the other categories would be altered.) There has to be a reconciliation
of the "new scarcity" and of a culture of frugality with the conditions
for a healthy economy. To the extent that this can be accomplished
through institutional and cultural changes guided by a new image of
"man-on-earth," fewer constraints will be placed on enterprise and
individual liberties.
A second essential condition is the provision of sufficient oppor-
tunities for full and valued participation in the society. In other words,
there has to be a solution to the psychological-cultural problem of the
growing group of persons in an industrialized society who are defined
as out of the mainstream, as having little or nothing to offer in what are
taken to be the primary activities of the society, and who come to accept
for themselves the damning self-image of superfluousness. In a
modern society where productiveness comes from position in a
productive organism, the individual without the organization is un-
productive and ineffective; unemployment and underemployment
endanger self-respect and effective citizenship. Because of the deep
individual need for productive and significant work, none of the
current welfare and job-creation approaches offers much hope of
reaching to the roots of the unemployment problem. Treating work
opportunity as a scarce commodity (e.g. raising work-entry age and
lowering retirement age, inflating entry criteria, refraining from
cybernation of routine operations, maintaining disguised featherbed-
ding and makework) is in the end an unsound approach. Adequate
resolution would offer full and valued participation in the ongoing
societal evolution to all who want it.
These two basic conditions imply a third, namely, a satisfactory
resolution of the control dilemma. On the one hand, to deal with the
problems of the "new scarcity," with the cultural (as distinguished from
the economic) goal of full employment, and with the growing powers
of technology to change any and all aspects of the total environment
(physical, social, political, psychological), there is a demonstrated need
for some form of effective societal planning and control. On the other
hand, there are well-founded fears of the consequences of opting for
more governmental control. It remains to be shown that a democratic
society can deal with the "new scarcity," provide sufficient and suitable
social roles, anticipate and guide technological impacts, and protect the
interests of the overall society, and yet preserve the basic characteristics
of a free-enterprise system.
Fourth, the problem of obtaining more equitability in distribution of
the earth's resources will have to be dealt with. Inequities and maldis-
tributions are not new in human history, but with the appearance of
the "new scarcity" they present a new face. The achievement of a level
of life in accord with fundamental dignity for the world's nearly three
billion poor does not appear possible without continued economic
growth in both developing and developed nations. And yet economic
growth on the pattern of the past poses an undeniable threat to stocks
of non-renewable resources, to the environment, and to the health of
man. Furthermore, the expectations and demands of the lesser
developed world may well come at such a pace that they can be met
only by a lowering of the standard of living in the rich nations.
Thus, in the process of resolving the fundamental anomaly of the
industrial-state system, all four of the critical problem areas enu-
merated above will have to be dealt with. An essential precondition is
an image of man-on-earth something like that described in Chapter 6,
or at least meeting the conditions laid down in Chapter 5.
Two additional characteristics of the "necessary transformation"
deserve mention. Both have to do with the ways in which the changes
are stimulated and guided. The first relates to Adolph Lowe's obser-
vation (1965) that the state of an economic system depends upon
behaviors, which in turn depend upon motivations, which depend
upon images, beliefs, and values-and thus interventions for change
could be contemplated at any of these levels. Behavior patterns can be
altered by authoritarian controls, motivations can be affected by psy-
chological conditioning, and beliefs and values are modified by educa-
tion. Because of the images implicit in this particular historical trans-
formation, it would seem that at least in the long term, authoritarian
measures and manipulative conditioning approaches would be in-
compatible with the emergent state and hence of doubtful effectiveness.
The possible exception to this might be a temporary measure to help
hold things together during a disruptive transition period, but even
here the society would be well advised to use such approaches with
.caution.
A second and related characteristic has to do with contrasting res-
ponses to the challenge of the four key problems above. As Galbraith
and others have noted, when the thousand largest (mainly multi-
national) corporations in the world attained such size and power that
194
their incomes are larger than the majority of nation-state incomes,
their role in contributing to societal macro-decisions is significantly
altered. No longer are they simply subject to market forces; in an
important sense they exert control over the market. No longer are they
simply subject to the controls imposed by national governments; in an
important sense they exert control over national governments. Thus,
there arises a demand that the largest corporations assume a social
responsibility toward all those (a worldwide group) whose lives they
affect. One way in which this might come about is represented in
arguments for a "new socialism" in which important industries might
be nationalized (e.g. energy supply) and business would be subjected to
more control by government to ensure that society's macro-decisions
would be strongly influenced by elected representatives of the people
affected. An alternative response might be termed "new privatism" by
contrast. This response would involve recognition that legitimacy is
conferred or withdrawn in various ways besides elected representation,
and it would entail modifications to the operative goals of corporations
such that they include, on a par with earned return to stockholders, the
two additional goals of providing opportunities for meaningful work
(as output, in addition to goods and services) and providing tangible
benefits to society. Stockholders, after all, represent only one group
who have an investment in the corporations-employees invest some
portion of their lives, and the society invests its trust toward the
shaping of the future.
Difficulty of Achieving a Non-disruptive Transition
To restate the premises with which we began this chapter, we can see
two important dynamics bringing about a major historical trans-
formation, from the industrial era as we have known it to some sort of
"post-industrial" society (though not in the sense in which Daniel Bell
has used the term, which is much more the technological-extrapola-
tionist future of the preceding chapter). One of these dynamics is the
growing espousal of a new image of humankind, as described earlier in
this volume. The other is the progressive awareness of the ultimate
unworkability of the industrial paradigm as we have known it thus far.
It daily grows more abundantly clear that the Industrial Age is
running into trouble. The cultural premises and images that fostered
scientific, technological, industrial, and economic growth are proving to
be maladapted to the humane use of the products of that growth. The
emergent "image of man," with its implicit ecological ethic and self-
realization ethic, points the way to resolution of the contradictions of
Guidelines and Strategies
195
the industrial era. On the other hand, as was pointed out in Chapter 7,
institutional changes may already be lagging behind basic changes in
the culturally dominant images, and actions taken to further hasten
emergence of the new image could be socially disruptive. (Something
like this seems to have taken place during the psychedelic period when
Timothy Leary's advice to the young to "tune in, turn on, and drop
out" added its bit to the disorder of the times.)
Thus, the appropriate question may be not so much how to bring
about a transformation (even if one is quite convinced the situation is
exigent), but rather how to facilitate a non-catastrophic transition when
the dynamics for transformation are already there.
ELEMENTS OF A STRATEGY FOR A NON-CATASTROPHIC
TRANSITION
Based on the foregoing considerations, six elements of an overall
strategy for a minimally disruptive transition are discussed below. It is a
provisional strategy, in the sense that we assume events of the next few
years will continue to support the five initial premises. But we offer no
apology for strongly recommending the strategy, as long as this is
coupled with the recommendation to continue testing the premises.
1. Promote awareness of the unavoidability of the transformation, as a first
essential element of the strategy. Pulled by the emergence of a "new
transcendentalism" and pushed by the demonstrated inability of the
industrial-state paradigm to resolve the dilemmas its successes have
engendered, the fact and the shape of the necessary transformation are
predetermined. Growing signs of economic and political instability
indicate that the time is at hand. No more than the pregnant woman
approaching the time of her delivery can we now stop and reconsider
whether we really want to go through with it. The time is ripe for a
great dialogue on the national and world stage regarding how we shall
pass through the transformation, and toward what ends.
2. Construct a guiding version of a workable society, built around a new
positive image of humankind and corresponding vision of a suitable
social paradigm. As the old order shows increasing signs of falling
apart, some adequate vision of what may be simultaneously building is
urgently needed for mobilization of constructive effort.
Perhaps the most crucial need of our time is to foster the dialogue
about, and participatively construct, such a shared vision. (It is almost
self-evident that an effective image of a humane high-technology
society, congenial to the new image of humankind, would have to be
participatively constructed-not designed by a technocratic elite nor
revealed by a charismatic leader.) Chapter 7 describes some of the
broad characteristics of an evolutionary-transformation future. But
the guiding vision must be more specific than this. In particular, the
four dilemmas of the "new scarcity," the changing role of work,
control of technology, and more equitable sharing of the earth's
resources must be satisfactorily "re-visioned."
There must be a new economics, if not steadystate in a strict sense, at
least compatible with the constraints of the "new scarcity." An
economic theory and practice always implies a psychology or, more
particularly, a set of assumptions about human motivation. If motiva-
tions change, because the basic picture of man-on-earth and man-in-
the-cosmos has altered, then economics must change. If the old
economics required steady material growth as a necessary condition for
a healthy economy, it does not follow that the new economics will
likewise. Similarly, the definitions of good corporate behavior and good
business policy depend upon tacit social agreements about the bases for
legitimation, and change when those bases change. It may seem wildly
utopian in 1974 to think of the multinational corporations as potentially
among our most effective mechanisms for husbanding the earth's
resources and optimizing their use for human benefit-the current
popular image of the corporation tends to be more that of the spoiler
and the exploiter. But the power of legitimation is strong, as discussed
in Chapter 7, and the concept is growing that business must "derive its
just powers from the consent of those affected by its actions." The
vision of a workable future must include a resolution of the present
unsatisfactory situation where what is apparently sound business prac-
tice and good economics is often very unwise when viewed in the light
of the "new scarcity."
Second, the guiding vision has to include some way of providing for
full and valued participation in the economic and social affairs of the
community and society, especially for those who are physically and
mentally able to contribute but find themselves in a state of unwilling
idleness and deterioration of spirit. Here too there seems to be a
fundamental wrongheadedness in the conventional way of formulating
our economics. It is implicit in that formulation that laboring is some-
thing man tends to avoid. The outputs of the private sectors are
considered to be goods and services, which persons produce for pay.
But according to the emergent image of man this calculus is based on
faulty premises. Human beings seek creative work, and find it is the
means of their own self-realization. Thus, the outputs of the private
sector should be goods, services, and opportunities for meaningful
work. The new society will have to provide for significant expansion of
social-learning and social-planning roles, as discussed in Chapter 7, and
also for expansion of productive roles for those whose capabilities are
more modest.
The control dilemma requires for its resolution an effective network
for participative planning at local, regional, national, and world levels,
and again modifications to the economic incentives which at present
make it good business to do violence to the environment, squander
natural resources of all sorts, and treat persons as manipulable objects.
The fourth dilemma, the need for more equitable distribution of
resources, may prove to be the most difficult of all to resolve, consider-
ing the exploding numbers of the earth's human beings. We have
found it comfortable to believe, for some time, that the solution to the
problem of the world's poor is not redistribution of wealth but helping
the poor become productive. But the constraints of the "new scarcity"
preclude solving the problem this way. At any rate, the poor of the
world cannot become productive as America did, by exploiting cheap
energy and institutionalizing waste as a way of life.
3. Foster a period of experimentation and tolerance for diverse alternatives,
both in life styles and in social institutions. Experimentation is needed
to find out what works, but there is a more important reason for trying
to maintain an experimental climate. That is to reduce hostile tensions
between those who are actively promoting the new and those who are
desperately attempting to hold on to the old. In public education, for
instance, it is equally important that new experimental curricula be
tried and that the traditional subjects be available for those who resist
moving precipitously into the new.
4. Encourage a politics of righteousness, and a heightened sense of public
responsibilities in the private sector. Surveys and polls display drastically
lowered faith of the American people in both business and government.
