Euclid's Elements in Greek and English

EUCLIDS ELEMENTS IN GREEK
The Greek text of J.L. Heiberg (18831884)

from Euclidis Elementa, edidit et Latine interpretatus est
I.L. Heiberg, Lipsiae, in aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 18831884
with an accompanying English translation by
Richard Fitzpatrick
Preface
Euclids Elements is by far the most famous mathematical work of classical antiquity, and also
has the distinction of being the worlds oldest continuously used mathematical textbook. Little is
known about the author, beyond the fact that he lived in Alexandria around 300 BCE. The main
subject of this work is Geometry, which was something of an obsession for the Ancient Greeks.
Most of the theorems appearing in Euclids Elements were not discovered by Euclid himself,
but were the work of earlier Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras (and his school), Hip-
pocrates of Chios, Theaetetus, and Eudoxus of Cnidos. However, Euclid is generally credited
with arranging these theorems in a logical manner, so as to demonstrate (admittedly, not always
with the rigour demanded by modern mathematics) that they necessarily follow from ve sim-
ple axioms. Euclid is also credited with devising a number of particularly ingenious proofs of
previously discovered theorems: e.g., Theorem 48 in Book 1.
It is natural that anyone with a knowledge of Ancient Greek, combined with a general interest
in Mathematics, would wish to read the Elements in its original form. It is therefore extremely
surprizing that, whilst translations of this work into modern languages are easily available, the
Greek text has been completely unobtainable (as a book) for many years.
This purpose of this publication is to make the denitive Greek text of Euclids Elementsi.e.,
that edited by J.L. Heiberg (1883-1888)again available to the general public in book form. The
Greek text is accompanied by my own English translation.
The aim of my translation is to be as literal as possible, whilst still (approximately) remain-
ing within the bounds of idiomatic English. Text within square parenthesis (in both Greek and
English) indicates material identied by Heiberg as being later interpolations to the original text
(some particularly obvious or unhelpful interpolations are omitted altogether). Text within round
parenthesis (in English) indicates material which is implied, but but not actually present, in the
Greek text.
My thanks goes to Mariusz Wodzicki for advice regarding the typesetting of this work.
Richard Fitzpatrick; Austin, Texas; December, 2005.
References
Euclidus Opera Ominia, J.L. Heiberg & H. Menge (editors), Teubner (1883-1916).
Euclid in Greek, Book 1, T.L. Heath (translator), Cambridge (1920).
Euclids Elements, T.L. Heath (translator), Dover (1956).
History of Greek Mathematics, T.L. Heath, Dover (1981).

ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Fundamentals of plane geometry involving
straight-lines

pi c, u p u.
pp c p v.
pp c pi.
ui pp c, c : i c c p i.
c, o p | p c.
c pp.
c c, c : i c c u i.
c c| c c; ppe \p v | p c
u p o v e ppe .
c | pp| ui e, upp i .
c ui c ui i v c : v , o c
e : e c, | ci ui i, c c.
pi c| p o.
i c c o.
c, o c .
p c o u o p.
c| p c uo pi pp p i ],
o v co p e co u p p i |
ui o u ] : v i.
c u o pi i.
p c u c| ui v u p | p c
c v p uo u , | p o .
p c o p p u p | vp-
p u u . c u p o u, o | u
c.
p upp c v uo ue p, pc v uo e,
c v uo , c v uo ue
p.
6
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Denitions
1 A point is that of which there is no part.
2 And a line is a length without breadth.
3 And the extremities of a line are points.
4 A straight-line is whatever lies evenly with points upon itself.
5 And a surface is that which has length and breadth alone.
6 And the extremities of a surface are lines.
7 A plane surface is whatever lies evenly with straight-lines upon itself.
8 And a plane angle is the inclination of the lines, when two lines in a plane meet one another,
and are not laid down straight-on with respect to one another.
9 And when the lines containing the angle are straight then the angle is called rectilinear.
10 And when a straight-line stood upon (another) straight-line makes adjacent angles (which
are) equal to one another, each of the equal angles is a right-angle, and the former straight-
line is called perpendicular to that upon which it stands.
11 An obtuse angle is greater than a right-angle.
12 And an acute angle is less than a right-angle.
13 A boundary is that which is the extremity of something.
14 A gure is that which is contained by some boundary or boundaries.
15 A circle is a plane gure contained by a single line [which is called a circumference], (such
that) all of the straight-lines radiating towards [the circumference] from a single point lying
inside the gure are equal to one another.
16 And the point is called the center of the circle.
17 And a diameter of the circle is any straight-line, being drawn through the center, which
is brought to an end in each direction by the circumference of the circle. And any such
(straight-line) cuts the circle in half.
1
18 And a semi-circle is the gure contained by the diameter and the circumference it cuts off.
And the center of the semi-circle is the same (point) as (the center of) the circle.
19 Rectilinear gures are those gures contained by straight-lines: trilateral gures being con-
tained by three straight-lines, quadrilateral by four, and multilateral by more than four.
1
This should really be counted as a postulate, rather than as part of a denition.

e c p i pc c o v i : c
, ic c o v p : c , o c o v i
v c .
c e p o pc c o c o ,
vp c o c vpi , o c o v i o c .
e c p p c, o i c | o-
, cp , o o p, u i , p , o i
p, u o , pc c o v v | :
v c, o u i c u o v c v u
.
i ui, : c ; u; c; u | cp i v
c c v p c| p p v.
ip
vo o p c| i pi ui pp vi.
| p ui v o c c u ci.
| | ; | p .
| v ov : v |.
| cv i u ui cp v co | c| v uv p
oe c , cp v u c v p, c i p
i| | e oe c.
| c
v ; u; : | v c| :.
| cv : : , v o c| :.
| cv vo : : v, v p c :.
| v cp c v : v c.
| o o u p pi c].
8
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
20 And of the trilateral gures: an equilateral triangle is that having three equal sides, an
isosceles (triangle) that having only two equal sides, and a scalene (triangle) that having
three unequal sides.
21 And further of the trilateral gures: a right-angled triangle is that having a right-angle, an
obtuse-angled (triangle) that having an obtuse angle, and an acute-angled (triangle) that
having three acute angles.
22 And of the quadrilateral gures: a square is that which is right-angled and equilateral, a
rectangle that which is right-angled but not equilateral, a rhombus that which is equilateral
but not right-angled, and a rhomboid that having opposite sides and angles equal to one
another which is neither right-angled nor equilateral. And let quadrilateral gures besides
these be called trapezia.
23 Parallel lines are straight-lines which, being in the same plane, and being produced to inn-
ity in each direction, meet with one another in neither (of these directions).
Postulates
1 Let it have been postulated to draw a straight-line from any point to any point.
2 And to produce a nite straight-line continuously in a straight-line.
3 And to draw a circle with any center and radius.
4 And that all right-angles are equal to one another.
5 And that if a straight-line falling across two (other) straight-lines makes internal angles
on the same side (of itself) less than two right-angles, being produced to innity, the two
(other) straight-lines meet on that side (of the original straight-line) that the (internal an-
gles) are less than two right-angles (and do not meet on the other side).
2
Common Notions
1 Things equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
2 And if equal things are added to equal things then the wholes are equal.
3 And if equal things are subtracted from equal things then the remainders are equal.
3
4 And things coinciding with one another are equal to one another.
5 And the whole [is] greater than the part.
2
This postulate effectively species that we are dealing with the geometry of at, rather than curved, space.
3
As an obvious extension of C.N.s 2 & 3if equal things are added or subtracted from the two sides of an
inequality then the inequality remains an inequality of the same type.
9

| u p i .
i ui p .
i c| u i .
; pc ; p c ; o , | ; pc ;
p c ; o , | vo u p, o p
v | , c v , pi c ui | , .
| c| o pi c| u , : c| , c| o
pi c| u , : c| . c c |
: c v e , c :. v c ; u; : | v c| : |
v c : | i v | , , : v i.
v c| o . | c| u p
o c .
l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 1
B A E D
C
To construct an equilateral triangle on a given nite straight-line.
Let AB be the given nite straight-line.
So it is required to construct an equilateral triangle on the straight-line AB.
Let the circle BCD with center A and radius AB have been drawn [Post. 3], and again let the
circle ACE with center B and radius BA have been drawn [Post. 3]. And let the straight-lines
CA and CB have been joined from the point C, where the circles cut one another,
4
to the points
A and B (respectively) [Post. 1].
And since the point A is the center of the circle CDB, AC is equal to AB [Def. 1.15]. Again,
since the point B is the center of the circle CAE, BC is equal to BA [Def. 1.15]. But CA was
also shown (to be) equal to AB. Thus, CA and CB are each equal to AB. But things equal to the
same thing are also equal to one another [C.N. 1]. Thus, CA is also equal to CB. Thus, the three
(straight-lines) CA, AB, and BC are equal to one another.
Thus, the triangle ABC is equilateral, and has been constructed on the given nite straight-line
AB. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
4
The assumption that the circles do indeed cut one another should be counted as an additional postulate. There
is also an implicit assumption that two straight-lines cannot share a common segment.
ll

o ; p; u; : ui .
o pc c pi o , c i ui i o ; p;
u; : ui .
v vo u p c o pi ui , | c u
i o , | c c u i , ui | , ,
| ; pc ; p c ; o , | ; ;
| p ; o .
| u o pi c| u , : c| . , c| o pi
c| u , : c| , e : c. v
c :. c c | :. c v e ,
c :. v c ; u; : | v c| : | v c :.
o v ; p; ; u; : ui i o
c .
l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 2
5
L
K
H
C
D
B
A
G
F
E
To place a straight-line equal to a given straight-line at a given point.
Let A be the given point, and BC the given straight-line. So it is required to place a straight-line
at point A equal to the given straight-line BC.
For let the line AB have been joined from point A to point B [Post. 1], and let the equilateral
triangle DAB have been been constructed upon it [Prop. 1.1]. And let the straight-lines AE and
BF have been produced in a straight-line with DA and DB (respectively) [Post. 2]. And let the
circle CGH with center B and radius BC have been drawn [Post. 3], and again let the circle
GKL with center D and radius DG have been drawn [Post. 3].
Therefore, since the point B is the center of (the circle) CGH, BC is equal to BG [Def. 1.15].
Again, since the point D is the center of the circle GKL, DL is equal to DG [Def. 1.15]. And
within these, DA is equal to DB. Thus, the remainder AL is equal to the remainder BG [C.N. 3].
But BC was also shown (to be) equal to BG. Thus, AL and BC are each equal to BG. But things
equal to the same thing are also equal to one another [C.N. 1]. Thus, AL is also equal to BC.
Thus, the straight-line AL, equal to the given straight-line BC, has been placed at the given point
A. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
5
This proposition admits of a number of different cases, depending on the relative positions of the point A and
the line BC. In such situations, Euclid invariably only considers one particular caseusually, the most difcultand
leaves the remaining cases as exercises for the reader.
l`