At the same time, an atmosphere of trust is needed for the tasks ahead,
the emergent image of man supports a moral perspective, and private
lapses from moral and ethical behavior are harder to conceal. A politics
of righteousness might have been laudable in any generation; it may be
indispensable for safe passage through the times just ahead. A greatly
heightened sense of stewardship and public responsibilities for power-
ful institutions in the private sector is, the appropriate response to
rising challenges to the legitimacy of large profit-seeking industrial
corporations and financial institutions. If these are to be more than
merely pious statements, changes in institutional arrangements and
economic incentives will need to be instituted so that individuals and
institutions can afford to behave in these commendable ways.
5. Promote systematic exploration of, and foster education regarding, man's
inner life. At the end of Chapter 4 we postulated an emergent scientific
paradigm placing far more emphasis than in the past on explorations of
subjective experience-of those realms that have heretofore been left
to the humanities and religion, and to some extent to clinical psy-
chology. The present situation leaves far too much of this societally
important research to informal and illicit activities. Interested persons,
not all young, resort to cultish associations, bizarre experimentation,
and illegal drug use because they find legitimated opportunities for
guided exploration in the society's religious, educational, scientific, and
psychotherapeutic institutions to be inadequate, inappropriate, or in-
accessible. This nation's guarantees of religious freedom have been in a
curious way subverted by the preponderating orthodoxy of a materi-
alistic scientific paradigm.
6. Accept the necessity of social controls for the tranHtwn period while
safeguarding against longer-term losses of freedom. The transformation that
is underway has a paradoxical aspect, according to the five initial
premises. In considerable measure it has been brought about by the
success of material progress (through better nutrition, higher standard
of living, education, and the media) in raising more persons above
excessive concern with subsistence needs. On the other hand, as the
transition-related economic decline and social disruptions set in, they
will tend to accentuate materialistic security needs. Political tensions will
rise, and disunity will characterize social affairs. Regulation and res-
traint of behavior will be necessary in order to hold the society together
while it goes around a difficult corner. The more there can Be general
understanding of the transitory but inescapable nature of this need, the
higher will be the likelihood that a more permanent authoritarian
regime can be avoided.
This is no strategy of "business as usual," if these six elements are
taken seriously. They can contribute to a more orderly transformation,
with fewer social wounds to be healed, than would be otherwise the
case. Appendix E lists some exemplary specific actions that might be
part of implementing such a strategy.
One last word. The general tone of this work has been optimistic,
which is fitting since there does indeed appear to be a path-through a
profound transformation of society, the dynamics for which may al-
ready be in place-to a situation where the present major dilemmas of
the late-industrial era appear at least resolvable. That optimism,
however, relates to the potentialities only. It should not be mistaken for
optimism that industrial civilization will develop the requisite under-
standing, early enough, to enable it to navigate these troubled waters
without nearly wrecking itself in the process. In hoping this, some of us
would be less sanguine.
(Source unknown.)
200
Summary
Images of humankind which are dominant in a culture are of fun-
damental importance because they underlie the ways in which the
society shapes its institutions, educates its young, and goes about
whatever it perceives its business to be. Changes in these images are of
particular concern at the present time because our industrial society
may be on the threshold of a transformation as profound as that which
came to Europe when the Medieval Age gave way to the rise of science
and the Industrial Revolution.
In this study we have attempted to:
1. illuminate significant ways our society has been shaped by myths
and images or the past;
2. explore key deficiencies of current images of man and identify
characteristics needed in future images; and
3. derive guidelines for actions to facilitate the emergence of more
adequate images of humankind, and of a better society.
We have concentrated particularly on an analysis of images which
derive from industrialism and science, exploring ways in which these
might be transformed so as to further both personal and cultural
evolution.
The recent industrial-state era can be typified by a number of almost
certainly obsolescent premises, such as:
That progress is synonymous with economic growth and increasing consumption.
That mankind is separate from nature, and that it is the human destiny to conquer
nature.
That economic efficiency and scientific reductionism are the most trustworthy
approaches to fulfillment of the goals of humanity.
Such premises were very appropriate for the transition from a world
made up of low-technology agrarian endeavors and city-states to one
dominated by high-technology nation-states; they helped provide a
seemingly ideal way to increase humankind's standard of living and to
bring problems of physical survival under control. But their successful
realization has resulted in an interconnected set of urgent societal
problems which likely cannot be resolved if we continue to accept those
premises; they now appear ill-suited for the further transition to a
planetary society that would distribute its affluence equitably, regulate
Ol M - 0
201
itself humanely, and embody appropriate images of the further future.
If the post-industrial era of the future is dominated by the industrial-
era premises, images, and policies of the past, the control of deviant
behavior needed to make societal regulation possible would in all
likelihood require the application of powerful socio- and psycho-tech-
nologies. The result could well be akin to what has been termed
"friendly fascism-a managed society which rules by a faceless and
widely dispersed complex of warfare-welfare-industrial-communica-
tions-police bureaucracies with a technocratic ideology." Evidence
exists that this sort of future is already nascent.
In contrast to such a "technological extrapolationist" future, this
report envisions an "evolutionary transformation" for society as a more
hopeful possibility.
Some characteristics of an adequate image of humankind for the
post-industrial future were derived by: (1) noting the direction in which
premises underlying the industrial present would have to change in
order to bring about a more "workable" society; (2) from examination
of the ways in which images of humankind have shaped societies in the
past; and (3) from observation of some significant new directions in
scientific research. A future "image of man" meeting these conditions
would:
1. convey a holistic sense of perspective or understanding of life;
2. entail an ecological ethic, emphasizing the total community of
life-in-nature and the oneness of the human race;
3. entail a self-realization ethic, placing the highest value on
development of selfhood and declaring that an appropriate func-
tion of all social institutions is the fostering of human develop-
ment;
4. be multi-leveled, multi-faceted, and integrative, accommodating
various culture and personality types;
5. involve balancing and coordination of satisfactions along many
dimensions rather than the maximizing of concerns along one
narrowly defined dimension (e.g. economic); and
6. be experimental, open-ended, and evolutionary.
It appears to be at least conceptually feasible that a future image of
humankind having these characteristics could "work." Further, specific
steps can be undertaken through which the facilitation and promul-
gation of such an image might be accomplished. By comparing the
conclusions drawn by investigators in fields ranging from mythology to
the history of science, a number of stages in a seemingly universal
"cycle of transformation" are presented to help formulate such next
steps.
Summary 203
But there exists little evidence to suggest that a change in the
dominant image could be accomplished by rational deliberation, plan-
ning, and organized activity-or that the results of such manipulative
rationality would necessarily be benign. On the other hand, whether by
fortunate circumstance or creative unconscious processes, an emerging
image with many of the needed characteristics does seem to have made
its (re)appearance.
This emerging image reinstates the transcendental, spiritual side of
humankind, so long ignored or denied by that official truth-seeking
institution of modern society, science. The new image denies none of the
conclusions of science in its contemporary form, but rather expands its
boundaries. In a manner reminiscent of the well-worn wave-particle
example from physics, the new image reconciles such pairs of
"opposites" as body/spirit, determinism/free will, and science/religion.
It includes the inner subjective as well as the outer objective world as
valid areas of human experience from which knowledge can be
obtained. It restores, in a way, the balance between the Middle Ages'
preoccupation with the noumenal and the industrial era's preoc-
cupation with the phenomenal. It brings with it the possibility of a new
science of consciousness and ecological systems not limited by the
manipulative rationality that dominates the science and technology of
the present era.
The issues raised in this report are crucial ones. Indeed if the
analysis is accurate, our society may be experiencing the beginning of
an institutional transformation as profound in its consequences as the
Industrial Revolution, and simultaneously a conceptual revolution as
shaking as the Copernican Revolution.
History gives us little reason to take comfort in the prospect of
fundamental and rapid social change-little reason to think we can
escape without the accompanying threat of economic decline and social
disruption considerably greater than anything we have experienced or
care to imagine. If in fact a fundamental and rapid change in basic
perceptions and values does occur, such a chaotic period seems inevit-
able as the powerful momentum of the industrial era is turned in a new
direction, and as the different members and institutions of the society
respond with different speeds. Thus, a great deal depends upon a
correct understanding of the nature of, and the need for, the trans-
formation which is upon us.
While actions and policies in keeping with the "technological
extrapolationist" image would involve no great wrenching in the near
term, they could lead to catastrophe or to "friendly fascism" in the
longer term. Actions and policies in keeping with an "evolutionary
transformationalist" image, on the other hand, might increase the level
of seeming disorder and chaos during a transition period in the near
term but later lead to a more desirable society. While the choice is not
necessarily one that our society as a whole will or should make con-
sciously and deliberately at this time, it is one that confronts each
individual who is willing to accept responsibility for the future-rather
than simply adapt to whatever the future may bring.
Glossary
Conscious, consciousness-the state or fact of awareness applied
either to one's self-existence or to one or more external objects,
states, or facts-characterized by sensation, emotion, volition, and
thought.
Economic image of man-the image of humankind as "cogs in the
industrial machine," valued chiefly for their roles as producers and
consumers, and motivated primarily by those roles.
Entropy-in thermodynamics, the degree to which the energy of a
system has ceased to be available for doing work (as when the
temperature of a heat source and a heat sink has become equalized).
As expressed by the second law of thermodynamics, when a closed
physical system is left alone, its entropy increases as the available
energy decreases with the passage of time (leading to speculations
that the universe is "running down"). In information theory,
entropy is a measure of the uncertainty or disorder of knowledge in
a system.
Evolution, evolutionary-the process of continuous or step-wise
change in form, structure, or function from lower, simpler or less
desirable system states to those that are higher, more complex, or
better-i.e. from higher to lower states of entropy.
Evolutionary transformationalist image-a view of the future essen-
tially involving transformation of the "industrial state paradigm"
such that key dilemmas within it are resolved and human evolution is
accelerated.
Gradient-a sequence of transitional forms, states, or qualities connect-
ing related extremes.
Image-(n.) a mental picture, description or conception (often held in
common by persons of a particular culture) of reality symbolic of
basic attitudes and orientation; (v.t.) to imagine or evoke a mental
image picture.
Industrial state paradigm-the particular set of attitudes, premises,
ethics, and laws that dominate highly industrialized societies (see
Paradigm below).
Paradigm-the total pattern of perceiving, conceptualizing, acting,
validating, and valuing associated with a particular image of reality
that prevails in a science, a branch of science, a society or subculture.
Spiritual-relating to or consisting of spirit, i.e. non-material levels
205
of reality available to conscious and superconscious experience, often
in imagistic thought.
Subconscious-existing in the mind, but not available to consciousness.
Superconscious, superconsciousness-the state or fact of awareness
manifesting in ways that transcend the ordinary egocentric
experience of existence (such as unitive consciousness with others,
oceanic or "cosmic" consciousness involving heightened intuition,
extrasensory or so-called transpersonal processes, "direct percep-
tion," etc.).
Technological extrapolist image-a view of the future essentially in-
volving a continuation of the dominant premises, procedures, and
trends that characterize highly industrial societies.
Transformation-a type of change process in which the "shape" and
the character of many or most interactions of a system suddenly
change (as in the transformation from laminar to turbulent flow in a
fluid; from unbelief to commitment in a religious conversion; or
from pluralistic tolerance to xenophobic ("in-group solidarity due to
out-group threat") isolationism in a society). In contrast with in-
cremental or revolutionary change (as the latter terms are cus-
tomarily used), transformation here refers to a "top-down/inside-
out" change of the dominant social paradigm, as an organic process.
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APPENDIX A
An Alternative View of History,
The Spiritual Dimension of the Human Person,
and a Third Alternative Image of Humanness
ELISE BOULDING
An Alternative Interpretation of History
Your image of psychically evolving man is, I think, incorrect. A study
of the papers from The University of Chicago Symposium on Hunting
and Gathering Societies held in the late 1960s, plus examination of the
anthropologist Paul Rodin's work (and lots more!), has led me to a
different hypothesis: humans have had the intellectual-analytic and
spiritual-intuitive skills at about the same capacity level for at least
12,000 years. I see a history as a series of thresholds: (1) the agricultural,
village-based threshold of 10,000 B.C. when humans reached village-
type densities; (2) the first urban-based kingdoms, 3500 B.C.; (3) the
first attempts to weave moral teachings into large-scale political
organization with the availability of the teachings of Buddha, Lao Tse,
Confucius, and Vedic teachings, 500 to 200 B.C. with a flowering in
Asoka's Empire; (4) Joachim de Fiore's vision of the post-bureaucratic
age in the late 1100s, and the whole concept of the demise of ecclesiasti-
cal structures of society and the rule of the Holy Spirit in the hearts of
men, which together with the great inflow of Islamic science and
culture and Islamic translations of Greek manuscripts, and the rise of
the Dominicans and Franciscans (post-bureaucratic religious orders)
and the development of schools, research laboratories and workshops
within the craft guilds, created a fantastic threshold and a sense of new
possibilities beyond what twentieth-century visionaries now conceive.
Thresholds (1) to (3) you also at least identify, but you skip over Islam
and the thirteenth century entirely. My view is that while each of these
thresholds represents a new level of societal complexity, it does not
represent a new level of spiritual evolution. Rather, at each new level of
complexity we stand again before the possibility of blending of our
219
cognitive and spiritual-intuitive capacities, with a new set of supporting
tools and social technology, and each time we have slid away from the
threshold. My IRADES conference paper for September 1973 in Rome
on Religious Potentials and Societal Complexity spells this out as I
cannot here. I think it is important not to fall into the trap of thinking
we have some new potentials to draw on because it will make us
underestimate the difficulty of the task. I am fearful of a "mindless
Teilhardism. "
The Spiritual Dimension of the Human Person
Your conception of the spiritual dimension is thin because you have
said nothing at all about the Christian mystic tradition, only yoga and a
bit of Confucius and a hint of Zen and Sufism. I have spent a whole
year developing a model of the linking of cognitive and spiritual-
intuitive faculties drawing on learning theory and the practices of the
Christian mystics, also taking account of Zen and Yoga. It comes out
rather differently than what you present, and I cannot possibly give the
model in a short space here. Some indicators, however: you confuse
transpersonal and transcendental. They are different. Also, writing of
the passive will without a knowledge of Meister Eckhart and the
Rhineland mystics makes it inadequate. Evelyn Underhill's mysticism
gives the classic treatment of the kind of reworking of the human
person involved in the mystical path. She points out that the astral
realm, which is the one you are primarily dealing with when you write
of techniques for inducing altered states of consciousness and heigh-
tening our powers of ESP, precognition, psychokinesis, etc., is one that
the saints all recognize and move through as quickly as possible. Self-
realization as you conceive it is very much an astral-realm concept, and
while no one can deny that these are fascinating phenomena and are
certainly amenable to currently developing techniques of analysis and
training, I predict that we are in for at least a 10,000-year period of
wallowing in the astral realm before we have "used it up" as we are
now "using up" the potentialities of the scientific approach. Maybe that
is necessary, but let no one think that those 10,000 years will be any
better than the 12,000 we have behind us, in terms of human goodness
and welfare. We are in for a long, bad spell of demonism and are
bound to have periodic eruptions of witchcraft scares-we are begin-
ning to have them already. Read Masters and Houston's Mind Games,
taking time to induce self-hypnosis and do each exercise as you go
along (as I did), and then start evaluating the new mind-control
institutes-like Arica. We have some difficult times ahead. The point is
Appendix A 221
we can do all this, but it will not "save us" because it does not transform
the will or direct the heart. Jean Houston is herself getting very
worried about all this, I understand, and her approach is to demo-
cratize mind control by teaching everyone to do it. I do not think it will
work.
While I like your emphasis on wisdom, and the ecological ethic, your
emphasis on self-realization makes me sad. What is the self, that we
should realize it? You treat charism as some kind of social poison-
which I understand well enough when you are thinking in contexts like
Cohn's Pursuit of the Millennium, but charism, eruptions of grace or spirit
into the prepared or unprepared human heart, is a hint of something
else that lies before us besides merely self-realization.
A Third Alternative Image of Humanness
(contrasting with the two presented in your Chapter 8)
This would be another way to conceptualize new image, counterpart
statements:
1. In genetic substrate, consider findings of Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Hass
on genetic substrate for nurturant behavior, not just aggression; also
take account of whole Kropotkin tradition-Clyde Allee, etc.-on
cooperative tendencies in animal and human.
2. Development of a sense of the creator as something more than the
other end of a divine human continuum. Respect for the Cloud of
Unknowing.
3. The evolving self and evolving social structures also recognize a
"beyond" self and "beyond" social structure.
4. Deemphasis of sensuality, discovery of family as training ground
for how to be human, overcoming of pathological fear of family
intimacy; family as base for ever-expanding circles of friendship,
extended family a growth reality, but intimate enduring pair relation-
ships basis for all other loving and caring. (Israel Charny's Marital Love
and Hate has an important concept here on family as training ground.
My own fairly extensive observations on multiple love relationships is
that they are costly and disastrous for adults and children. Also family
is an important source of images of the future-see my "Familism and
Creation of Futures.") Discover tenderness outside of sexuality, widen
bases for human friendships.
5. Balance of rational and intuitive-same as in [your evolutionary
transformationalist image].
6. Growth of spiritual life beyond concept of altered states of con-
222
sciousness, in practices of contemplative prayer that enrich capacities
for social interactions in new dimensions.
7. Beyond ephemeralization, the ethic of frugality itself, joy of doing
with less.
I realize all this needs much more explaining:
Things I miss in manuscript, not already mentioned:
1. Recognition of growth value of pain and conflict. Pain is a teacher
we probably cannot do without.
2. As alternative to hierarchical model, Anthony Judge's non-
hierarchical "solar-system model" which he uses for international rela-
tions but can be used at any level. Publications in Journal of Union of
International Associations.
3. Not enough emphasis on practical aspects of the planetary person,
the new person at home in all kinds of transnational identities and
networks. Nation state, "America" too important in manuscript-these
are fast becoming irrelevant. Too little emphasis on multinational
business corporations (just one kind of network, must not be overem-
phasized). Cultural initiatives from elsewhere. Assumption is that we
choose to "use" what we like from the East. It will not happen that way.
West will soon be by-passed, at least very possibly-ought to be put in
perspective.
4. You have Sri Aurobindo in your image but left Gandhi out
entirely. His concepts of sanodya-not wanting what others cannot
have-and a loving concern for the welfare of others that enhances,
rather than devalues, the self are badly needed. Your image is more
a-social and self-centered than it needs to be because this emphasis is
lacking.
The manuscript is also a bit pale and lacks a sense of the tremendous
dynamic of love. Self-actualization is but the shadow of self-overflowing
love.
APPENDIX B
Information Systems and Social Ethics
GEOFFREY VICKERS
On Information Systems
In [earlier chapters] you almost omit reference to what I regard as
the most revolutionary scientific image change of our time (although
you rely on it in later chapters). And insofar as you do refer to it in
Chapter 4, you do not distinguish it from other later and still pending
changes. I refer to the revolutionary impact of the distinction which
science has learned to draw in the last 30 years between energy and
information. This, more than anything else (in my view), has changed
the scientific image of reality by negating reductionism and substituting
a hierarchic concept of levels of organization, each dependent on but
not explicable in terms of the level below (thus confirming what
Michael Polanyi has been saying) [without its aid].
It has also legitimized the scientific study of human communication
(which you barely mention) and thus introduced a new scientific image
of man as communicating social man and of the hierarchic develop-
ment of both persons and societies by attaining different levels of
communication. D. M. Mackay, for example, has tried to show why and
how dialogue differs from attempts at mutual manipulation by words. I
once heard Professor Ham at Toronto interrupt a similar demon-
stration to show how far the diagram he had drawn fell short of the
kind of mutual communication described by Martin Buber in I and
Thou. Saul Corn writes, "We spend the first year of our lives learning
that we end at our skin, and all the rest of our lives learning that we
don't." These men are a physicist, an engineer, and a designer of
computer languages.
Note that this huge change results not at all (as yet) from studying
ESP and all that. It comes from studying those familiar powers at which
science had declined to look, even when it took them for granted.
Science itself has always developed far more by listening, talking, and
reflecting than by observing, experimenting, and reasoning. Know-
223
224
ledge of (not merely about) other human beings depends even more on
social communication. Our main input comes neither from our five
accepted senses, nor from our more esoteric ones, but from the activity
of our own minds in intimate linguistic communication with others.
This fact, emerging from scientific tabu, makes the human dimension
respectable.
Brief references to this revolution are to be found in Chapter 4 (e.g.
the reference to hierarchy). I would like to see them developed,
separated and put earlier.... The revolution is itself both earlier in
time and distinct in character from those to which you look forward. It
has already taken place. It is a shift in scientific categories as important
as the distinction of energy from matter which marked the previous
250 years. And, incidentally, it is essential to understanding how any
kind of ethic arises.
Let me expand a little on the revolution. (I have written about this in
many papers, e.g. in "Science and the Regulation of Society.") When
Driesch in the 1890s asserted that his divided sea-urchin embryos could
not grow into complete sea urchins unless they somehow knew where
they were going, he wrongly postulated a goal-seeking force (entelechy)
and was reviled, because forces must not be thought of as seeking
goals. If he had advanced the much more daring, but more correct,
hypothesis that every cell was saturated with information about the
future shape of the whole, he would have been ignored because
information was not then a scientific concept. It became a scientific
concept half a century later-and within another decade Crick and
Watson had identified (not broken) the genetic code. Three centuries
earlier Descartes had had to postulate a special kind of matter (res
cogitans) to account for mind, just as Driesch had to postulate a special
kind of energy to account for form-making. Both men lacked an
acceptable universe or discourse adequate to express their insights.
Similarly Freud, trying to describe form in terms of energy, was
driven into difficulties which would simply not have arisen if he had
been born a few decades later. His successors are beginning to fill out
his concept of the ego as a creator of form, rather than a resultant of
forces.
If this view is acceptable to you, I hope you will be able to squeeze it
in, partly as an example of prematurity and tabu, but chiefly as the
most important conceptual revolution of our time-hardly a debt to
science (non-scientists have always known that men lived in a concep-
tual world of their own making) but the withdrawal of a scientific tabu
which legitimizes human communication as the means by which men
humanize themselves and their children and build a human world
hierarchically distinct from the biological organ with which they build
Appendix B
225
it. Every computer engineer knows that there is a category difference
between a program and a computer. An un-programmed computer
cannot compute. And even the activities of a programmed computer, if
described in physical terms, give no clue at all to what the program is
all about. Some psychologists and biologists may still think it a scandal
to distinguish mind from brain as complementary categories hierar-
chically ordered. But such distinctions are common assumptions to
programmers and electronic engineers.
So even if there were no other states of consciousness, we should be
in for a major revolution by being allowed to think about the ones we
know we have.