e ue v vo p c : ui vi.
| i ui v | , , e p c i vo
p c : ui vi.
o ; p; u; : | ; pc ; p c ;
o .
| c| o pi c| u , : c| vv |
c :. c v e , c : e | c :.
v e ue v e , vo p c :
v o c .
l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 3
E
D
C
A
F
B
For two given unequal straight-lines, to cut off from the greater a straight-line equal to the lesser.
Let AB and C be the two given unequal straight-lines, of which let the greater be AB. So it is
required to cut off a straight-line equal to the lesser C from the greater AB.
Let the line AD, equal to the straight-line C, have been placed at point A [Prop. 1.2]. And let the
circle DEF have been drawn with center A and radius AD [Post. 3].
And since point A is the center of circle DEF, AE is equal to AD [Def. 1.15]. But, C is also equal
to AD. Thus, AE and C are each equal to AD. So AE is also equal to C [C.N. 1].
Thus, for two given unequal straight-lines, AB and C, the (straight-line) AE, equal to the lesser
C, has been cut off from the greater AB. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
l

v v v i] | i : c c c; |
; : c uo e : ue p, | :
c, | o ; ; : c, | | | i i :
c c c;, u i | : | u.
v , v v v , i | i i ,
: c c c; pc c | uo
; uo :. , o | : c, | o
; ; : c, | | | i i : c
c c;, u i | : | u, pc uo uo , c uo
uo .
pp v u c| o | p u pc
p c| o pi c u c| , cp | o pi c| o
v o : | cp c| cp |
ui c| v o : | uo uo e | o pi
c| o pi cp v o : | . vv p | o c|
o cp e c| cp. i v u pc c| o
cp u c c| o c| u cp, ui
o c| v. cp v c| | : u c
e | o o c| o o cp | : u; c,
| | | c| v v cp | : ui c, pc uo
uo c uo uo .
v v v v i] i : c c c; |
; : c uo e : ue p, |
: c, | o ; ; : c, | | | i i :
c c c;, u i | : | u o c i.
l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 4
F B
A
C E
D
If two triangles have two corresponding sides equal, and have the angles enclosed by the equal
sides equal, then they will also have equal bases, and the two triangles will be equal, and the
remaining angles subtended by the equal sides will be equal to the corresponding remaining
angles.
Let ABC and DEF be two triangles having the two sides AB and AC equal to the two sides DE
and DF, respectively. (That is) AB to DE, and AC to DF. And (let) the angle BAC (be) equal
to the angle EDF. I say that the base BC is also equal to the base EF, and triangle ABC will be
equal to triangle DEF, and the remaining angles subtended by the equal sides will be equal to
the corresponding remaining angles. (That is) ABC to DEF, and ACB to DFE.
Let the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF,
6
the point A being placed on the point D,
and the straight-line AB on DE. The point B will also coincide with E, on account of AB being
equal to DE. So (because of) AB coinciding with DE, the straight-line AC will also coincide with
DF, on account of the angle BAC being equal to EDF. So the point C will also coincide with
the point F, again on account of AC being equal to DF. But, point B certainly also coincided
with point E, so that the base BC will coincide with the base EF. For if B coincides with E, and
C with F, and the base BC does not coincide with EF, then two straight-lines will encompass
a space. The very thing is impossible [Post. 1].
7
Thus, the base BC will coincide with EF, and
will be equal to it [C.N. 4]. So the whole triangle ABC will coincide with the whole triangle
DEF, and will be equal to it [C.N. 4]. And the remaining angles will coincide with the remaining
angles, and will be equal to them [C.N. 4]. (That is) ABC to DEF, and ACB to DFE [C.N. 4].
Thus, if two triangles have two corresponding sides equal, and have the angles enclosed by the
equal sides equal, then they will also have equal bases, and the two triangles will be equal, and
the remaining angles subtended by the equal sides will be equal to the corresponding remaining
angles. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6
The application of one gure to another should be counted as an additional postulate.
7
Since Post. 1 implicitly assumes that the straight-line joining two given points is unique.
l

e ie | o : v i, | e e
: ue | uo : v c.
ic o : c v ;, | -
c u i , ui | , , o pc uo
uo : c, c uo uo .
i v c| o pi o , | v vo p
c : , | c | , ui.
| u : c| pc c , | , | i ,
: i| c c; | uo v
: c, | o ; ; : c, | | | i
i : c c c;, u i | : | u, pc uo
uo , c uo uo . | c| o o c :,
e c :, v c :. c c |
: | , | i , i i| c c; | uo
; uo :, | ue | o v ;
; : c, | | | i i : c c c;, u
i | : | u : v c| pc uo uo c uo
uo . c| u o uo o uo ; c :, e uo
uo :, v uo uo c : i o
u . c c | uo uo : i uo .
e v ie | o : v i, | e
e : ue | uo : v c o c i.
l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 5
B
D
F
C
G
A
E
For isosceles triangles, the angles at the base are equal to one another, and if the equal sides are
produced then the angles under the base will be equal to one another.
Let ABC be an isosceles triangle having the side AB equal to the side AC, and let the straight-
lines BD and CE have been produced in a straight-line with AB and AC (respectively) [Post. 2].
I say that the angle ABC is equal to ACB, and (angle) CBD to BCE.
For let the point F have been taken somewhere on BD, and let AG have been cut off from the
greater AE, equal to the lesser AF [Prop. 1.3]. Also, let the straight-lines FC and GB have been
joined [Post. 1].
In fact, since AF is equal to AG and AB to AC, the two (straight-lines) FA, AC are equal to the
two (straight-lines) GA, AB, respectively. They also encompass a common angle FAG. Thus, the
base FC is equal to the base GB, and the triangle AFC will be equal to the triangle AGB, and
the remaining angles subtendend by the equal sides will be equal to the corresponding remaining
angles [Prop. 1.4]. (That is) ACF to ABG, and AFC to AGB. And since the whole of AF is
equal to the whole of AG, within which AB is equal to AC, the remainder BF is thus equal to
the remainder CG [C.N. 3]. But FC was also shown (to be) equal to GB. So the two (straight-
lines) BF, FC are equal to the two (straight-lines) CG, GB, respectively, and the angle BFC (is)
equal to the angle CGB, and the base BC is common to them. Thus, the triangle BFC will be
equal to the triangle CGB, and the remaining angles subtended by the equal sides will be equal
to the corresponding remaining angles [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, FBC is equal to GCB, and BCF to
CBG. Therefore, since the whole angle ABG was shown (to be) equal to the whole angle ACF,
within which CBG is equal to BCF, the remainder ABC is thus equal to the remainder ACB
[C.N. 3]. And they are at the base of triangle ABC. And FBC was also shown (to be) equal to
GCB. And they are under the base.
Thus, for isosceles triangles, the angles at the base are equal to one another, and if the equal sides
are produced then the angles under the base will be equal to one another. (Which is) the very
thing it was required to show.
l9

v | u : v e, | | uo v : u
| : v c.
o : c uo uo ; , o |
v ; c :.
i v v c , c ue p c. c p , | v
vo p c : , | c .
| u : c| c , | , i , : i|
c c;, | uo ; uo c : v
: c, | o ; ; : c, o c ; p o
v u v v c : v.
v v | u : v e, | | uo v : u
| : v c o c i.
20
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 6
D
A
C B
If a triangle has two angles equal to one another then the sides subtending the equal angles will
also be equal to one another.
Let ABC be a triangle having the angle ABC equal to the angle ACB. I say that side AB is also
equal to side AC.
For if AB is unequal to AC then one of them is greater. Let AB be greater. And let DB, equal to
the lesser AC, have been cut off from the greater AB [Prop. 1.3]. And let DC have been joined
[Post. 1].
Therefore, since DB is equal to AC, and BC (is) common, the two sides DB, BC are equal to the
two sides AC, CB, respectively, and the angle DBC is equal to the angle ACB. Thus, the base
DC is equal to the base AB, and the triangle DBC will be equal to the triangle ACB [Prop. 1.4],
the lesser to the greater. The very notion (is) absurd [C.N. 5]. Thus, AB is not unequal to AC.
Thus, (it is) equal.
8
Thus, if a triangle has two angles equal to one another then the sides subtending the equal angles
will also be equal to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
8
Here, use is made of the previously unmentioned common notion that if two quantities are not unequal then
they must be equal. Later on, use is made of the closely related common notion that if two quantities are not greater
than or less than one another, respectively, then they must be equal to one another.
2l

| u u i ui u v ui : c c; u
o v; | v; p; c| v uv p v uv c i c
v u.
i v , c| u u i ui u i , v
ui | , : c c; o v; | v; p; ;
| c| v uv p v uv c, e : | pc o uo
c u o , c o uo c u o , | c
.
| u : c| , : c| | uo uo p v
uo uo ; v uo p c uo . c| : c|
, : c| | uo ; uo . c c u | ;
p o c| v.
u v c| u u i ui u v ui : c c;
o v; | v; p; c| v uv p v uv c i c
v u o c i.
22
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 7
B A
C
D
On the same straight-line, two other straight-lines equal, respectively, to two (given) straight-
lines (which meet) cannot be constructed (meeting) at different points on the same side (of the
straight-line), but having the same ends as the given straight-lines.
For, if possible, let the two straight-lines AD, DB, equal to two (given) straight-lines AC, CB,
respectively, have been constructed on the same straight-line AB, meeting at different points, C
and D, on the same side (of AB), and having the same ends (on AB). So CA and DA are equal,
having the same ends at A, and CB and DB are equal, having the same ends at B. And let CD
have been joined [Post. 1].
Therefore, since AC is equal to AD, the angle ACD is also equal to angle ADC [Prop. 1.5]. Thus,
ADC (is) greater than DCB [C.N. 5]. Thus, CDB is much greater than DCB [C.N. 5]. Again,
since CB is equal to DB, the angle CDB is also equal to angle DCB [Prop. 1.5]. But it was
shown that the former (angle) is also much greater (than the latter). The very thing is impossi-
ble.
Thus, on the same straight-line, two other straight-lines equal, respectively, to two (given) straight-
lines (which meet) cannot be constructed (meeting) at different points on the same side (of the
straight-line), but having the same ends as the given straight-lines. (Which is) the very thing it
was required to show.
2`

v v v i] i : c c c;, c c
| :, | ; : c uo e : ue
p.
v , v v v , i i i ,
: c c c;, pc c c c |
: , o | uo ; uo c :.
pp v u c| o | p u pc p
c| o pi c u c| cp | o pi c| o v o
: | cp c| cp | | , c|
v , . i v pc c| cp, | c , | c| v
, u cp vv e | , , c| u
u i ui u v ui : c c; o v; | v;
p; c| v uv p v uv c. u u v cpp
c| u cp | | , | c| v , .
cp v e | uo c| uo cp | :
u c.
v v v v i] i : c c c; |
: c, | ; : c uo e : ue
p o c i.
24
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 8
D
G
B
E
F
C
A
If two triangles have two corresponding sides equal, and also have equal bases, then the angles
encompassed by the equal straight-lines will also be equal.
and DF, respectively. (That is) AB to DE, and AC to DF. Let them also have the base BC equal
to the base EF. I say that the angle BAC is also equal to the angle EDF.
For if triangle ABC is applied to triangle DEF, the point B being placed on point E, and the
straight-line BC on EF, point C will also coincide with F on account of BC being equal to EF.
So (because of) BC coinciding with EF, (the sides) BA and CA will also coincide with ED and
DF (respectively). For if base BC coincides with base EF, but the sides AB and AC do not
coincide with ED and DF (respectively), but miss like EG and GF (in the above gure), then
we will have constructed upon the same straight-line, two other straight-lines equal, respectively,
to two (given) straight-lines, and (meeting) at different points on the same side (of the straight-
line), but having the same ends. But (such straight-lines) cannot be constructed [Prop. 1.7].
Thus, the base BC being applied to the base EF, the sides BA and AC cannot not coincide with
ED and DF (respectively). Thus, they will coincide. So the angle BAC will also coincide with
angle EDF, and they will be equal [C.N. 4].
Thus, if two triangles have two corresponding sides equal, and have equal bases, then the angles
encompassed by the equal straight-lines will also be equal. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
2