I am most interested in all Chapter 4 has to say about research into
different states of consciousness and about psi phenomena. I find all
this much more relevant and important than I expected. But I think it
will greatly gain if you can separate it from this other element. This
would also enable you to deal more adequately with general systems
theory which owes its development on the psycho-social side to the
concept of information. It would be well, in doing so, to mark the
distinction between systems open only to the exchange of energy and
those open also to the exchange of information. This is an important
distinction in general systems theory as I understand it, and an essen-
tial ingredient in the building of hierarchies of organization.
On Social Ethics
This lacuna (as I see it) in your presentation seems to me also to
weaken Chapter 5.... Ethics appear as something we need but we have
been told virtually nothing about how they originate except that they
are influenced by images of man. Now whatever their origin, ethics can
only be understood (by me at least) as standards of what to expect from
each other and from ourselves in concrete situations. They are possible
only because we can engage through communication in these social and
inter-personal transactions.
You rightly stress that these standards reflect images of man current
in the culture. But because you understress (in my view) the specifically
social nature of man (humanized by membership of a specific society),
you leave the reader to assume that the cogency of an ethic in your
view derives directly from belief in a metaphysic, i.e. that the "ought"
is derived directly from the "is." Apart from the fact that this is
generally regarded as very imperfectly true, it leaves a weakness which
becomes apparent in Chapter 5 when we are invited to plan the
development of an ecological ethic and self-realization ethic. From then
on we search, almost in vain, for an indication that the new image of
man is to imply any sense of responsibility towards his neighbour next
door.
Now it seems to me self-evident that a world such as you describe
would have to pay for being de-politicized and decentralized by a huge
increase in social responsibility and that this would greatly limit all this
self-actualization except insofar as it became (as it should) a main
channel through which individuals actualize themselves. A more
human world will be a more socially responsible world and this res-
ponsibility will have costs as well as benefits, limitations as well as
enlargements in terms of "self-actualization." This verity is the great
tabu of the counter-culture. It seems to me to have infected you also.
The resolution or containment of conflict is not explained, but simply
assumed.
Everyone knows that I do not further my neighbour's self-actualiza-
tion by seeking my own any more (or less) than I further his wealth by
seeking my own. On the other hand, to find one's own self-actualiza-
tion simply in helping others to find theirs has always been one
definition of a saint. Yet your summary of "an adequate image of
man," suddenly replete with ethics, seems to have no room for social
ethics at all. A duty to the ecosphere is the only duty expected of this
abstract Man-except the duty to "actualize himself." It does not
expressly deny that no one can actualize his potential in one way
without denying its actualization in another, or actualize it in any way
in isolation from his neighbour. But it makes no reference to the social
demands and constraints within which this personal artistry is to be
performed, and which are inseparable from its value.
So my basic question (if not yours) remains unanswered. An
adequate image of man for the U.S.A. in A.D. 2000 would find a jointly
acceptable position for the negro, assure integrity in the White House
and produce a markedly different distribution of wealth, earnings, and
incomes (I could produce a similar catalogue for Britain). It is not clear
to me how these would flow merely from the changed images of man
described in Chapter 5.
This comment is the residue of my original objection that changing
images of man will not of itself change social ethics and cannot even be
convincingly described without including an account of social ethics
and the reciprocal effect of social ethics on it. In other words, it
complains that all this thinking lacks an adequate sociological dimen-
sion. (Philosophical thinking nearly always does. I regard Man with a
capital letter as a danger signal.) You cannot fully meet this point even
if you wanted to, but I think it would help if you were to give more
importance to the emergence of human communication as a subject for
Appendix B 227
study at its familiar levels and not only at the higher levels which most
interest you and thus to the current change in the image of com-
municating, social man, member, creator, and creation of a specific
social group.
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APPENDIX C
A View of Modified Reductionism
(excerpted from The Method of Science and the Meaning of Reality)
HENRY MARGENAU
The problem of "levels of explanation" recurs frequently ... and it
merits attention.
It needs to be faced ... because it involves the question whether all
phenomena in this world, including the most complex, can find their
ultimate explanation in the constructs of the simpler sciences. The
answer is not an unqualified Yes or No.
First of all, it is necessary to draw a clear distinction between levels of
explanation and levels of organization. The term levels of explanation
refers, strictly speaking, to degrees of abstractness of the explanatory
scheme, to what one might call metaphorically the distance of the
constructs of explanation from the protocol plane of experience.
Levels of organization, on the other hand, designate stages of complexity
of phenomena. Theories which postulate the need of different types of
law, i.e. of different modes of explanation at different levels of com-
plexity, are also characterized as theories of different levels of explana-
tion. In the present context the sense of this phrase will be thus
construed.
The problem of levels appears also as the problem of reducibility of
phenomena. It asks whether observations on a plane of high com-
plexity are reducible to the laws active on a lower plane, for instance
whether biological phenomena such as growth, cellular organization,
teleological function, etc., are ultimately explicable by reference to the
laws of physics and chemistry. Every question about levels can there-
fore be transformed to one with respect to reducibility.
Two essential resolutions of the problems of reducibility have been
proposed. One is the radical negative one which claims that different
laws act at different levels of complexity and that these laws may well be
logically unrelated or even contradictory. According to this view, there
is no continuity of explanation between levels. The other thesis insists
upon a continuous connection between explanatory modes at different
stages of complexity. This latter view may take two forms:
229
230
(a) The laws at the lowest level and sufficient to explain phenomena on all levels.
These basis laws, to be sure, may not be fully known at the present time, but it is
expected that when they are at hand they will explain all possible observations in
the entire universe.
(b) The second view is milder. It does not claim, for example, that the laws of physics
and chemistry are necessarily sufficient to account for happenings in the biological
realm, but it insists that the laws in the more complex biological field, while not
identical with those of physics and chemistry, are nevertheless logically compatible
with them. This last view, (b), which asserts limited reducibility will be espoused in
this discussion and in this book we proceed to describe it now in more explicit
terms.
Perhaps at the lowest level of scientific interest is the mechanics of
particles. Here the physicist is able to operate with simple theories
involving Newton's laws and the idea of forces. The state of a small
system of particles is fully described in terms of the positions and
velocities of the particles and the forces that act between them.
Greater complexity is met at the level of large aggregates of particles
such as gases and liquids. Here it is useless to describe conditions in
terms of positions and velocities of all individual molecules. Higher
level concepts like temperature, pressure, phase, entropy, etc., are
needed. These concepts, while perfectly clear in their reference to
aggregates, have no meaning with respect to a single molecule; a single
molecule has no temperature, no pressure, no entropy, etc. Yet there is
no logical contradiction at all between the assumption that a gas has
temperature and a single one of its constituents has not. Furthermore,
knowledge of the positions and velocities of each individual molecule
permits an inference (through well-known theorems of statistical
mechanics of all the collective properties of the gas. The reverse,
however, is not true: knowing the temperature, pressure, entropy, etc.,
of a gas one cannot infer the positions and velocities of the individual
molecules. This state of affairs is best characterized by saying that there
is continuity of explanation from below, but not from above. One can go
continually toward an understanding of matters on the higher plane if
one starts with knowledge on the lower plane, though not in the
reverse direction. But in this ascent, knowledge on the lower plane
becomes irrelevant because new concepts like temperature, etc., emerge,
and these have no direct reference to particles.
Another example may further clarify the situation. Many problems
of atomic physics can be understood on the basis of so-called dynamical
laws, the laws which control the behavior of individual electrons,
protons, and other. so-called elementary particles. These are regulated
by the Schrodinger equation (or some other "wave" equation) which is,
in a certain sense, the equivalent of Newton's second law in classical
Appendix C 231
mechanics. If, however, several electrons or several other particles of
the same kind are present, another, more important law supervenes
upon the Schrodinger equation; this is Pauli's Exclusion Principle
which rules that no two electrons can be in the same state. It is this
remarkable principle, dealt withmore fully in the next chapter, which
makes possible all so-called cooperative effects in inorganic matter: the
unique regularities of atomic structure, chemical binding, crystal
shapes, magnetism, electrical conductivity, and many others. This
principle, on the other hand, has absolutely no relevance for single
electrons; its significance arises only in connection with collectives.
Once more, explanation is continuous from below but discontinuous
from above.
There is at present no road toward a full explanation of biological
effects from the domains of physics and chemistry. In accordance with
the present interpretation of level theory, however, higher level
"organizational" laws which will be discovered 'in researches on biolo-
gical phenomena are likely to be sui generis, not derivable from what is
known at present in the physical realm. Yet when discovered they are
expected to be compatible with what is known on this lower level.
It is this cautious view of reducibility, this modern version of the
theory of levels of explanation, that is being held in this book when
reference is made to the problems of reducibility, or of levels of
explanation. Many aspects of these levels are clarified and used exten-
sively by Taylor (Chapter 5); they play an important role in our
understanding of social organization.
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APPENDIX D
Scientific Images of Man and the Man ln the Street
Comment by Rene Dubos
I do not share the common belief that the images of man have been
profoundly influenced by science. But I realize that the report is
organized precisely around this assumption. To quote your own words,
"The focus of the study is directed at images that are largely derivative
from industrialism and science.... " It is obvious, of course, that
technology has influenced somewhat the attitude of the man in the
street but I am much more skeptical concerning the effects of theoreti-
cal science. I suspect that a learned and sophisticated man of Greece or
of China 2500 years ago would have had an image of himself and of his
relation to the cosmos not very different from that of academic people
in America today. As to the man in the street, I doubt that he is more
concerned with this problem than was an average citizen anywhere in
the Western world a few hundred years ago.
Comment by David Cahoon
I will share with you a line of rumination that the chapters evoked in
me, a "fear" that I have seen given little attention (except by Donald
Michael in The Unprepared Society and his recent book on Planning
for Change). What "hits" me from your perspective on "Images" is that
there seems to be a growing gap between a generalized "popular
mind" and perhaps a "professional mind" regarding "Image of Man."
For example, ... it seems to me that the "popular mind" is rather
unaffected by what you call the "industrial era images" that might be in
conflict or alternatives to the "Am. Creed" Image (man as "beast,"
man as "mechanism," man as "holon," "Perennial Phil." image).
The "professional mind," on the contrary, is strongly troubled by
these conflicting "images." In other words, the religious and political
heritage seems dominant for the "popular mind," while increasingly
the scientific heritage is dominant for the "professional mind." True,
the "popular mind" buys materialism and technology, an offshoot of
science and "economic man," but as William Thompson has recently
CI M - Q 233
emphasized (in The Edge of History) this seems to be more "pragmatic"
than empirical-positivistic, and the surge toward Edgar Cayce and Jesse
Stern-type "spiritualism" would seem to reflect an old "soul" image
more than a new para-psychic scientific image. Thus the "popular
mind" image is probably much less aware of or threatened by such trends
as "friendly fascism," Ellul's technological out-of-human-control
dynamism, Roger MaGowan Mechanized Cy-Borg phantasies, or a
Kafka-esque diffused paranoia.
Also, it seems likely that the "popular mind" will react to Tomer's
"future shock" increased pace of change, confusion, uncertainty, etc.,
by over-stimulation threat, retreat, regression, etc., while more of the
"professional mind" will respond with stimulation, challenge, adap-
tation.