i upp pi.
i upp uo . i u pi.
i c| o pi o , | v vo : , |
c , | c| i o , | c
, o uo p uo u.
| v : c| , c , | , | i , :
i| c c;. | : c v uo ;
uo : c.
v i upp uo p uo u o c
.
26
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 9
F
D
B C
E
A
To cut a given rectilinear angle in half.
Let BAC be the given rectilinear angle. So it is required to cut it in half.
Let the point D have been taken somewhere on AB, and let AE, equal to AD, have been cut off
from AC [Prop. 1.3], and let DE have been joined. And let the equilateral triangle DEF have
been constructed upon DE [Prop. 1.1], and let AF have been joined. I say that the angle BAC
has been cut in half by the straight-line AF.
For since AD is equal to AE, and AF is common, the two (straight-lines) DA, AF are equal to
the two (straight-lines) EA, AF, respectively. And the base DF is equal to the base EF. Thus,
angle DAF is equal to angle EAF [Prop. 1.8].
Thus, the given rectilinear angle BAC has been cut in half by the straight-line AF. (Which is)
the very thing it was required to do.
2

i ui p pi.
i ui p i ui p pi.
c u i o , | p uo
u; , o ui p v o pi.
| v : c| , c , | , i , : i|
c c; | uo ; uo : c v
: c.
v i ui p p v o o c .
28
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 10
B A
D
C
To cut a given nite straight-line in half.
Let AB be the given nite straight-line. So it is required to cut the nite straight-line AB in half.
Let the equilateral triangle ABC have been constructed upon (AB) [Prop. 1.1], and let the angle
ACB have been cut in half by the straight-line CD [Prop. 1.9]. I say that the straight-line AB has
been cut in half at point D.
For since AC is equal to CB, and CD (is) common, the two (straight-lines) AC, CD are equal
to the two (straight-lines) BC, CD, respectively. And the angle ACD is equal to the angle BCD.
Thus, the base AD is equal to the base BD [Prop. 1.4].
Thus, the given nite straight-line AB has been cut in half at (point) D. (Which is) the very thing
it was required to do.
29

u; vo u o u p o ov ui pp
vi.
pc i ui o c c pi c u o i vo u
p u; o ov ui pp vi.
i c| o pi o , | : , | c|
i o , | c , o u;
vo u o u p u o ov ui pp .
| v : c| , c , | , | i , : i|
c c; | : c v uo ; uo
: c i c. o c ui c ui i v c :
v , o c e : e c o v c| c e uo ,
.
v u; vo u o u p u o ov
ui pp o c .
`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 11
D
A
F
C E
B
To draw a straight-line at right-angles to a given straight-line from a given point on it.
Let AB be the given straight-line, and C the given point on it. So it is required to draw a straight-
line from the point C at right-angles to the straight-line AB.
Let the point D be have been taken somewhere on AC, and let CE be made equal to CD
[Prop. 1.3], and let the equilateral triangle FDE have been constructed on DE [Prop. 1.1], and
let FC have been joined. I say that the straight-line FC has been drawn at right-angles to the
given straight-line AB from the given point C on it.
For since DC is equal to CE, and CF is common, the two (straight-lines) DC, CF are equal
to the two (straight-lines), EC, CF, respectively. And the base DF is equal to the base FE.
Thus, the angle DCF is equal to the angle ECF [Prop. 1.8], and they are adjacent. But when
a straight-line stood on a(nother) straight-line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another,
each of the equal angles is a right-angle [Def. 1.10]. Thus, each of the (angles) DCF and FCE
is a right-angle.
Thus, the straight-line CF has been drawn at right-angles to the given straight-line AB from the
given point C on it. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
`l

| i ui v vo u p, o p c c u,
ui pp vi.
pc i ui v o c c pi, o p c c u, o
i c| i ui v vo u p u , o p c
c u, ui pp vi.
i v c| v c p u o pi o , | ; pc ;
p c ; o , | p ui v o ,
| c | , , ui , o c| i ui v
vo u p u , o p c c u, .
| v : c| , c , | , i , :
|| c c; | c : v uo ;
uo c :. i c. o c ui c ui i v c
: v , o c e : e c, | ci ui
i c c.
| i v ui v vo u p u , o p c
c u, o c .
`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 12
D
A
G
H
F
E
B
C
To draw a straight-line perpendicular to a given innite straight-line from a given point which is
not on it.
Let AB be the given innite straight-line and C the given point, which is not on (AB). So it
is required to draw a straight-line perpendicular to the given innite straight-line AB from the
given point C, which is not on (AB).
For let point D have been taken somewhere on the other side (to C) of the straight-line AB, and
let the circle EFG have been drawn with center C and radius CD [Post. 3], and let the straight-
line EG have been cut in half at (point) H [Prop. 1.10], and let the straight-lines CG, CH, and
CE have been joined. I say that a (straight-line) CH has been drawn perpendicular to the given
innite straight-line AB from the given point C, which is not on (AB).
For since GH is equal to HE, and HC (is) common, the two (straight-lines) GH, HC are equal to
the two straight-lines EH, HC, respectively, and the base CG is equal to the base CE. Thus, the
angle CHG is equal to the angle EHC [Prop. 1.8], and they are adjacent. But when a straight-
line stood on a(nother) straight-line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of the
equal angles is a right-angle, and the former straight-line is called perpendicular to that upon
which it stands [Def. 1.10].
Thus, the (straight-line) CH has been drawn perpendicular to the given innite straight-line AB
from the given point C, which is not on (AB). (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
``

v ui c ui i , ov | oi : .
ui c ui i v uo , c,
o | uo , o i | oi :.
i pc u : c| uo uo , o i. i c u, vo u
p u;] o ov | v uo , o i | c|
uo | i uo , : c, uo | v uo ,
| i uo , , : i. , c| uo | i uo ,
: c, uo | v u , | i uo ,
, : i. c c | | uo , | i ui : v c ;
u; : | v c| : | | uo , v i uo , : i
vv | uo , o i | | uo , v | oi : i.
v v ui c ui i , ov | oi :
o c i.
`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 13
C
A
E
D B
If a straight-line stood on a(nother) straight-line makes angles, it will certainly either make two
right-angles, or (angles whose sum is) equal to two right-angles.
For let some straight-line AB stood on the straight-line CD make the angles CBA and ABD. I
say that the angles CBA and ABD are certainly either two right-angles, or (have a sum) equal
to two right-angles.
In fact, if CBA is equal to ABD then they are two right-angles [Def. 1.10]. But, if not, let BE
have been drawn from the point B at right-angles to [the straight-line] CD [Prop. 1.11]. Thus,
CBE and EBD are two right-angles. And since CBE is equal to the two (angles) CBA and
ABE, let EBD have been added to both. Thus, the (angles) CBE and EBD are equal to the
three (angles) CBA, ABE, and EBD [C.N. 2]. Again, since DBA is equal to the two (angles)
DBE and EBA, let ABC have been added to both. Thus, the (angles) DBA and ABC are equal
to the three (angles) DBE, EBA, and ABC [C.N. 2]. But CBE and EBD were also shown (to
be) equal to the same three (angles). And things equal to the same thing are also equal to one
another [C.N. 1]. Therefore, CBE and EBD are also equal to DBA and ABC. But, CBE and
EBD are two right-angles. Thus, ABD and ABC are also equal to two right-angles.
Thus, if a straight-line stood on a(nother) straight-line makes angles, it will certainly either make
two right-angles, or (angles whose sum is) equal to two right-angles. (Which is) the very thing it
`

v u; | ; o u p; ui p c| v uv p p v
c | oi : e, c u c v | ui.
o u; | ; o u p; ; ui | , p c| v
uv p p v c v uo , oi : ,
o c u c| .
i v p c c u , c c u .
| u ui c ui c, | v uo ,
oi : i i| c | | uo , oi : | v uo , i
uo , : i. v uo v uo uo
c :, c p o c| v. u v c u c|
. op p, o uc v c u v c| .
v v u; | ; o u p; ui p c| uv p p
v c | oi : e, c u c v | ui o c
i.
`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 14
B C D
E A
If two straight-lines, not lying on the same side, make adjacent angles equal to two right-angles at
the same point on some straight-line, then the two straight-lines will be straight-on (with respect)
to one another.
For let two straight-lines BC and BD, not lying on the same side, make adjacent angles ABC
and ABD equal to two right-angles at the same point B on some straight-line AB. I say that BD
is straight-on with respect to CB.
For if BD is not straight-on to BC then let BE be straight-on to CB.
Therefore, since the straight-line AB stands on the straight-line CBE, the angles ABC and ABE
are thus equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13]. But ABC and ABD are also equal to two right-
angles. Thus, (angles) CBA and ABE are equal to (angles) CBA and ABD [C.N. 1]. Let (angle)
CBA have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remainder ABE is equal to the remainder ABD
[C.N. 3], the lesser to the greater. The very thing is impossible. Thus, BE is not straight-on with
respect to CB. Similarly, we can show that neither (is) any other (straight-line) than BD. Thus,
CB is straight-on with respect to BD.
Thus, if two straight-lines, not lying on the same side, make adjacent angles equal to two right-
angles at the same point on some straight-line, then the two straight-lines will be straight-on
(with respect) to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`

v ui p v, v v : v u.
v ui | , p v v o pi , o : c| pc
uo uo , c uo uo .
| v ui c ui c u v uo , , |
v uo , | oi : i. , c| ui c ui
c u v uo , , | v uo , | oi
: i. c c | | uo , | oi : \ v uo , i
uo , : i. v uo v uo uo
: c op , o | | uo , : i.
v v ui p v, v v : v u o
c i.
`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 15
D
A
E
B
C
If two straight-lines cut one another then they make the vertically opposite angles equal to one
another.
For let the two straight-lines AB and CD cut one another at the point E. I say that angle AEC is
equal to (angle) DEB, and (angle) CEB to (angle) AED.
For since the straight-line AE stands on the straight-line CD, making the angles CEA and AED,
the angles CEA and AED are thus equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13]. Again, since the
straight-line DE stands on the straight-line AB, making the angles AED and DEB, the angles
AED and DEB are thus equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13]. But CEA and AED were also
shown (to be) equal to two right-angles. Thus, CEA and AED are equal to AED and DEB
[C.N. 1]. Let AED have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remainder CEA is equal to the
remainder BED [C.N. 3]. Similarly, it can be shown that CEB and DEA are also equal.
Thus, if two straight-lines cut one another then they make the vertically opposite angles equal to
one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`9