So if, as you argue, science "images of man" will increasingly
displace the religious heritage as formative in the culture, I wonder if
this will not be differentially true with these two "publics," and possibly
not very true at all with the "popular mind"? If this is so, we face a
dangerously "elitist" planning or social engineering gap in the culture,
where the democratic heritage would operate increasingly without
power or impact on the directions of change. It seems to me that this
"Images" gap from the heritage of science will only get much larger as
the "professional mind" is strongly influenced by the new astronomy,
DNA-RNA life-tampering, para-psychic and meditative disciplines, bio-
genetics, systems analysis, anti-matter worlds and "flying torches," etc.!
I oversimplify, of course, and there are great diversities within the two
categories "popular mind" and "professional mind" ... but some
differential "Images" impact seems strongly inevitable and elitist-
especially so, since the intellectual community of communications-
math-cybernation-etc. will surely be the new priesthood of the post-
industrial society?
APPENDIX E
Some Projects Suited to Government or Foundation
Support
Without claiming that they have been, or could be, demonstrated,
Chapter 8 laid our five premises that are at least plausible on the basis
of the arguments presented therein. In summary, they are:
1. There are increasingly evident signs of the imminent emergence of a new image of
man.
2. An interrelating set of fundamental dilemmas, growing apparently ever more
pressing, seem to demand for their ultimate resolution a drastically changed image
of mari-on-earth.
3. There is a serious mismatch between modern industrial-state culture and in-
stitutions and the emerging new image of man.
4. There is, and will continue to be, deep psychological resistance to both the new
image and its implications.
5. The evolutionary transformation described in Chapter 7 is desirable, indeed neces-
sary, if highly undesirable future outcomes are to be avoided.
Based on these premises six elements of an overall strategy for a
non-disruptive transition were derived. In summary form these are:
1. Promote awareness of the unavoidability of the transformation.
2. Foster construction of a guiding vision of a workable society built around the new
image of man and new social paradigm.
3. Foster a period of experimentation and tolerance for diverse alternatives,
4. Encourage a politics of righteousness and a heightened sense of public .respon-
sibilities of the private sector.
5. Promote systematic exploration of, and foster education regarding, man's inner life,
his subjective experience.
6. Plan adequate social controls for the transition period while safeguarding against
longer-term losses of freedom.
Following are some exemplary projects that derive from or are
compatible with this overall strategy.
Promoting National and World Awareness
Generate dialogue, possibly in connection with the American Issues Forum to be
conducted during the U.S. Bicentennial year, relating to the nature, necessity, and
235
timing of the transformation, and the definition of a more workable post-industrial
society.
Prepare dialogue-focusing materials (pamphlets, videotapes, etc.) relating to the
broad characteristics of the transformation, the challenge of the "new scarcity," the
future of work, economic incentives to foster ecologically sound behavior, alternate
fates of the poor nations, possibilities of a "steady-state" economy, etc.
Addressing Global and Large-scale Problems
Following Platt (1969), initiate and support coordinating councils to focus and
legitimate research on solutions to our major future systemic crises.
Support projects to generate images of post-industrial social organization and global
community, test for resolution of key dilemmas of high-technology society, deduce
norms of human behavior which would permit these images to be realized.
Develop a multi-level planning network to provide coordinated participative plan-
ning in such areas as economic development, land use, education, environment,
transportation, family assistance, communications. (A model for the national-level
portion of such a network is delineated in Senator Humphrey's Balanced National
Growth and Development Policy Bill, S-3050.)
Develop the capability to carry out anticipatory planning for future crises (as
contrasted with reactive planning after the crisis has occurred).
Fund research to develop the application of systems analysis to the global environ-
ment, to allow more rapid assessment of interconnectivity of global systems, the
nature of the relationships among them, and the varying contribution of major
regions of the world to perturbations of the systems.
Develop simulation and general systems-analysis tools for application to complex
environmental systems, management of organizations, ecological simulation, etc.
Map the major global systems, indicating nations/corporations responsible for their
management plus assessment of the minimum conditions necessary for their main-
tenance.
Study ways of making complex social systems less vulnerable to system breakdown
(either accidental or deliberately caused), e.g. development of system-independent
alternative technologies for continued life-support during breakdown.
Explore the possibility of a general-systems anthropological-sociological-biological
paradigm of human ecology, taking into account cultural images, biological rhythms,
relations with nature, rapid environmental changes, etc.
Fostering Social and Institutional Experimentation
Promote experiments with steady-state economics, new forms of "general-benefit"
corporations, new life styles, etc.
Fund experimental communities to test various alternative future scenarios.
Develop "Blueprint for Survival" types of projects.
Promote experiments to improve communications and reconciliation of differences
between groups holding different conceptual paradigms.
Studies of Ethics and Values
Carry out research on changing ethics and values in advanced SOCIetIes, focusing
particularly on implications for the future of the advanced world.
Study historical examples of relative amounts of competitive versus cooperative
Appendix E 237
behavior as affected by stress conditions, with particular emphasis on the cultural
factors influencing the balance.
Explore uses of mass media to alert populations to the social macro-problem and to
behaviors essential to its ultimate resolution.
Research on the Nature of Man
Research into the broadest possible range of conscious processes via drug research,
hypnosis, biofeedback, etc., to actively investigate the state-specific nature of science
and to break loose from present limitations on the current technological paradigm.
Investigation of man's perception of time: the sense of emergency is directly related
to the temporal sense of the individual. What are the factors controlling this? What
are the possibilities in modulation of time sense so that we become alert to potential
crises with a longer lead time?
Active research into alternate problem-solving modes, employing methods of stimu-
lating creativity, inventive states of mind, etc.
Research into the training and use of paranormal perception (possibly via behavioral
techniques) to accentuate the evolution of certain essential aspects of man's con-
sciousness.
Investigation of the sensitivity of the human organism to the changes wrought in the
environment by industrial activities-e.g. electromagnetic pollution, noise pollu-
tion-and techniques for the lowering of these. What are the effects of population
density of image-of-man concerns? What kinds of characteristics in environmental
design are essential to the overall health of the human being? This latter is crucial as
man spends more and more total time in completely artificial spaces.
Investigation of the effects of biological entrainment, biological rhythms, etc.
Research on the effects of one's thoughts (attitudes, emotional states) on the lower
microorganisms in the body-which together form essential symbiotic sybsystems on
which the functioning of the larger human system depends; relationship to psy-
chosomatic iIlness.
Research into how to develop capacity to use seven new "senses of the mind" (proposed
by Teilhard de Chardin in The Phenomenon of Man, suggested to us by Professor Jonis
A. Roze) that would allow an expanded evolutionary picture to become comprehen-
sible:
I. A sense of spatial immensity, recognizing everything, from the subatomic to the
supergalactic and all that is in between, as an immensity within which we can follow in
our minds the lines and radii that lead toward us from every object, however far
away and however close or within.
2. A sense of depth, or a sense of time, breaking out from the narrow confines of the
immediate past events and known histories that condition the perception of our
whole life. This would enable us to sense endless sequences in time going far beyond
the immediate human time-reference scale, even for humanity as a whole, and to
encompass sequences and events of billions of years of duration and flow.
3. A sense of number, denoting the profound interdependence and interaction that
every movement and change, however slight, demonstrates "the bewildering
multitude of material or living elements." This is akin to the expression that one
cannot pluck a blade of grass without the trembling of a star, i.e. the simplest act
reverberates and touches myriads of things around it.
4. A sense of proportion, acknowledging in our mind levels upon levels of organization of
the universe, each expressing its own unique reality: the world of quarks and atoms
with its lawfulness and interaction, the world of minerals and crystals, the world of
animals and plants, the world of man with its unique laws and interactions, and so on,
spreading from microcosms to macrocosms.
5. A sense of quality, recognizing certain new stages of evolutionary growth and
perfection and the excellence of their expression that is complete in itself, yet
238
without isolating them or stopping the process or "breaking the physical unity of the
world."
6. A sense of movement, perceiving within the seeming immobility, slowness and
repetitiousness of the world the underlying and ongoing development and
recognizing the inner push and explosive power impulsing an irresistible move
toward creating the evolutionary newness.
7. A sense of the organic, "discovering physical links and structural unity under the
juxtaposition of successions and collectivities" by which the natural development of
any process and structure is seen as an organic or authentic phenomenon, part of the
natural ecology of the universe.
APPENDIX F
The Basic Paradigm of a Future Socio-cultural System=II:
VIRGINIA H. HINE
Center member Virginia Hine is an anthropologist at the University of Miami. She has been
collaborating with anthropologist Luther P. Gerlach of the University of Minnesota on studies
of "movements "-political, social, religious, self-help, and others. Hine and Gerlach
characterize these structures as "segmented polycephalous networks." In the following paper
written for World Issues Hine draws an analogy between these non-hierarchical groups and
multinational corporations.
Futurists of various persuasions extrapolate trends, create scenarios,
design global cultures and computerize utopias. Unwilling to accept the
apparently haphazard trial-and-error process by which evolutionary
changes have occurred in the past, many who were trained in the
man-in-control-of-nature myth are now heroically attempting to fill the
role of man-in-control-of-evolution. As various schools of futurists
compete for funds, influence, and a crack at the global controls,
evolution has been bumbling along in its accustomed way, caroming off
the walls of resistance to change, picking up a viable mutant here and
there, and spawning even more glorious variations. Even the rational
plans of the futurists are grist for its multi-faceted mill.
Perhaps the time has come when we can penetrate the mists and see
the shape of things to come, not as we might have planned them, but as
they are in fact emerging. Piecing together a range of observations by
anthropologists, sociologists, it is possible to suggest that the basic
paradigm of a future socio-cultural system is already born-muling and
puking in its infantile state, but here.
Most futurists assume the bureaucratic mode to be the only
mechanism by which large numbers of people can be organized.
Therefore, in contemplating the emergence of a global society they
take it for granted that a global bureaucracy of some sort is inevitable.
They argue only about whether it can be democratic in nature or will,
of necessity, be a "Leviathan," costing large sums of individual
freedoms. Others, often considered impractical idealists, talk of
World Issues (published by the Center for Democratic Institutions), April/May 1977.
239
debureaucratization and decentralization, but offer few ideas as to how
this state of affairs could come about. The assumption is made that
those in positions of economic and political power are unlikely to
voluntarily change their mode of operation because the source of their
power is the bureaucratic structure.
In the past fifteen years there has been an intensification of effort by
the powerless in nations around the world to organize themselves to
effect social structural change. During the last ten of these years,
Luther P. Gerlach of the University of Minnesota and I have been
doing research in a wide range of these so-called "movements." We
have found that no matter what the "cause," the goals, or the beliefs,
and no matter what type of movement it is-political, social, religious-
there is the same basic structural form and mode of functioning.
Wherever people organize themselves to change some aspect of society,
a non-bureaucratic but very effective form of organizational structure
seems to emerge.
We called the type of structure we were observing a "segmented
polycephalous network," a clumsy phrase that led to an acronym SPN,
pronounced "spin." For reasons which will become clear as the dis-
cussion unfolds, it will henceforth be written as SP(I)N.
Conventional organization charts usually involve boxes arranged in a
hierarchical order with the controlling box either at the top or the
bottom. An organization chart of a SP(I)N would look like a badly
knotted fishnet with a multitude of nodes or cells of varying sizes, each
linked to all the others either directly or indirectly. Some of those cells
within the network would, in themselves, be hierarchically organized
bureaucracies recognized by the public as regional, national, or even
international organizations. Examples from the environmental move-
ment were the Audubon Society or the Sierra Club. Counterparts in
Black Liberation would be the NAACP, the Urban League or CORE.
Feminism has its NOW and Red Power its National Congress of
American Indians. But in all these movement networks, the majority
of cells are local groups of varying sizes from a handful of members to
several hundreds, some organized according to the conventional mode,
many ad hoc, egalitarian, face-to-face groups that are here today and
gone or reorganized tomorrow. The multitude of nodes or cells within
a movement structure can be loosely lumped into segments which hang
together ideologically or in terms of preferred tactics. This factionalism
functions to escalate the speed with which the movement grows and to
bring about changed responses from the "establishment" more
effectively than anyone segment could do alone. In addition, fac-
tionalism prevents takeover by anyone segment through the
mechanism of temporary coalitions between other segments to offset
attempted control by one.
Appendix F 241
While a bureaucracy is segmented in the sense that it has divisions
and departments, it is an organic whole in that its parts are designed to
perform specialized tasks necessary to the functioning of the whole.
Decapitate it, or destroy a vital organ, and the social organism ceases
to function effectively. A SP(I)N, on the other hand, is composed of
autonomous segments which are organizationally self-sufficient, any of
which could survive the elimination of all of the others. The biological
analogy of the bureaucratic mode of organization is the vertebrate, that
of a SP(l)N, an earthworm. This is the feature of movement organization
that is so frustrating to those who would like to suppress one or gain
control of it.
The second characteristic of the SP(I)N mode of organization is
decentralization. Movements do not have a single paramount leader
who can control or even speak for the entire movement. Each cell has
its own cell or segment and may not be recognized as a leader by
members of other segments of the movement. Leaders are often
charismatic individuals who collect circles of devoted followers. Often,
however as his segment grows, unsung organizational leaders rise to
promote the functioning of the local groups identified with him, and
the linked segments survive the death or jailing of the charismatic
individual very well. Frequently a leader is no more than primus inter
pares, or first among equals, who speaks for the group only on certain
occasions and can influence consensus decision-making rather than
make decisions for the group. Those who have tried to suppress a
movement by silencing its most visible leaders find that they are coping
with a hydra-headed monster where new leadership seems to pop up
out of nowhere. In addition, anyone leader has influence only within
his own cell or segment and may not be known to active participants in
other groups identified with the movement.
The real key to understanding the power of a SP(l)N is recognizing
the nature of the unifying forces that keep the structure from disin-
tegrating. One of the forces that integrates a SP(l)N is a range of
horizontal organizational linkages; the other is ideological.
Non-vertical organizational linkages are of several types. First, there
is overlapping membership. When numbers of people mobilize to effect
social change, the segmented organizational pattern that emerges in-
volves individual participation in more than one segment. Participants
in any movement characteristically belong to, support, or interact with
several different nodes in the network-sometimes nodes that are very
differently organized and have apparently conflicting goals and
ideological variations. Frequently the schismatic tendencies charac-
teristic of the segmentary mode of organization result in a split within
one node, like the well-publicized split within the Sierra Club leader-
ship during the height of the environmental movement. This resulted
Cf M - A
242
in the formation of another organization, the Friends of the Earth, by
the ousted faction. Many Sierra Club members, unscathed by the
soul-searing eruption and at the core, cheerfully joined FOE while
continuing to be active in the Sierra Club, forming linkages between
the two groups in spite of their differences.
There is a great deal of interaction between leaders of cells in a
movement structure which may link a few local groups into a close
association or connect hundreds of groups across the country in loose
and indirect ways. Frequently the leader of one group will be a
follower-member in another. Often the linkage is maintained by
periodic visits by the leader of one group who speaks to or works with
another's for a time. These types of ties tend to cement groups of
similar ideology into large interacting segments, or may operate across
segment lines linking groups with quite disparate forms of organization
or ideological approach.
Still another type of linkage is the "ritual activity"-the rallies,
demonstrations, marches, conferences, revival meetings, joint activities
of one sort or another. The temporary collaboration between disparate
groups within the movement required by these types of activities cut
across segment cleavages and bind the autonomous cells in significant,
unifying events.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the segmentary mode of
organization is the role of the ideological bond. The real glue of a
SP(I)N is represented by the I in the parenthesis. The S, the P, and the N
represent organizational factors which can be handled at the sociologi-
cal level of analysis. But the power of a unifying idea adds a qualita-
tively different element to the equation. The power lies in a deep
commitment to a very few basic tenets shared by all. Agreement on all
of the ideological variations would be non-functional for the seg-
mentary form of organization. It is the passionate argument about
these conflicting variations and about conflicting concepts of how to
implement movement goals that keep the segments separate and in
enough opposition to prevent an attempted takeover by anyone
segment.
The segmentary mode of organization is not a recent innovation, nor
has it been useful only to those who want change. Many pre-industrial
societies in Africa and the Middle East were organized according to the
segmentary principle. It provided an efficient mode of organization for
groups of several hundreds of thousands of people and tended to
remain relatively stable over tens of thousands of years. This is in
contrast to the hierarchical, stratified modes of organization which are
notable for their inherent instability, in what has come to be known as
the rise and fall of civilizations. In those societies structured on the
.4ppendix F 243
segmentary principle, unifying ideology was usually that of common
ancestry. The classic example is the desert tribes in Arabia who were in
continual fratricidal conflict but who always surprised their would-be
conquerors by an incredible capacity to coalesce, apparently overnight,
into a unified fighting force.
It is impossible to explore properly, in this space, why the SP(I)N
might be an adaptive pattern of social organization for the global
society of the future. Suffice it to say that it is precisely the sort of
pattern consistent with a vision of "the global village," "debureaucra-
tization," "decentralization," and "re-humanization." In very practical
terms, our research data suggest that the SP(I)N type of structure
does several things: it encourages full utilization of individual and
small-group innovation while minimizing the results of failure; it
promotes maximum penetration of ideas across socio-economic and
cultural barriers while preserving cultural and sub-cultural diversity; it
is flexible enough to adapt quickly to changing conditions; and it puts a
structural premium on egalitarian, personalistic relationship skills in
contrast to the impersonalistic mode of interaction suited to the
bureaucratic paradigm.
How about the picture seen from the top down? It is suggested that
we do indeed now have what "one-worlders" have been demanding for
decades-a supra-national level of organization capable of reducing
international conflict and assuming the task of global resource
management. Rational attempts to invent such a structure-the League
of Nations and then the United Nations-have failed, it is said, because
they were built upon the very form of social organization they were
designed to supersede-the nation state. I would suggest that these
attempts also failed because their creators were unable to break out of
the cultural assumption of the inevitability of the bureaucratic mode of
organization.
What has, in fact, emerged is a qualitatively different form of
organization, a novel mechanism of global management that is already
functioning to make large-scale warfare impractical, therefore obsolete,
and is in fact allocating global resources and managing global produc-
tivity. Just as participants in grass roots movements often fail to
recognize the organizational genius of the SP(I)N within which they
are operating, and call for more centralized control, so many in-
dividuals who are participants in the global management SP(I)N also
fail to recognize it as an organizational structure.
Academicians from a variety of disciplines use a variety of terms to
describe the actors in this supranational network. Many speak of an
"oligarchy." Others use terms like "global power elites," "managerial
elites," and "global managers." Most of these discussions, of course,
244
center around the phenomenal growth of the multinational cor-
porations since World War II. Many are pointing out that this new
level of organization is already beyond the capacity of the nation states
to control it, as if the power of the multinational corporation and the
authority of the nation state represented opposing forces.
The most penetrating insight into the true nature of this emergent,
supra-national level of social organization has come from anthro-
pologist Alvin Wolfe who began to catch the outlines of it during his
study of the mining industry in South Africa. He suggests that it is a
new level of socio-cultural integration, a new system of social control
"somewhat independent of the currently troublesome units, the nation
states," though these are components. Wolfe calls it an "imperfectly
bounded network" which "binds groups that are different both struc-
turally and functionally." The segmentary nature of this global
organizational structure becomes clearer as one pieces together the
work of scholars like Wolfe, the Center's Neil Jacoby, G. William
Domhoff, Richard N. Goodwin in his The American Condition, and
Richard Barnet's and Ronald Muller's Global Reach.
The four major segments of the global management network are
upper level decision-makers in the multi-national corporations, in in-
ternational financial institutions, in the governments of both in-
dustrialized and underdeveloped "host" countries, and representatives
of powerful families in Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, South
Africa, the Philippines and Asia.
In our analysis of the SP(I)Ns at the grass roots level, we noted that
some of the component segments within the network are hierarchically
organized and centrally controlled but that the network as a whole was
polycentric, no one component able to exert control over the rest.
Wolfe and others note the same characteristic of the supra-national
network. Multinational corporations are organized according to
different modes, some using a decentralized mode of operation .trans-
nationally and some maintaining highly centralized control in the
international headquarters. Nation states also vary in the degree of
centralization. In any case, the internal structure of anyone component
in a SP(I)N is irrelevant to the structure of the network as a whole. As
Wolfe points out, at the global level of operation, even the most
bureaucratic segments "lose their hierarchical/centralized/pyramidal
structure" and interact with the upper echelons of other corporations,
governments, financial institutions and family representatives in an
"interlocking/overlapping structure." He stresses the lack of absolute
power in the hands of any of the components. Even though this
relatively small group of global decision-makers may have absolute
power within their own segments, the conflicting goals and interests of
Appendix F 245
different segments prevent permanent structural unity, and therefore
centralized control by anyone group.
Examining the types of linkages that bind the segments of the global
network, we find some remarkable parallels with the types of linkages
we observed in the grass roots SP(I)Ns. Where we saw patterns of
overlapping memberships and personal ties between leaders in a
movement, students of the global power structure note such linking
mechanisms as interlocking directorships, common shareholdings,
shared subsidiaries (often by a multinational corporation and the
government of a "host" country), and the well-documented
phenomenon of interchangeability of personnel.
The rise of a "managerial elite" provides another linking
mechanism. Networks of personal ties are formed as corporate execu-
tives move from one hierarchy to another in their ascent to positions of
global influence.
The temporary coalition of segments in a grass roots movement for a
specific activity has parallels in the global power structure in the
phenomenon of the "project team." The rise of temporary, special-task
organizations leads to what Alvin TofHer calls "adhocracy," sets of
horizontal linkages that cut across bureaucratic hierarchies. It involves
flexible formation, dissolution and reformation of teams drawn from
different levels within a bureaucratic hierarchy and from comparable
levels in other corporate or governmental hierarchies, and requires a
type of interaction that is more characteristic of network interchange
than formal hierarchy.
The linking function of the revival meeting, the demonstration, the
rally, and the "ritual activities" of the grass roots SP(I)Ns is paralleled
in the global managerial network by a variety of overlapping social
clubs and policy organizations. G. William Dumhoff has documented
the role of social clubs in cementing personal ties and creating ideolo-
gical consensus among corporate executives, financial leaders, high
level government officials, and members of powerful families under
such irreverent titles as "How the Fat Cats Keep in Touch." The
powerful meet not only in exclusive playgrounds among the California
redwoods, but in policy-making groups like the Business Council, the
Council of Foreign Relations, the Committee for Economic Develop-
ment which supply personnel for a wide range of special commissions
and important government appointments.
The power of ideology to unify an organizationally segmented struc-
ture is the key to understanding the emerging paradigm. This unify-
ing force has very little to do with external "agreement." The outside
observer of any SP(I)N sees mostly conflicting ideological stances and
divergent goals. The binding force, as noted earlier, is in the commit-
ment to a few basic and shared assumptions. The ideological conflict
between variations on these basic themes, manifested in the structural
diversity, produced what some have called the "fission-fusion" tension.