o pi e e co c e co |
v e p c.
o , | uu p v c| o c, o
co uo p c| c e co | v e uo ,
e.
p v o , | ci c c u c| o , |
: , | c , | c| o .
| u : c| pc , c , | , | i ,
: i| c c; | uo ; uo : c v
v : c, | o ; ; c|
:, | | | i i : i| c c;, u i | : |
u : v c| uo uo . p c uo uo
p v uo uo . p pp |
uo , uo , p | uo .
o v pi e e co c e co
| v e p c o c i.
40
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 16
E
B
A
C
G
F
D
For any triangle, when one of the sides is produced, the external angle is greater than each of the
internal and opposite angles.
Let ABC be a triangle, and let one of its sides BC have been produced to D. I say that the
external angle ACD is greater than each of the internal and opposite angles, CBA and BAC.
Let the (straight-line) AC have been cut in half at (point) E [Prop. 1.10]. And BE being joined,
let it have been produced in a straight-line to (point) F.
9
And let EF be made equal to BE
[Prop. 1.3], and let FC have been joined, and let AC have been drawn through to (point) G.
Therefore, since AE is equal to EC, and BE to EF, the two (straight-lines) AE, EB are equal to
the two (straight-lines) CE, EF, respectively. Also, angle AEB is equal to angle FEC, for (they
are) vertically opposite [Prop. 1.15]. Thus, the base AB is equal to the base FC, and the triangle
ABE is equal to the triangle FEC, and the remaining angles subtended by the equal sides are
equal to the corresponding remaining angles [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, BAE is equal to ECF. But ECD
is greater than ECF. Thus, ACD is greater than BAE. Similarly, by having cut BC in half, it can
be shown (that) BCGthat is to say, ACD(is) also greater than ABC.
Thus, for any triangle, when one of the sides is produced, the external angle is greater than each
of the internal and opposite angles. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
9
The implicit assumption that the point F lies in the interior of the angle ABC should be counted as an additional
postulate.
4l

o | oe c i ppp.
o , o u | oe c i
ppp.
v c| o .
| c| u c c uo , p c| co | v
uo . uo | v uo , e uo ,
p i. v | uo , oi : i | v uo , oe
c i. op p, o | | uo , oe c i |
c | uo , .
o v | oe c i ppp o
c i.
42
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 17
B
A
C D
For any triangle, (any) two angles are less than two right-angles, (the angles) being taken up in
any (possible way).
Let ABC be a triangle. I say that (any) two angles of triangle ABC are less than two right-angles,
(the angles) being taken up in any (possible way).
For let BC have been produced to D.
And since the angle ACD is external to triangle ABC, it is greater than the internal and opposite
angle ABC [Prop. 1.16]. Let ACB have been added to both. Thus, the (angles) ACD and ACB
are greater than the (angles) ABC and BCA. But, ACD and ACB are equal to two right-angles
[Prop. 1.13]. Thus, ABC and BCA are less than two right-angles. Similarly, we can show that
BAC and ACB are also less than two right-angles, and again CAB and ABC (are less than two
right-angles).
Thus, for any triangle, (any) two angles are less than two right-angles, (the angles) being taken
up in any (possible way). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
4`

o p v p u.
v o p c v , o | uo
p c| uo
| v p c| , : , | c .
| c| u c c uo , p c| co | v
uo : c uo uo , c| | v c : p
v | uo uo ; v uo p c| uo .
o v p v p u o c i.
44
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 18
A
D
B
C
For any triangle, the greater side subtends the greater angle.
For let ABC be a triangle having side AC greater than AB. I say that angle ABC is also greater
than BCA.
For since AC is greater than AB, let AD be made equal to AB [Prop. 1.3], and let BD have been
joined.
And since angle ADB is external to triangle BCD, it is greater than the internal and opposite
(angle) DCB. But ADB (is) equal to ABD, since side AB is also equal to side AD [Prop. 1.5].
Thus, ABD is also greater than ACB. Thus, ABC is much greater than ACB.
Thus, for any triangle, the greater side subtends the greater angle. (Which is) the very thing it
4

o uo p p v u.
o p c uo uo , o | v
i p c.
i v p, : c| c : pc u u c : v
i | uo uo u c u v : c| . uc
p c c| c v i | uo uo u
c u v c c| . c , o uc : c. p v c|
.
o v uo p p v u o c i.
46
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 19
C
B
A
For any triangle, the greater angle is subtended by the greater side.
Let ABC be a triangle having the angle ABC greater than BCA. I say that side AC is also greater
than side AB.
For if not, AC is certainly either equal to or less than AB. In fact, AC is not equal to AB. For
then angle ABC would also have been equal to ACB [Prop. 1.5]. But it is not. Thus, AC is not
equal to AB. Neither, indeed, is AC less than AB. For then angle ABC would also have been less
than ACB [Prop. 1.18]. But it is not. Thus, AC is not less than AB. But it was shown that (AC)
is also not equal (to AB). Thus, AC is greater than AB.
Thus, for any triangle, the greater angle is subtended by the greater side. (Which is) the very
4

o | | p i ppp.
v o , o u | | p
i ppp, | pc , , | c , , | c ,
.
v c| o pi, | : , | c .
| u : c| , : c| | uo uo p v
uo uo | c| c o p c uo
uo , uo c p p v u, v c p.
: c p v | , op p, o | | pc ,
p i, | c , .
o v | | p i ppp o
c i.
48
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 20
B
A
D
C
For any triangle, (any) two sides are greater than the remaining (side), (the sides) being taken
up in any (possible way).
For let ABC be a triangle. I say that for triangle ABC (any) two sides are greater than the
remaining (side), (the sides) being taken up in any (possible way). (So), BA and AC (are
greater) than BC, AB and BC than AC, and BC and CA than AB.
For let BA have been drawn through to point D, and let AD be made equal to CA [Prop. 1.3],
and let DC have been joined.
Therefore, since DA is equal to AC, the angle ADC is also equal to ACD [Prop. 1.5]. Thus,
BCD is greater than ADC. And since triangle DCB has the angle BCD greater than BDC, and
the greater angle subtends the greater side [Prop. 1.19], DB is thus greater than BC. But DA is
equal to AC. Thus, BA and AC are greater than BC. Similarly, we can show that AB and BC
are also greater than CA, and BC and CA than AB.
Thus, for any triangle, (any) two sides are greater than the remaining (side), (the sides) being
taken up in any (possible way). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
49

v c| pi e e vo e ui co e, | -
i e e u e c pc c, p c
.
v u c| pi e e vo e e , ui
co | , , o | , e e u e
e , c p i, p c uo uo .
v c| o . | c| o | | p i,
u v | | | , p i
| v , e , p i. , c| u | |
| , p i, | , v e , p
i. vv e , p c | , ; v | , e ,
p i.
, c| o co co | v p c, u
v co uo p c| uo . v uv | u
co uo p c| uo . vv uo p
c uo ; v uo p c| uo .
v v c| pi e e vo e ui co e,
| i e e u e c p i, p c
o c i.
0
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 21
B
A
E
C
D
If two internal straight-lines are constructed on one of the sides of a triangle, from its ends, the
constructed (straight-lines) will be less than the two remaining sides of the triangle, but will
encompass a greater angle.
For let the two internal straight-lines BD and DC have been constructed on one of the sides BC
of the triangle ABC, from its ends B and C (respectively). I say that BD and DC are less than
the two remaining sides of the triangle BA and AC, but encompass an angle BDC greater than
BAC.
For let BD have been drawn through to E. And since for every triangle (any) two sides are
greater than the remaining (side) [Prop. 1.20], for triangle ABE the two sides AB and AE are
thus greater than BE. Let EC have been added to both. Thus, BA and AC are greater than BE
and EC. Again, since in triangle CED the two sides CE and ED are greater than CD, let DB
have been added to both. Thus, CE and EB are greater than CD and DB. But, BA and AC
were shown (to be) greater than BE and EC. Thus, BA and AC are much greater than BD and
DC.
Again, since for every triangle the external angle is greater than the internal and opposite (angles)
[Prop. 1.16], for triangle CDE the external angle BDC is thus greater than CED. Accordingly,
for the same (reason), the external angle CEB of the triangle ABE is also greater than BAC.
But, BDC was shown (to be) greater than CEB. Thus, BDC is much greater than BAC.
Thus, if two internal straight-lines are constructed on one of the sides of a triangle, from its
ends, the constructed (straight-lines) are less than the two remaining sides of the triangle, but
encompass a greater angle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l

e ue, : i : | i u], i c
v p | ppp v o | o v
v p | ppp].
| i i ui | , , , e | p c
ppp, | pc , , | c , , | c | , i c e
: i , , .
ui p pc v o v c v o , |
pc : , c : , c : | ; pc ; , p
c ; o ; pc ; , p c ;
o , | c | , , o c e ue e : i ,
, o .
| v o pi c| u , : c| vv
c :. | v c :. , c| o pi c| u
, : c| vv c : | v c :.
c| c | : | i v ui | , , | i , , : i.
e v ue e , , , : i : | i u i , ,
, o o c .
2
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 22
H
A
B
C
D
F
E
K
L
G
To construct a triangle from three straight-lines which are equal to three given [straight-lines]. It
is necessary for two (of the straight-lines) to be greater than the remaining (one), (the straight-
lines) being taken up in any (possible way) [on account of the (fact that) for every triangle (any)
two sides are greater than the remaining (one), (the sides) being taken up in any (possible way)
[Prop. 1.20] ].
Let A, B, and C be the three given straight-lines, of which let (any) two be greater than the
remaining (one), (the straight-lines) being taken up in (any possible way). (Thus), A and B (are
greater) than C, A and C than B, and also B and C than A. So it is required to construct a
triangle from (straight-lines) equal to A, B, and C.
Let some straight-line DE be set out, terminated at D, and innite in the direction of E. And let
DF made equal to A [Prop. 1.3], and FG equal to B [Prop. 1.3], and GH equal to C [Prop. 1.3].
And let the circle DKL have been drawn with center F and radius FD. Again, let the circle KLH
have been drawn with center G and radius GH. And let KF and KG have been joined. I say that
the triangle KFG has been constructed from three straight-lines equal to A, B, and C.
For since point F is the center of the circle DKL, FD is equal to FK. But, FD is equal to A.
Thus, KF is also equal to A. Again, since point G is the center of the circle LKH, GH is equal to
GK. But, GH is equal to C. Thus, KG is also equal to C. And FG is equal to B. Thus, the three
straight-lines KF, FG, and GK are equal to A, B, and C (respectively).
Thus, the triangle KFG has been constructed from the three straight-lines KF, FG, and GK,
which are equal to the three given straight-lines A, B, and C (respectively). (Which is) the very
thing it was required to do.
`

o u; | ; o u p; ; upp; :
upp .
pc i ui , o c o u pi o , c i
upp uo i o i u; | ; o u p; ;
; upp; uo : upp .
i c c e , pi v , , | c | c e
ue, : i : | i , , , o , e : |
pc , c , | c .
| u | , i , : i| c c;, |
:, v uo ; uo c :.
o v u; | ; o u p; ; ;
upp; uo : upp uo o c .
4
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 23
C
G
A
F
B
E
D
To construct a rectilinear angle equal to a given rectilinear angle at a (given) point on a given
straight-line.
Let AB be the given straight-line, A the (given) point on it, and DCE the given rectilinear angle.
So it is required to construct a rectilinear angle equal to the given rectilinear angle DCE at the
(given) point A on the given straight-line AB.
Let the points D and E have been taken somewhere on each of the (straight-lines) CD and CE
(respectively), and let DE have been joined. And let the triangle AFG have been constructed
from three straight-lines which are equal to CD, DE, and CE, such that CD is equal to AF, CE
to AG, and also DE to FG [Prop. 1.22].
Therefore, since the two (straight-lines) DC, CE are equal to the two straight-lines FA, AG,
respectively, and the base DE is equal to the base FG, the angle DCE is thus equal to the angle
FAG [Prop. 1.8].
Thus, the rectilinear angle FAG, equal to the given rectilinear angle DCE, has been constructed
at the (given) point A on the given straight-line AB. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
do.

v v v i] i : c c c;, c
p c uo e : ue p, |
p c.
v , v v v , i i i ,
: c c c;, pc c , c o ;
o ; p c , o | p
c.
| v p uo uo , o u; |
; o u p; ; uo ; : uo , | o; e ,
: , | c | , .
| u : c| pc , c , | , | i ,
: i| c c; | uo ; uo : v
c :. , c| : c| , : c| | uo
uo p v uo uo ; v p c| uo
uo . | c| c o p c uo uo ,
uo c p p v u, p v | v .
: c p v | .
v v v v | i : c c c;, c
p c uo e : ue p, |
p c o c i.
6
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 24
F
A
C
B
D
E
G
If two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, but (one) has the angle encom-
passed by the equal straight-lines greater than the (corresponding) angle (in the other), then (the
former triangle) will also have a base greater than the base (of the latter).
and DF, respectively. (That is), AB to DE, and AC to DF. Let them also have the angle at A
greater than the angle at D. I say that the base BC is greater than the base EF.
For since angle BAC is greater than angle EDF, let (angle) EDG, equal to angle BAC, have
been constructed at point D on the straight-line DE [Prop. 1.23]. And let DG be made equal to
either of AC or DF [Prop. 1.3], and let EG and FG have been joined.
Therefore, since AB is equal to DE and AC to DG, the two (straight-lines) BA, AC are equal to
the two (straight-lines) ED, DG, respectively. Also the angle BAC is equal to the angle EDG.
Thus, the base BC is equal to the base EG [Prop. 1.4]. Again, since DF is equal to DG, angle
DGF is also equal to angle DFG [Prop. 1.5]. Thus, DFG (is) greater than EGF. Thus, EFG
is much greater than EGF. And since triangle EFG has angle EFG greater than EGF, and the
greater angle subtends the greater side [Prop. 1.19], side EG (is) thus also greater than EF. But
EG (is) equal to BC. Thus, BC (is) also greater than EF.
Thus, if two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, but (one) has the angle
encompassed by the equal straight-lines greater than the (corresponding) angle (in the other),
then (the former triangle) will also have a base greater than the base (of the latter). (Which is)
the very thing it was required to show.
v v v | i : c c c;, c
p c, | p c uo e : ue
p.
v , v v v , i i i ,
: c c c;, pc , c c
p c , o | uo uo p c.
i v p, : c| u c : pc u u c uo uo :
v i | u c . u v : c| uo
uo uc p c c| uo uo c v i |
u c u v c c| uo uo .
c , o uc : p v c| uo uo .
v v v v | i : c c c;, c
p c, | p c uo e : ue
p o c i.
8
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 25
F
B
A
C
D
E
If two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, but (one) has a base greater than
the base (of the other), then (the former triangle) will also have the angle encompassed by the
equal straight-lines greater than the (corresponding) angle (in the latter).
and DF, respectively (That is), AB to DE, and AC to DF. And let the base BC be greater than
the base EF. I say that angle BAC is also greater than EDF.
For if not, (BAC) is certainly either equal to or less than (EDF). In fact, BAC is not equal to
EDF. For then the base BC would also have been equal to EF [Prop. 1.4]. But it is not. Thus,
angle BAC is not equal to EDF. Neither, indeed, is BAC less than EDF. For then the base BC
would also have been less than EF [Prop. 1.24]. But it is not. Thus, angle BAC is not less than
EDF. But it was shown that (BAC is) also not equal (to EDF). Thus, BAC is greater than
EDF.
Thus, if two triangles have two sides equal to two sides, respectively, but (one) has a base greater
than the base (of the other), then (the former triangle) will also have the angle encompassed by
the equal straight-lines greater than the (corresponding) angle (in the latter). (Which is) the very
9

v v | : c c c; | p v p;
; : o i : u uo p e : e, |
v v v i i i : c c c;] |
;.
v , v v uo , | i uo ,
: c c c;, pc uo uo , c uo uo
c c | p v p; ; :, o i :
, o | v v v i i i : c c c;,
pc c , | ;, uo
uo .
i v v c , p ue p c. c p , |
: , | c .
| u : c| pc , c , | , | i ,
: i| c c; | uo ; uo : c v
: c, | o ; ; : c, | | |
i i : c, u i | : | u : v uo
uo . vv uo uo u : | uo v
uo : c, c p o v. u v v c .
: v. c c | : | , | i , : i| c
c; | uo ; uo c : v :
c, | uo ; uo : c.
v c | uo v : | u :, e
, o | | | | i i i : c, pc ,
c | c uo ; uo : c. i v
60
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 26
A
G
B
H
C
D
F E
If two triangles have two angles equal to two angles, respectively, and one side equal to one
sidein fact, either that by the equal angles, or that subtending one of the equal anglesthen
(the triangles) will also have the remaining sides equal to the [corresponding] remaining sides,
and the remaining angle (equal) to the remaining angle.
Let ABC and DEF be two triangles having the two angles ABC and BCA equal to the two
(angles) DEF and EFD, respectively. (That is) ABC to DEF, and BCA to EFD. And let them
also have one side equal to one side. First of all, the (side) by the equal angles. (That is) BC
(equal) to EF. I say that the remaining sides will be equal to the corresponding remaining sides.
(That is) AB to DE, and AC to DF. And the remaining angle (will be equal) to the remaining
angle. (That is) BAC to EDF.
For if AB is unequal to DE then one of them is greater. Let AB be greater, and let BG be made
equal to DE [Prop. 1.3], and let GC have been joined.
Therefore, since BG is equal to DE, and BC to EF, the two (straight-lines) GB, BC
10
are
equal to the two (straight-lines) DE, EF, respectively. And angle GBC is equal to angle DEF.
Thus, the base GC is equal to the base DF, and triangle GBC is equal to triangle DEF, and the
remaining angles subtended by the equal sides will be equal to the (corresponding) remaining
angles [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, GCB (is equal) to DFE. But, DFE was assumed (to be) equal to
BCA. Thus, BCG is also equal to BCA, the lesser to the greater. The very thing (is) impossible.
Thus, AB is not unequal to DE. Thus, (it is) equal. And BC is also equal to EF. So the two
(straight-lines) AB, BC are equal to the two (straight-lines) DE, EF, respectively. And angle
ABC is equal to angle DEF. Thus, the base AC is equal to the base DF, and the remaining
angle BAC is equal to the remaining angle EDF [Prop. 1.4].
But again, let the sides subtending the equal angles be equal: for instance, (let) AB (be equal) to
DE. Again, I say that the remaining sides will be equal to the remaining sides. (That is) AC to
10
The Greek text has BG, BC, which is obviously a mistake.
6l

v c , p ue p c. c p, i , , |
: , | c . | cc : c| pc c ,
| , | i , : i| c c; | :
v : c, | o ; ; : c,
| | | i i : c, u i | : | u :
v c| uo uo . vv uo uo c :
u co uo : c| co | v uo o
v. u v v c : v. c| c | :. |
, i , : i| c c; | : v
: c, | o ; ; : | uo
; uo :.
v v v | : c c c; | p v
p; ; : o i : , u uo p e : e,
| v v v i i i : c | ;
o c i.
62
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 26
DF, and BC to EF. Furthermore, the remaining angle BAC is equal to the remaining angle
EDF. For if BC is unequal to EF then one of them is greater. If possible, let BC be greater. And
let BH be made equal to EF [Prop. 1.3], and let AH have been joined. And since BH is equal
to EF, and AB to DE, the two (straight-lines) AB, BH are equal to the two (straight-lines) DE,
EF, respectively. And the angles they encompass (are also equal). Thus, the base AH is equal
to the base DF, and the triangle ABH is equal to the triangle DEF, and the remaining angles
subtended by the equal sides will be equal to the (corresponding) remaining angles [Prop. 1.4].
Thus, angle BHA is equal to EFD. But, EFD is equal to BCA. So, for triangle AHC, the exter-
nal angle BHA is equal to the internal and opposite angle BCA. The very thing (is) impossible
[Prop. 1.16]. Thus, BC is not unequal to EF. Thus, (it is) equal. And AB is also equal to DE. So
the two (straight-lines) AB, BC are equal to the two (straight-lines) DE, EF, respectively. And
they encompass equal angles. Thus, the base AC is equal to the base DF, and triangle ABC (is)
equal to triangle DEF, and the remaining angle BAC (is) equal to the remaining angle EDF
[Prop. 1.4].
Thus, if two triangles have two angles equal to two angles, respectively, and one side equal to one
sidein fact, either that by the equal angles, or that subtending one of the equal anglesthen
(the triangles) will also have the remaining sides equal to the (corresponding) remaining sides,
and the remaining angle (equal) to the remaining angle. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
6`

v i u ui cp v cv : v ,
c v | ui.
i v u v , ui cp v cv v uo ,
: v , o c .
i v p, cp | , pu c| v , p c| v , .
c | p c| v , p v o . u
co uo : c| co | v uo o c| v
u v | , cp pu c| v , p. op , o
uc c| v , | c c| p v p p i v
c| .
v v i u ui cp v cv : v ,
c | ui o c i.
64
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 27
F
A
C
E B
G
D
If a straight-line falling across two straight-lines makes the alternate angles equal to one another
then the (two) straight-lines will be parallel to one another.
For let the straight-line EF, falling across the two straight-lines AB and CD, make the alternate
angles AEF and EFD equal to one another. I say that AB and CD are parallel.
For if not, being produced, AB and CD will certainly meet together: either in the direction of B
and D, or (in the direction) of A and C [Def. 1.23]. Let them have been produced, and let them
meet together in the direction of B and D at (point) G. So, for the triangle GEF, the external
angle AEF is equal to the interior and opposite (angle) EFG. The very thing is impossible
[Prop. 1.16]. Thus, being produced, AB and DC will not meet together in the direction of B and
D. Similarly, it can be shown that neither (will they meet together) in (the direction of) A and C.
But (straight-lines) meeting in neither direction are parallel [Def. 1.23]. Thus, AB and CD are
parallel.
Thus, if a straight-line falling across two straight-lines makes the alternate angles equal to one
another then the (two) straight-lines will be parallel (to one another). (Which is) the very thing
it was required to show.
6