Components within the global SP(I)N shift patterns of alliances-
antagonists on one set of issues or problems and "bedfellows" in
tackling the next. Individual participants in the global SP(I)N seem to
have a remarkable capacity for shifting loyalties. They can function at
the upper level of a number of types of organization-governmental or
corporate-even though the functions of the different organizations
may be conflicting. It is the power of a shared conceptual framework
that keeps a SP(I)N unified and makes it possible for individuals to
shift allegiances within it. It is the conflicting concepts of goals-means
that prevent anyone segment from taking permanent control over all
the others.
The point here is to recognize the power of a r."w basic assumptions
to unify organizationally disparate groups. It is the key to recognizing
this qualitatively different mode of organization-one so alien to the
bureaucratically minded that it appears to be either non-existent or is
interpreted as a "conspiracy." Many observers of the protest move-
ments during the Sixties fell into both traps. The first trap is now
catching people who press for legislation requiring dismantling of large
corporations or tighter control over multinationals by nation states.
This is to misunderstand the organizational structure binding the
upper levels of the corporate giants and the nation states into a
network of shared and conflicting interests. The "conspiracy" trap
catches many particularly in discussions of the oil crisis. As Goodwin
points out, there is no need for conspiracy. It is only necessary that
managers, corporate or governmental, understand and follow the
"rules of behavior dictated by the structure that binds them" and the
"set of stable assumptions," often unspoken, that inform decision-
making. Decisions made by people who share assumptions, even
though there has been no discussion between them, will produce
actions so similar that there appears to be collusion even though the
actors themselves feel they occupy conflicting positions.
We would argue that the SP(I)N mode of organization is not only a
viable one for a global society, more functional than the bureaucratic
mode of the passing era, but that it is in fact the one that is emerging
whether we choose it or not. Both the powerless and the powerful have
utilized it as they have tried to meet the changing conditions. The
powerless find it functional in fighting inequities. The powerful have
found it workable as they expanded their sphere of activity beyond
national boundaries to the global scene. Though it is beyond the scope
of this paper, there is increasing evidence of many middle-range
Appendix F 247
regional and transnational networks cutting across traditional vertical
lines of power. The principle of "horizontal" integration is emerging at
many levels.
None of these SP(I)Ns have emerged as a result of rational
planning. Like any other evolutionary novelty, they emerge out of
functional necessity. Only after the fact can we bring reason and logic
to bear in understanding what is happening and is making rational
decisions about what might facilitate or inhibit the changes. If this
model of the emerging paradigm has any validity, the organizational
structure of the future is already being created by the most as well as
the least powerful within the present paradigm. It is very clear,
however, that the ideologies which inform SP(I)Ns at the two levels
are diametrically opposed. Perhaps one of the crucial tasks in the
immediate future is to clarify and expose the underlying assumptions
that provide the ideological "glue" for SP(I)Ns emerging at various
levels of the global social structure. The key to the future may very well
be conceptual rather than organizational.
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I
Index
Aaronson, B., and Osmond, H. 92, 151
Abundance, poverty of 50-52
Acupuncture 87
Adamenko, V. G. 96
Adelman, I., and Morris, C. T. 57
Adey, W. R. 86
Affluence, freedom in 53, 55-56
Age of Faith 26--27
Ahura Mazda 23
Allen, F. L. 5.1.
American Creed 35-40, 63, 64
American Humanist Association 31
American Psychological Association 83
Anand, B. K., Chhina, G. S., and Singh,
B. 92
Anderson, M., and White, R. 95
Angra Mainyu 23
Anokhin, P. 86
Appositional mind 84
Aquinas, T. 27
Arbib, M. 74
Ardrey, R. 28, 29
Arendt, H. 71
Aristotle 25, 104
Artificial intelligence 79
Aserinsky, E., and Kleitman, N. 90
Ashby, W. R. 73, 100
Assagioli, R. 93, 125, 129, 130, 136, 151
Association for Humanistic Psychology
31,41
Association for Transpersonal Psychology
31
Augustine, Saint 27
Aurobindo, Sri 93, 125, 132, 153, 222
Awareness, gradient of 128-129
Backster, C. 134
Barber, T. X. 89
Barnothy, M. 87
Barron, F. 151
Bateson, G. 99, 102
Baudouin, C. 4, 153
Beal, J. B. 96
Beale, G. 71
Becker, R. O. 86
Behaviorism, view of modern 29-30
Behavioristic man 166
Bellman, R. 175
Bernal, J. D. 82
Bertalanffy see von Bertalanffy
Bioelectric fields 86--87
Biofeedback 85, 89-90, 151
Biological freudianism 81
Biological rhythms 86-87
Bogen, J. 84
Bohm, D. 72
Bohr, N. 75
Boulding, E. xv, 2,17,49,81,90,145,151,
219-222
Boulding, K. E. 100, 153
Boisen, A. T. 146, 147
Brain research 72, 83-86
Brand, W. G. and L. W. 95
Bremerman, H. J. 72
Brinton, C., et at. 46
Bronowski, J. 76
Brooks, C. H. 4, 149, 153
Bucke, R. M. 35
Buckley, W. 100
Bureaucrats 8
Cahoon, D. xv, 177, 179,233-234
Campbell, D. T. 104, 132
Campbell, J. vii, xv, xx, xxii, 7, 125, 146,
149, 152
Casteneda, C. 91
Cerebral cortex 100
Chaitanya, K. 87
Chapanis, A. 78
Chaudhuri, H. 151
China 21,22
Christianity 23, 46--47
Churchill, W. 177
Ciba Foundation 102
Cicero 36
Civilization, literate 21
Claiborne, R. 54
Clairvoyance 95
Clark, K. B. 30, 83, 84, 86
Clifford, W. 75
Collins, K. vii, xviii
Colquhoun, W. P. 86
Commoner, B. 79
Computer sciences 78
Conant, J. B. 68
249
250
Index
Conceptual feasibility 138-141
Consciousness research 87-94,116, 134, 138
Control deficiencies 59
Copernicus, N. 27, 67, 71
Cosmic consciousness 34-35
E. 4
Creativity 34, 85
Cultural diffusion 17
Cummins, G. 132
Cybernetics 78, 99-102
Darwin, C. 28-29,67,71,80, 81
Dean, E. D. 95
de Beauvoir, S. 178
Deficiency needs 129
Deikman, A. 92, 116
Delgado, J. 30, 83, 84, 85
de Ropp, R. S. 69
Deutsch, M. 69
Dixon, H. L. vii
Dixon, N. F. 71,93,97
Dobzhansky, T. 80
Dole, S. H. 82
Downs, A. 55
Dreaming 90-91
Duane, T. D., and Behrendt, T. 95
Dubos, R. vii, xv, xxiii, 58-59, 71, 79, 81,
178,231
Dumhoff, G. W. 244
Dunn, E. S., jr. xv, 121, 125, 138, 140, 142,
156, 180
Dunne, J. W. 91
Earth, developed nations of 13
Earth ecology 10
Easterlin, R. 52
Eccles, J. 97
Ecological ethic 114
Economic image, growing impotence of
62-64
Economic man, image of 45-64
Eddington, A. S. 76
Edelstein, K. L. 104
Education: aim of society 174
Ehrlich, P. R. 79
Einstein, A. 75, 76, 85
Electrical stimulation of the brain
(ESB) 84,86
Electroencephalograph (EEG) patterns
88, 90, 92, 98
Elgin, D. vii
Eliade, M. 1, 137
Eliot, T. S. 137
Elsasser, W. 81
Emerson, R. W. 34
Emmet, D. xxi
Englebart, D. C. 78
Epimetheus 68-69
Epistemology 104, 105
Erasmus, D. 36
Erikson, E. 146
Ethics 38-39, 221-223, 225-227, 230-231,

Ethnological man 166
Ethnology, the "other" 167
Evans, W.O., and Kline, N. S. 93
Everett, A. 77
Evolutionary transformationalist image
6g-64, 165, 171-180, 205
Exobiology 82
Extrasensory perception (ESP) 71, 91, 95,
96,220,223
Extraterrestrial intelligence 82
Fadiman, J. xv
Faraday, A. 91
Farberow, N. 71
Farrington, D. 104
Fascism, friendly 169,170-171,234
Ferguson, M. xx
Fingarette, H. 147
Fischer, R. 77, 85, 86
Fisher, Sir Ronald 101
Forbes, R. J. 45
Fox, S. W. 82
Frank, J. D. 120
Franklin, W. vii, xviii
Free will 37
Freud, S. 28, 68, 81, 90, 91, 93, 129, 166,
224
Fromm, E. 178
Fuller, R. B. 73, 79
Functions 7-8
Fundamental anomaly
nature of 190-191
resolution of 191-194
Future shock 163, 234
Future trends, contrasting 164-166
Galbraith, J. K. 45, 193
Galileo, G. 27,71, 171
Galvani, L. 83
Garfield, E. 79
General Systems Theory 99-102
Genetics 81
Gerlach, L. P. xv, xxi, 148, 238-239
Germany 155-156
Gestalt Therapy 3, 118, 145, 152-153,
159
Gnostic path 24
Index
251
Goals, individual and social 173-175
Goedel 72, 79
Goertzel, V. and M. G. 147
Good versus evil 36
Gordon, W. J. 151
Gradient 125-133, 205
Graves, C. 52, 130
Greek views 24-25
Green, E. 96
Gross, B. M. 40, 165, 166, 169, 170
Gross national product (GNP), growth
of 53-54
Haldane, J. B. S. 79
Ham (son of Noah) 22-23
Hampden-Turner, C. xv, 41, 132
Handler, P. 80,82-83
Harman, W. vii, xvii, 67
Harman, W., Markley, 0., and Rhyne,
R. xvii
Hastings, A. vii
Hastings Center 14
Hawthorne effect 74
Hayes, W. 81
Healer, J. 86
Heard, G. 159
Heilbroner, R. 47,48,57, 157
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 74
Hess, W. R. 83
Hilgard, E. 71,88
Hine, V. H. xx, 238-247
History, alternative interpretation of
219-220
Hobbes, T. 36, 166
Hoffer, E. 3
Holistic sense of perspective 112, 114,
121, 139, 140, 155, 160
Hollander, S. 59
Holon 32-33, 135
Honorton, C. 95
Hubbard, L. R. 125, 132, 151
Hubble, E. 76
Hudson Institute 8, 164
Human
as beast 28-29
as evolving holon 32-33
as mechanism 29-30
as person 30-31
as spirit 33-35
attributes, categories of 3
biocomputer, gradient in 127-129
history, contrasting epochs of 12