v i u ui cp co co | v | c| v
uv p : v co | c| v uv p | oi :, c
v | ui.
i v u v , ui cp co uo
co | v ; uo : v co | c| v uv p v
uo , | oi : , o c .
| v : c| uo uo , vv uo uo c :, |
uo v uo c : i c v c| .
, c| | uo , oi : i, i| c | | uo , |
oi :, | v uo , i uo , : i v uo
v uo uo c : i c
v c| .
v v i u ui cp co co | v | c| v
uv p : v co | c| v uv p | oi :, c
| ui o c i.
66
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 28
F
A
C
E
G B
D H
If a straight-line falling across two straight-lines makes the external angle equal to the internal
and opposite angle on the same side, or (makes) the internal (angles) on the same side equal to
two right-angles, then the (two) straight-lines will be parallel to one another.
For let EF, falling across the two straight-lines AB and CD, make the external angle EGB equal
to the internal and opposite angle GHD, or the internal (angles) on the same side, BGH and
GHD, equal to two right-angles. I say that AB is parallel to CD.
For since (in the rst case) EGB is equal to GHD, but EGB is equal to AGH [Prop. 1.15],
AGH is thus also equal to GHD. And they are alternate (angles). Thus, AB is parallel to CD
[Prop. 1.27].
Again, since (in the second case) BGH and GHD are equal to two right-angles, and AGH and
BGH are also equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13], AGH and BGH are thus equal to BGH
and GHD. Let BGH have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remainder AGH is equal to the
remainder GHD. And they are alternate (angles). Thus, AB is parallel to CD [Prop. 1.27].
Thus, if a straight-line falling across two straight-lines makes the external angle equal to the
internal and opposite angle on the same side, or (makes) the internal (angles) on the same side
equal to two right-angles, then the (two) straight-lines will be parallel (to one another). (Which
is) the very thing it was required to show.
6

i v u ui cp cv : v i
| co co | v : | v co | c| v uv p | oi
:.
i v u v , ui cp , o v cv
v uo , : i | co uo co | v
uo : | v co | c| v uv p v uo , | oi :.
i v v c uo uo , p ue p c. c p
uo uo | v uo , e uo ,
p i. vv | uo , | oi : i. |] | v uo ,
oe c i. | c v c oe cp i v
p | v , cp i v pu u p c v
o uv ui u v v c uo uo : v.
vv uo uo c : | uo v uo c :
uo | v uo , i uo , : i. vv |
uo , oi : i | | uo , v oi : i.
v i v u ui cp cv : v
i | co co | v : | v co | c| v uv p |
oi : o c i.
68
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 29
F
A
C
E
G B
D H
A straight-line falling across parallel straight-lines makes the alternate angles equal to one an-
other, the external (angle) equal to the internal and opposite (angle), and the internal (angles)
on the same side equal to two right-angles.
For let the straight-line EF fall across the parallel straight-lines AB and CD. I say that it makes
the alternate angles, AGH and GHD, equal, the external angle EGB equal to the internal and
opposite (angle) GHD, and the internal (angles) on the same side, BGH and GHD, equal to two
right-angles.
For if AGH is unequal to GHD then one of them is greater. Let AGH be greater. Let BGH have
been added to both. Thus, AGH and BGH are greater than BGH and GHD. But, AGH and
BGH are equal to two right-angles [Prop 1.13]. Thus, BGH and GHD are [also] less than two
right-angles. But (straight-lines) being produced to innity from (internal angles) less than two
right-angles meet together [Post. 5]. Thus, AB and CD, being produced to innity, will meet
together. But they do not meet, on account of them (initially) being assumed parallel (to one
another) [Def. 1.23]. Thus, AGH is not unequal to GHD. Thus, (it is) equal. But, AGH is equal
to EGB [Prop. 1.15]. And EGB is thus also equal to GHD. Let BGH be added to both. Thus,
EGB and BGH are equal to BGH and GHD. But, EGB and BGH are equal to two right-angles
[Prop. 1.13]. Thus, BGH and GHD are also equal to two right-angles.
Thus, a straight-line falling across parallel straight-lines makes the alternate angles equal to one
another, the external (angle) equal to the internal and opposite (angle), and the internal (angles)
on the same side equal to two right-angles. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
69

| u u; | v i| .
c e , , o | c .
p v i uv ui .
| c| i u v , ui cp , : v uo
uo . , c| i u v , ui cp , :
c| uo uo . c c | uo uo :. | uo
v uo c : | c. v c| .
[| v u u; | v i| ] o c i.
0
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 30
C
A
E
K
G
F
D
H
B
(Straight-lines) parallel to the same straight-line are also parallel to one another.
Let each of the (straight-lines) AB and CD be parallel to EF. I say that AB is also parallel to
CD.
For let the straight-line GK fall across (AB, CD, and EF).
And since GK has fallen across the parallel straight-lines AB and EF, (angle) AGK (is) thus
equal to GHF [Prop. 1.29]. Again, since GK has fallen across the parallel straight-lines EF and
CD, (angle) GHF is equal to GKD [Prop. 1.29]. But AGK was also shown (to be) equal to
GHF. Thus, AGK is also equal to GKD. And they are alternate (angles). Thus, AB is parallel
to CD [Prop. 1.27].
[Thus, (straight-lines) parallel to the same straight-line are also parallel to one another.] (Which
l

v u p u; ui pp vi.
o pc c pi o , c i ui i v u p
u; ui pp vi.
i c| o pi o , | c | o
u; | ; o u p; ; uo ; : uo | c c
u ui .
| c| i u v , ui cp v cv v uo
, : v , v c| .
v u v p u u; ui pp
o c .
2
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 31
C
E
B
D
A
F
To draw a straight-line parallel to a given straight-line through a given point.
Let A be the given point, and BC the given straight-line. So it is required to draw a straight-line
parallel to the straight-line BC through the point A.
Let the point D have been taken somewhere on BC, and let AD have been joined. And let
(angle) DAE, equal to angle ADC, have been constructed at the point A on the straight-line DA
[Prop. 1.23]. And let the straight-line AF have been produced in a straight-line with EA.
And since the straight-line AD, (in) falling across the two straight-lines BC and EF, has made the
alternate angles EAD and ADC equal to one another, EAF is thus parallel to BC [Prop. 1.27].
Thus, the straight-line EAF has been drawn parallel to the given straight-line BC through the
given point A. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
`

o pi e e co | i co | v-
: c, | | co u i | oi : i.
o , | uu p v c| o , o
co uo : c| | i co | v i uo , , | |
co u i | uo , , | oi : i.
v v u p u; .
| c| c , | i uv cp , | cv |
uo , : v i. , c| c , | i uv
cp ui , co uo : c| co | v uo
. c c | uo uo : o v uo : c| |
i co | v i uo , .
uo | v uo , | i uo , , :
i. v | uo , | oi : i | | uo , , v |
oi : i.
o v pi e e co | i co |
v : c, | | co u i | oi : i o c
i.
4
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 32
C
A E
D B
For any triangle, (if) one of the sides (is) produced (then) the external angle is equal to the two
internal and opposite (angles), and the three internal angles of the triangle are equal to two
right-angles.
Let ABC be a triangle, and let one of its sides BC have been produced to D. I say that the
external angle ACD is equal to the two internal and opposite angles CAB and ABC, and the
three internal angles of the triangleABC, BCA, and CABare equal to two right-angles.
For let CE have been drawn through point C parallel to the straight-line AB [Prop. 1.31].
And since AB is parallel to CE, and AC has fallen across them, the alternate angles BAC and
ACE are equal to one another [Prop. 1.29]. Again, since AB is parallel to CE, and the straight-
line BD has fallen across them, the external angle ECD is equal to the internal and opposite
(angle) ABC [Prop. 1.29]. But ACE was also shown (to be) equal to BAC. Thus, the whole
angle ACD is equal to the two internal and opposite (angles) BAC and ABC.
Let ACB have been added to both. Thus, ACD and ACB are equal to the three (angles) ABC,
BCA, and CAB. But, ACD and ACB are equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13]. Thus, ACB,
CBA, and CAB are also equal to two right-angles.
Thus, for any triangle, (if) one of the sides (is) produced (then) the external angle is equal to the
two internal and opposite (angles), and the three internal angles of the triangle are equal to two
right-angles. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.

| v : | c| v uv p c ui | u| : |
i.
: | | , , | c uv c| v uv p
ui | , , o | | , : | i.
. | c| c , | i uv cp , |
cv | uo , : v i. | c| : c| c
, | , i , : i | uo ; uo
: v c :, | o ; ; : c,
| | | i i : c c c;, u i | : |
u : v uo uo . | c| i u v ,
ui cp v cv : v , v c|
. c c u | :.
| v v : | c| v uv p c ui | u| :
| i o c i.
6
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 33
D C
B A
Straight-lines joining equal and parallel (straight-lines) on the same sides are themselves also
equal and parallel.
Let AB and CD be equal and parallel (straight-lines), and let the straight-lines AC and BD join
them on the same sides. I say that AC and BD are also equal and parallel.
Let BC have been joined. And since AB is parallel to CD, and BC has fallen across them, the
alternate angles ABC and BCD are equal to one another [Prop. 1.29]. And since AB and CD are
equal, and BC is common, the two (straight-lines) AB, BC are equal to the two (straight-lines)
DC, CB.
11
And the angle ABC is equal to the angle BCD. Thus, the base AC is equal to the base
BD, and triangle ABC is equal to triangle ACD, and the remaining angles will be equal to the
corresponding remaining angles subtended by the equal sides [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, angle ACB is
equal to CBD. Also, since the straight-line BC, (in) falling across the two straight-lines AC and
BD, has made the alternate angles (ACB and CBD) equal to one another, AC is thus parallel to
BD [Prop. 1.27]. And (AC) was also shown (to be) equal to (BD).
Thus, straight-lines joining equal and parallel (straight-lines) on the same sides are themselves
also equal and parallel. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
11
The Greek text has BC, CD, which is obviously a mistake.
e pp | v | : v i, |
p uv p.
pp o , p c uu , o u
pp | v | : v i, | p
uo p.
| v c , | i uv cp ui , | cv
| uo , : v i. c| c , |
i uv cp , | cv | uo , : v i.
c v , v v uo , | i uo , :
c c c; | p v p; ; : o i :
ue | v v v v i i : c c c; |
; : v pc v , c , | c :
c| uo uo . | c| : c| pc uo uo ,
c uo uo , o v uo o uo c :. c c |
uo uo :.
e v pp | v | : v i.
, o | p uv p. c| v : c| , c
, | , | i , : i| c c; | uo
; uo :. | v :. | o v] ;
; : c.
v p p o pp o c i.
8
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 34
C
A B
D
For parallelogrammic gures, the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another, and a diag-
onal cuts them in half.
Let ACDB be a parallelogrammic gure, and BC its diagonal. I say that for parallelogram
ACDB, the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another, and the diagonal BC cuts it in
half.
For since AB is parallel to CD, and the straight-line BC has fallen across them, the alternate
angles ABC and BCD are equal to one another [Prop. 1.29]. Again, since AC is parallel to BD,
and BC has fallen across them, the alternate angles ACB and CBD are equal to one another
[Prop. 1.29]. So ABC and BCD are two triangles having the two angles ABC and BCA equal
to the two (angles) BCD and CBD, respectively, and one side equal to one sidethe (one)
common to the equal angles, (namely) BC. Thus, they will also have the remaining sides equal
to the corresponding remaining (sides), and the remaining angle (equal) to the remaining angle
[Prop. 1.26]. Thus, side AB is equal to CD, and AC to BD. Furthermore, angle BAC is equal
to CDB. And since angle ABC is equal to BCD, and CBD to ACB, the whole (angle) ABD is
thus equal to the whole (angle) ACD. And BAC was also shown (to be) equal to CDB.
Thus, for parallelogrammic gures, the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another.
And, I also say that a diagonal cuts them in half. For since AB is equal to CD, and BC (is)
common, the two (straight-lines) AB, BC are equal to the two (straight-lines) DC, CB,
12
re-
spectively. And angle ABC is equal to angle BCD. Thus, the base AC (is) also equal to DB
[Prop. 1.4]. Also, triangle ABC is equal to triangle BCD [Prop. 1.4].
Thus, the diagonal BC cuts the parallelogram ACDB
13
in half. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
12
The Greek text has CD, BC, which is obviously a mistake.
13
The Greek text has ABCD, which is obviously a mistake.
9

v pp v c| u o | c i ui :
v c.
pp v , c| u | c i ui
i , , o : c| o ; pp;.
| v pp c o , : c| . v v uv |
c : e | c : | o v o
c :. c c | : | , i , : i|
c c; | uo ; uo c : co c
v : c, | o ; ; : c o
v o o v o ; ; ; c| :
o o o v o pp o; ;
pp; : c.
v v pp v c| u o | c i ui :
v c o c i.
80
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 35
B C
D E
G
A F
Parallelograms which are on the same base and between the same parallels are equal
14
to one
another.
Let ABCD and EBCF be parallelograms on the same base BC, and between the same parallels
AF and BC. I say that ABCD is equal to parallelogram EBCF.
For since ABCD is a parallelogram, AD is equal to BC [Prop. 1.34]. So, for the same (reasons),
EF is also equal to BC. So AD is also equal to EF. And DE is common. Thus, the whole
(straight-line) AE is equal to the whole (straight-line) DF. And AB is also equal to DC. So
the two (straight-lines) EA, AB are equal to the two (straight-lines) FD, DC, respectively. And
angle FDC is equal to angle EAB, the external to the internal [Prop. 1.29]. Thus, the base EB
is equal to the base FC, and triangle EAB will be equal to triangle DFC [Prop. 1.4]. Let DGE
have been taken away fromboth. Thus, the remaining trapeziumABGD is equal to the remaining
trapezium EGCF. Let triangle GBC have been added to both. Thus, the whole parallelogram
ABCD is equal to the whole parallelogram EBCF.
Thus, parallelograms which are on the same base and between the same parallels are equal to
one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
14
Here, for the rst time, equal means equal in area, rather than congreunt.
8l

v pp v c| : o | c i ui : v
c.
pp v , c| : o e , | c i
ui i , , o : c| o pp ; .
v | , . | c| : c| , vv c :,
| v c :. i| c | . | c uv | ,
| c v : | c| v uv p c : | i
| | , v : i | ]. pp v c| o .
c : ; v u; u c , | c i ui
c| u; i , . | v uv | o ; u; ; c : e
| o pp ; c :.
v v pp v c| : o | c i ui : v
c o c i.
82
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 36
G
A D E H
F C B
Parallelograms which are on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal to one another.
Let ABCD and EFGH be parallelograms which are on the equal bases BC and FG, and (are)
between the same parallels AH and BG. I say that the parallelogram ABCD is equal to EFGH.
For let BE and CH have been joined. And since BC and FG are equal, but FG and EH are
equal [Prop. 1.34], BC and EH are thus also equal. And they are also parallel, and EB and
HC join them. But (straight-lines) joining equal and parallel (straight-lines) on the same sides
are (themselves) equal and parallel [Prop. 1.33] [thus, EB and HC are also equal and parallel].
Thus, EBCH is a parallelogram [Prop. 1.34], and is equal to ABCD. For it has the same base,
BC, as (ABCD), and is between the same parallels, BC and AH, as (ABCD) [Prop. 1.35]. So,
for the same (reasons), EFGH is also equal to the same (parallelogram) EBCH [Prop. 1.34].
So that the parallelogram ABCD is also equal to EFGH.
Thus, parallelograms which are on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal to one
another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
8`

v v c| u o | c i ui : v c.
v , c| u | c i ui i
, , o : c| o ; ;.
c c v p c| v , , | v pc u
, | c u . pp v c|
c e , i : c v u i | c i
ui i , c u pc pp p o
v p uo p u c pp p o
v p uo p. v c e : p : v
c]. : v c| o ; ;.
v v v c| u o | c i ui : v
c o c i.
84
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 37
A
E
D
C
F
B
Triangles which are on the same base and between the same parallels are equal to one another.
Let ABC and DBC be triangles on the same base BC, and between the same parallels AD and
BC. I say that triangle ABC is equal to triangle DBC.
Let AD have been produced in each direction to E and F, and let the (straight-line) BE have been
drawn through B parallel to CA [Prop. 1.31], and let the (straight-line) CF have been drawn
through C parallel to BD [Prop. 1.31]. Thus, EBCA and DBCF are both parallelograms, and
are equal. For they are on the same base BC, and between the same parallels BC and EF
[Prop. 1.35]. And the triangle ABC is half of the parallelogram EBCA. For the diagonal AB
cuts the latter in half [Prop. 1.34]. And the triangle DBC (is) half of the parallelogram DBCF.
For the diagonal DC cuts the latter in half [Prop. 1.34]. [And the halves of equal things are equal
to one another.]
15
Thus, triangle ABC is equal to triangle DBC.
Thus, triangles which are on the same base and between the same parallels are equal to one
15
This is an additional common notion.
8

v v c| : o | c i ui : v c.
v , c| : e , | c i ui
i , , o : c| o ; ;.
v c c v p c| v , , | v pc u
, | c u . pp v c|
c e , | : o ; c v : i e
, | c i ui i , c u pc -
pp p o . v p uo p u c
pp p o v p uo p v c e
: p : v c]. : v c| o ; ;.
v v v c| : o | c i ui : v c
o c i.
86
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 38
F E
A D G H
B C
Triangles which are on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal to one another.
Let ABC and DEF be triangles on the equal bases BC and EF, and between the same parallels
BF and AD. I say that triangle ABC is equal to triangle DEF.
For let AD have been produced in each direction to G and H, and let the (straight-line) BG have
been drawn through B parallel to CA [Prop. 1.31], and let the (straight-line) FH have been
drawn through F parallel to DE [Prop. 1.31]. Thus, GBCA and DEFH are each parallelograms.
And GBCA is equal to DEFH. For they are on the equal bases BC and EF, and between
the same parallels BF and GH [Prop. 1.36]. And triangle ABC is half of the parallelogram
GBCA. For the diagonal AB cuts the latter in half [Prop. 1.34]. And triangle FED (is) half
of parallelogram DEFH. For the diagonal DF cuts the latter in half. [And the halves of equal
things are equal to one another]. Thus, triangle ABC is equal to triangle DEF.
Thus, triangles which are on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal to one another.
(Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
8

v : v c| u o | c| v uv p | c i ui -
c.
: v , c| u o | c| v uv p
, o | c i ui c.
v , o c .
i v p, v u p u; , | c .
: v c| o ; ; c v u c u;
| c i ui . vv o ; c : | o v ;
: c| o pi ; c o c| v u v c .
op p, o u v v c .
v v : v c| u o | c| v uv p | c i ui
c o c i.
88
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 39
E
A
B
D
C
Equal triangles which are on the same base, and on the same side, are also between the same
parallels.
Let ABC and DBC be equal triangles which are on the same base BC, and on the same side. I
say that they are also between the same parallels.
For let AD have been joined. I say that AD and AC are parallel.
For, if not, let AE have been drawn through point A parallel to the straight-line BC [Prop. 1.31],
and let EC have been joined. Thus, triangle ABC is equal to triangle EBC. For it is on the same
base to it, BC, and between the same parallels [Prop. 1.37]. But ABC is equal to DBC. Thus,
DBC is also equal to EBC, the greater to the lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus, AE is
not parallel to BC. Similarly, we can show that neither (is) any other (straight-line) than AD.
Thus, AD is parallel to BC.
Thus, equal triangles which are on the same base, and on the same side, are also between the
same parallels. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
89

p
v : v c| : o | c| v uv p | c i ui
c.
: v , c| : e , | c| v uv p. ,
o | c i ui c.
v , o c .
i v p, v u , | c . : v c| o
; ; c v : i e , | c i ui
i , . vv o : c| ; ;] | o
v ] : c| ; ; o pi ; c o c| v u
v . op p, o u v v
c .
v v : v c| : o | c| v uv p | c i ui -
c o c i.
90
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 40
16
F
A
C
D
E B
Equal triangles which are on equal bases, and on the same side, are also between the same
parallels.
Let ABC and CDE be equal triangles on the equal bases BC and CE (respectively), and on the
same side. I say that they are also between the same parallels.
For let AD have been joined. I say that AD is parallel to BE.
For if not, let AF have been drawn through A parallel to BE [Prop. 1.31], and let FE have
been joined. Thus, triangle ABC is equal to triangle FCE. For they are on equal bases, BC and
CE, and between the same parallels, BE and AF [Prop. 1.38]. But, triangle ABC is equal to
[triangle] DCE. Thus, [triangle] DCE is also equal to triangle FCE, the greater to the lesser.
The very thing is impossible. Thus, AF is not parallel to BE. Similarly, we can show that neither
(is) any other (straight-line) than AD. Thus, AD is parallel to BE.
Thus, equal triangles which are on equal bases, and on the same side, are also between the same
parallels. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
16
This whole proposition is regarded by Heiberg as a relatively early interpolation to the original text.
9l

p

v pp ; c u | c i ui ,
c o pp u .
pp v o ; ; c u |
c i ui c i , , o c o -
pp u .
v . : c o ; ; c v u
c u; | c i ui i , . vv o -
pp c u v p uo p
e o pp | u c| .
v v pp ; c u | c i ui
, c o pp u o c i.
92
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 41
B
A D E
C
If a parallelogram has the same base as a triangle, and is between the same parallels, then the
parallelogram is double (the area) of the triangle.
For let parallelogram ABCD have the same base BC as triangle EBC, and let it be between
the same parallels, BC and AE. I say that parallelogram ABCD is double (the area) of triangle
BEC.
For let AC have been joined. So triangle ABC is equal to triangle EBC. For it is on the same
base, BC, as (EBC), and between the same parallels, BC and AE [Prop. 1.37]. But, parallelo-
gram ABCD is double (the area) of triangle ABC. For the diagonal AC cuts the former in half
[Prop. 1.34]. So parallelogram ABCD is also double (the area) of triangle EBC.
Thus, if a parallelogram has the same base as a triangle, and is between the same parallels, then
the parallelogram is double (the area) of the triangle. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
9`