morality, gradient of 130-132
needs, gradient of 129-130
numbers, growth of 9
systems 10
Humanistic Capitalism 167
Humankind
Gestalt perception of 3
image of I, 53, 54, 62 et seq., 112-122,
141
throughout history 18-20
Humans as species 79-81
Huss, J. 27
Hutchins, R. 174
Huxley, A. 33, 125, 154, 167
Huxley, J. 78, 81
Hynek, J. A. 71
Hypnosis 88-89,99
Image of man
definition of 2-3
early 17-22
economic 45-64
evolutionary 124-161
historical and modern 17-37
operational feasibility of new 141-161
supportive 170
Image / society resolution, in search
of 56-62
Imagery
subsystem and supersystem 135-136
transpersonal and personal 133-135
Images
and social policy 1-2
consequences of changing 163-181
contrasts between alternative 168
Incremental change 120
Incubation 148
India 21, 22, 23, 33, 36
Individual identity 53, 55, 165
Individualism 46-47
Industrial era, recent 53, 62
Industrial state
control of 58-61
paradigm 64, 206
power of 57-58
Inflation 14
Information systems 223-225
Inkeles, A. 57
Inspiration 34
Institutions 175-177
Interdependence, increasing 60-61
Internal dynamic 62
jaeger, W. 174
jeans, J. H. 76
jefferson, T. 36
johnson, R. 135
judeo-Christian view of man 104, 140
252 Index
Judge, A. 222
Jung, C. G. 77,90, 125, 138
Kahn, H., and Bruce-Briggs, B. 9
Kamiya, J. 85, 89
Kantor, R. E. 125, 147
Kelley, D. M. 158-159
Kelvin, P. 71
Keniston, K. 51,57,59,62
Keynes, J. M. 51
Kinser, B., and Kleinman, N. 155
Klapp, O. E. 31
Kleitman, N., and Dement, W. C. 71
Knower-Gnostic View 23-24
Knowledge paradigm 144
Koestler, A. 97, 135
Kohlberg, L. 125, 130, 131, 132
Kozyrev, N. A. 97
Krippner, S. xv, 71, 73, 88, 91, 92,94,95,
130, 138, 151
Kropotkin, Prince P. A. 28, 29, 221
Krueger, A. P. 86
Kuhn, T. S. 69-70, 98, 144, 145, 146, 149,
150, 161, 187
Kuznets, S. 59
Land, G. T. 132
Laszlo, E. xv, xx, 79, 102, 124, 160
Lavoisier commission 71
Leary, T. 195
LeShan, L. 77, 99
Life-in-nature, community of 115
Life, origin of 82-83
Lifton, R. J. I
Lilly, J. C. 94, 124, 129
Locke, J. 29,36, 121, 167
Lodge, G. C. xv, 122
Lonergan, B. 87
Lorenz, K. 28
Lovejoy, A. O. 47
Lowe, A. 193
Luce, G. 87
Luckman, B. 64
Luthe, W. 89
Luther, M. 27
Machiavelli, N. 36
Mackay, D. M. 223
Malinowski, B. K. 7
Man
and nature 38
as master 47-48
as process 13&--138
as growth of population 10
Man-in-the-universe, images of 17, 42, 69,
77, 120, 133, 135, 143,177
Manifold trend 14
Mankind, past and future history of 11,
12
Manning, S. vii
Margenau, H. vii, xv, 70, 72, 74, 76, 77, 95,
105, 160-161,229-230
Marien, M. xv, 1,6,38,40,92, 115, 132, 139,
151, 155, 156, 159, 161, 163, 169, 176
Markley, O. W. vii
Markley, 0., Curry, D., and Rink, D. xviii
Martin, P. W. 91, 125, 145, 147, 148, 156
Maruyama, M. vii, xv, 32, 110, 118, 119,
122, 140
Maslow, A. 52, 125, 128, 129, 150, 172
Masters, R. E., and Houston, J. 92, 151,
153-154, 220-221
Material distribution, problems of
Matson, F. vii
Maxwell, J. C. 75
May, R. 46,47
Mazeway 143, 144
McBain, W. N. 134
McHale, J. vii, 9, 10, II
McKinney, D. vii
McLuhan, M. 78
Mead, M. vii, xv, 49, 56, 125, 136, 145,
154
Meadows, D. 79
Meadows, D., et al. xviii
Meditation 91-92
Mendel, G. J. 70, 80
Mesthene, E. G. 59
Metaprograms 129
Metzner, R. xv, 41, 42, 116
Michael, D. vii,60, 157,231
Miller, D. C., and Form, W. H. 45
Miller, N. E. 85,89
Miller, S. L. 82
Mind versus matter 38
Minsky, M. L. 79
Modern society, relevance of images
to 3-15
Molecular biology 81
Monod, J. 80
Monomyth 146, 149
Moral development, stages of 131
Morality 38-39
More, T. 36
Morrisson, P. 71
Mortal versus immortal 38
Moss, T. 95, 96
Multifold Trend of Western Culture 8-9,
164
Mumford, L. 146
Muses, C. 94,97
Myers, F. W. H. 93, 135
Myrdal, G. 35-37, 40
Mythic transformations 146-147
Myths, current 8
Nancy school of psychology 4
Naturallaw 47
New Empire 27-28
New scarcity 191-193, 196-197
Newton, I. 27,67, 74, 85
Noah 22
Noyes, R. 71
Index
Process theology 121
Production, factors of 45
Promethean-Epimethean conflict 69
Prometheus 68-69
Propositional mind 84
Protestant Ethic 48
Psychedelic drugs 92-93
Psychic research 74, 94-99, 103
Psycho-civilized society 30, 40, 84
Psychokinesis 95, 98
Psychological relativity 85
Psychotechnologies 84, 170
Puthoff, H., and Targ, R. 98
253
Oates, J. C. 105
Oistraker, A. 82
Ontogenesis 142
Operant conditioning 30
Operational feasibility 157-161
O'Regan, B. vii
Orne, M. 74
Ostrander, S., and Schroeder, L. 96
Ouspensky, P. D. 125
Paidea 174
Paradigm
definition of 160-161, 205
in transmutation 68-72
possibly emergent 102-109
Parapsychology 94-99
Paul of Tarsus, Saint 26
Pearce, J. C. 13
Pearson, L. 13
Perceptions 4, 85
Perennial Philosophy 33-35, 41, 124, 135,
167, 183
Perls, F. S. 91, 152-153
Personal change 152
Personal transformations 147-148
Personal-transpersonal mind/body model
134
Phylogenesis 142
Physical sciences 78-87
Physics and cosmology, modern 75-77
Pillsbury, B. vii
Planck, M. K. E. L. 75
Plato 25, 30
Platt, J. R. vii, 88, 101, 123,235
Polak, F. 17, 120, 154
Polanyi, M. 70, 85, 118, 124, 132, 173, 223
Pollution 14
Population biology 79
Precognition 95
Presman, A. S. 86, 90
Problems, societal 13
Quantum theory 77
Quarton, G. 170
Quigley, C. 146
Rapid eye movement (REM) 88, 90
Rational beings 55
Rationalism 46
Regulation 38-39
Reinhold, H. A. 134
Reiser, O. 40
Renaissance 46, 47, 104
Rhine, J. B., and Pratt, J. G. 95
Rhine, L. E. 95,96
Rhyne, R. xvii
Rima, I. H. 47, 54
Robotomorphic images 86
Roethlisberger, F., and Dickson, W. 74
Rogers, C. R. xv, xx
Rogers, E. 59
Roll, W. G. 96
Rome 26
Rervik, D. 151
Rosenthal, R. 74
Rousseau, J.-J. 36
Ryzl, M. 95
Saint-Exupery, A. de 108
Salk, J. xviii, II, 12,79, 102, 139
Saoshyant 23
Satin, M. xx
Schlegel, R. 73, 102
Schmeidler, G., and McConnell, R. 95
Schmookler, J. 59
Schneider, L. vii
Science
conceptual revolutions in 144-145
influence of 67-110
limitations of classical 68-75
normal 70
of consciousness 94
254
Index
Science and society, interaction be-
tween 102-105
Scientific
inquiry, crucial frontiers in 75-102
knowledge 8
paradigm 69-70,75
progress, limitations of 72-75
Secular progress 47
Segmented polycephalous network
[SP(I)N] 240-247
Self 133-138
Self-realization ethic 115-116
Seligman, D. 158
Semitic tradition 22-23, 37
Sense of the whole 14
Shainess, N. 71
Silberman, C. E. 55
Simon, H. 119
Skinner, B. F. xv, 30, 71, 117, 129, 173
Slater, P. E. 56
Smith, A. 191
Smith, R. A. xv, 150, 156, 157, 176
Snow, C. P. xxii, 157
Social change, analyzing 14
Social ethics 225-227
Societal
changes 60
choices 163-180
problems, interconnected impact of 7
progress, measures of 59
realities 52-56
reform 10
systems 60-61
Sociogenesis 142
Socrates 25, 30, 36
Sparks, L. 88
Spencer, H. 29
Split-brain research 84, 86
Stent, G. 70, 71
Strategies, comparison of basic 186-190
Strategies for transformation 182-199
Stulman,]. 40
Subliminal perception 97-98
Subliminal stimulation 93, 97
Sullivan, H. S. 147
Superconscious 93-94, 206
Symbiosis 119
Symbolic thinking 1
Synergy 74
Szent-Gyorgi, A. 73
Taboos 71, 72
Taoistic philosophy 22
Targ, R., and Hurt, D. 96
Tarski, A. 72
Tart, C. T. 91, 92, 94, 95, 125, 134
Taylor, S. vii
Technological ethic 25
Technological extrapolationist image 63,
166-171, 182,206
Technological imperative 53,54-55
Technological / ind ustrial era, problems
of 6
Technology, highly developed system
of 6-7
Teilhard de Chardin, P. 81,93, 125, 220
Telepathy 95
Thermodynamics, Second Law of 78
Thomas, W. I. 4
Thompson, W. 233-234
Thought photography 98
Thrasymachus 36
Toffler, A. 163, 234, 245
Toynbee, A. 125, 146
Transcendentalism, new 71
Transformation
cycle of 146, 148, 206
strategies for 182-199
Transformational discovery 159
Transition, non-disruptive 194-199
Trehub, A. 83
Trobriand Islanders 7
Tumin, M. 54
Ullman, M., and Krippner, S. 91,95
Unconscious processes 93
Unemployment 14
Unidentified flying objects (UFOs) 71,
103
United States 13, 14, 17, 24, 39, 40, 117,
171, 186
Bureau of Mines 12
dominant image in 39
Office of Education xvii, xviii
urbanization in 10
Universe, new conception of 21
Urban-industrial environment 64
Utilitarian values 53
Vedic era of India 33, 38
Vendanta philosophy 22
Vickers, Sir Geoffrey vii, xv, xx, 33, 116,
223-227
von Bertalanffy, L. 99, 100, 124
von Foerster, H. 80,81
Waddington, C. H. 80
Walker, E. H. 96,97
Wallace, Alfred 29
Index 255
Wallace, Anthony F. C. xv, 125, 142-143,
144, 145, 146, 148, ISO, 187
Wallace, G. 148, 149
Wallace, R. K. 91
War, threat of 14
Watson, J. B. 29, 80
Weiss, P. 80, 100, WI, 118, 124, 131
Weisskopf, V. F. 86
Weisskopf, W. A. 119, 127
Weitzenhoffer, A. 88
Weizenbaum, J. 60
Western Culture
Basic Long-term Multifold Trend of 8-9
conceptual paradigm of 140
editorial function of 8
Wheeler, J. 76
White, J. xv, 21, 94
White, L. 48
Whitehead, A. N. 121
Whitehead, C. 170
Wiener, N. 99,100,101,137,175
Wigner, E. 77
Wilson, A. and D. 59
Wirt, J., Lieberman, A., and Levien,
R. 146
Witkin, H. A. 91
Wolf, W. 116
Woodruff, W. 48
World hunger 14
World population 11, 12
World reserves, depletion of 12
Wycliffe, J. 27
Yankelovitch, D. 158
Yoga meditation 92, lSI
Yogi 21, 22, 118
Youngblood, G. 78
Zen meditation 92
Zoroastrianism 22-23, 24, 27, 38

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PERGAMON INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY

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