p

; ; : pp c ; upp;.
o pc c o , c i upp i ;
; : pp c ; upp;.
p v o , | c , | o u; |
; o u p; ; ; : uo , | v pc u
, v c u pp v c| o
. | c| : c| , : c| | o ; ; c
v : i e , | c i ui i ,
v c| o u . c c | o pp
u v u; u c | c i ui c u;
: v c| o pp ; ;. | c uo
: .
; v ; ; : pp o c ;
uo , c| : o c .
94
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 42
F
D
E
G
C B
A
To construct a parallelogram equal to a given triangle in a given rectilinear angle.
Let ABC be the given triangle, and D the given rectilinear angle. So it is required to construct a
parallelogram equal to triangle ABC in the rectilinear angle D.
Let BC have been cut in half at E [Prop. 1.10], and let AE have been joined. And let (an-
gle) CEF have been constructed, equal to angle D, at the point E on the straight-line EC
[Prop. 1.23]. And let AG have been drawn through A parallel to EC [Prop. 1.31], and let CG
have been drawn through C parallel to EF [Prop. 1.31]. Thus, FECG is a parallelogram. And
since BE is equal to EC, triangle ABE is also equal to triangle AEC. For they are on the equal
bases, BE and EC, and between the same parallels, BC and AG [Prop. 1.38]. Thus, triangle
ABC is double (the area) of triangle AEC. And parallelogram FECG is also double (the area)
of triangle AEC. For it has the same base as (AEC), and is between the same parallels as (AEC)
[Prop. 1.41]. Thus, parallelogram FECG is equal to triangle ABC. (FECG) also has the angle
CEF equal to the given (angle) D.
Thus, parallelogram FECG, equal to the given triangle ABC, has been constructed in the angle
CEF, which is equal to D. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
9

p
o pp e | p pp v p
: v c.
pp o , p c uu , | c -
pp pc c v , , v c p p v , , o
: c| o p ; p.
| v pp c o , p c uu , : c| o
; ;. , c| pp c o , p c uu
c , : c| o ; ;. v v uv | o
; c :. c| u o pc ; ; c| :,
o c ; , o pv u : c| ; ; pv u
c c | o o o; ; : o v o p
; ; p c :.
o v pp e | p pp v -
p : v c o c i.
96
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 43
K
C
D
E
H A
B G
F
For any parallelogram, the complements of the parallelograms about the diagonal are equal to
one another.
Let ABCD be a parallelogram, and AC its diagonal. And let EH and FG be the parallelograms
about AC, and BK and KD the so-called complements (about AC). I say that the complement
BK is equal to the complement KD.
For since ABCD is a parallelogram, and AC its diagonal, triangle ABC is equal to triangle ACD
[Prop. 1.34]. Again, since EH is a parallelogram, and AK is its diagonal, triangle AEK is equal to
triangle AHK [Prop. 1.34]. So, for the same (reasons), triangle KFC is also equal to (triangle)
KGC. Therefore, since triangle AEK is equal to triangle AHK, and KFC to KGC, triangle
AEK plus KGC is equal to triangle AHK plus KFC. And the whole triangle ABC is also equal
to the whole (triangle) ADC. Thus, the remaining complement BK is equal to the remaining
complement KD.
Thus, for any parallelogramic gure, the complements of the parallelograms about the diagonal
are equal to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
9

p
v i ui ; ; : pp i c
; upp;.
pc i ui , o c c o , c i upp
i v i ui ; ; ; : -
pp c : ;.
; ; : pp o c ; uo , c
: | e c u | , | c| o , |
v u o; e , , | c . | c|
i v , ui c , | v uo , |
oi i :. | v uo , oe c i | c vo c
oe i v cp p | , v cp p-
u. c | p v o , | v u p o;
e , , | c | , c| v , pi.
pp v c| o , p c uu , | c -
pp pc v , , v c p p v , : v c| o
; . vv o ; ; c| : | o v ; c :. | c| :
c| uo uo , vv uo c :, | uo v
; c| :.
v i v ui ; ; ; : pp
o c ; uo , c : o c .
98
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 44
B
C
D
F E K
M
L A H
G
To apply a parallelogram equal to a given triangle to a given straight-line in a given rectilinear
angle.
Let AB be the given straight-line, C the given triangle, and D the given rectilinear angle. So it is
required to apply a parallelogram equal to the given triangle C to the given straight-line AB in
an angle equal to D.
Let the parallelogram BEFG, equal to the triangle C, have been constructed in the angle EBG,
which is equal to D [Prop. 1.42]. And let it have been placed so that BE is straight-on to AB.
17
And let FG have been drawn through to H, and let AH have been drawn through A parallel to
either of BG or EF [Prop. 1.31], and let HB have been joined. And since the straight-line HF
falls across the parallel-lines AH and EF, the angles AHF and HFE are thus equal to two right-
angles [Prop. 1.29]. Thus, BHG and GFE are less than two right-angles. And (straight-lines)
produced to innity from (internal angles) less than two right-angles meet together [Post. 5].
Thus, being produced, HB and FE will meet together. Let them have been produced, and let
them meet together at K. And let KL have been drawn through point K parallel to either of EA
or FH [Prop. 1.31]. And let HA and GB have been produced to points L and M (respectively).
Thus, HLKF is a parallelogram, and HK its diagonal. And AG and ME (are) parallelograms,
and LB and BF the so-called complements, about HK. Thus, LB is equal to BF [Prop. 1.43].
But, BF is equal to triangle C. Thus, LB is also equal to C. Also, since angle GBE is equal to
ABM [Prop. 1.15], but GBE is equal to D, ABM is thus also equal to angle D.
Thus, the parallelogram LB, equal to the given triangle C, has been applied to the given straight-
line AB in the angle ABM, which is equal to D. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
do.
17
This can be achieved using Props. 1.3, 1.23, and 1.31.
99

p
; upp; : pp c ; upp;.
o pc c upp o , c i upp i ;
upp; : pp c ; .
, | ; ; : pp o c uo
;, c : | v ui ; ;
: pp o c uo ;, c : . | c|
c; e uo , c :, | uo v uo c :.
uo | v uo , i uo , : i. v |
uo , | oi : i | | uo , v oi : i.
o ui; | ; o u p; ; ui | , p c|
v uv p p v c oi : u c u v c|
| c| i v , ui c , | cv
| uo , : v i. uo | v uo ,
i uo , : i. v | uo , oi : i | |
uo , v oi : i c u v c| . | c|
: | c, vv | , | v : |
c | c uv ui | , | | , v :
| i pp v c| o . | c| : c| o pc
; pp;, o c ; , o v o upp
o; ; pp; c| :.
; v upp; ; : pp o c
; uo , c : o c .
l00
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 45
F
A
D
B
C
E
K H
G
M
L
To construct a parallelogram equal to a given rectilinear gure in a given rectilinear angle.
Let ABCD be the given rectilinear gure,
18
and E the given rectilinear angle. So it is required to
construct a parallelogram equal to the rectilinear gure ABCD in the given angle E.
Let DB have been joined, and let the parallelogram FH, equal to the triangle ABD, have been
constructed in the angle HKF, which is equal to E [Prop. 1.42]. And let the parallelogram GM,
equal to the triangle DBC, have been applied to the straight-line GH in the angle GHM, which is
equal to E [Prop. 1.44]. And since angle E is equal to each of (angles) HKF and GHM, (angle)
HKF is thus also equal to GHM. Let KHG have been added to both. Thus, FKH and KHG
are equal to KHG and GHM. But, FKH and KHG are equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.29].
Thus, KHG and GHM are also equal to two right-angles. So two straight-lines, KH and HM,
not lying on the same side, make the adjacent angles equal to two right-angles at the point H on
some straight-line GH. Thus, KH is straight-on to HM [Prop. 1.14]. And since the straight-line
HG falls across the parallel-lines KM and FG, the alternate angles MHG and HGF are equal to
one another [Prop. 1.29]. Let HGL have been added to both. Thus, MHG and HGL are equal
to HGF and HGL. But, MHG and HGL are equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.29]. Thus, HGF
and HGL are also equal to two right-angles. Thus, FG is straight-on to GL [Prop. 1.14]. And
since FK is equal and parallel to HG [Prop. 1.34], but also HG to ML [Prop. 1.34], KF is thus
also equal and parallel to ML [Prop. 1.30]. And the straight-lines KM and FL join them. Thus,
KM and FL are equal and parallel as well [Prop. 1.33]. Thus, KFLM is a parallelogram. And
since triangle ABD is equal to parallelogram FH, and DBC to GM, the whole rectilinear gure
ABCD is thus equal to the whole parallelogram KFLM.
Thus, the parallelogram KFLM, equal to the given rectilinear gure ABCD, has been con-
structed in the angle FKM, which is equal to the given (angle) E. (Which is) the very thing it
was required to do.
18
The proof is only given for a four-sided gure. However, the extension to many-sided gures is trivial.
l0l

p

o u v.
i ui i vo u v.
u; vo u o u p u o ov , |
: | v pc u p , v c u p
. pp v c| o : v c| pc
, c . vv c : | v | , , ,
: v i i v c| o pp. , o |
o. c| v i v , ui c , | v uo ,
oi : i. o c uo o v | uo . e
c pp | v | : v i o
v | c e v e uo , e o v c| o .
c c | i.
v c c vo u vpp o c .
l02
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 46
D
C
E
A B
To describe a square on a given straight-line.
Let AB be the given straight-line. So it is required to describe a square on the straight-line AB.
Let AC have been drawn at right-angles to the straight-line AB fromthe point Aon it [Prop. 1.11],
and let AD have been made equal to AB [Prop. 1.3]. And let DE have been drawn through
point D parallel to AB [Prop. 1.31], and let BE have been drawn through point B parallel to
AD [Prop. 1.31]. Thus, ADEB is a parallelogram. Thus, AB is equal to DE, and AD to BE
[Prop. 1.34]. But, AB is equal to AD. Thus, the four (sides) BA, AD, DE, and EB are equal to
one another. Thus, the parallelogram ADEB is equilateral. So I say that (it is) also right-angled.
For since the straight-line AD falls across the parallel-lines AB and DE, the angles BAD and
ADE are equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.29]. But BAD (is a) right-angle. Thus, ADE (is)
also a right-angle. And for parallelogrammic gures, the opposite sides and angles are equal to
one another [Prop. 1.34]. Thus, each of the opposite angles ABE and BED (are) also right-
angles. Thus, ADEB is right-angled. And it was also shown (to be) equilateral.
Thus, (ADEB) is a square [Def. 1.22]. And it is described on the straight-line AB. (Which is)
l0`

p
i o o vo o u i
: c| i vo e o e e .
o o o c uo , o o vo
: c| i vo e , .
v vo pc o , vo c e , v , ,
| v u o; e , | c | , .
| c| o c c e uo , e, o u; | ;
o u p; ; ui | , p c| v uv p p v c
| oi : u c u v c| . v v uv |
c c u. | c| : c| uo uo o v
c uo o v uo o uo c :. |
c| : c| pc , c , | , i , : i|
c c; | uo ; uo : v
c] :, | o ; ; c| : c] u pc
o pp v u c | c i ui
i i , u c o
l04
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 47
F
H
K
A
C
B
G
D L E
In a right-angled triangle, the square on the side subtending the right-angle is equal to the (sum
of the) squares on the sides surrounding the right-angle.
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle having the right-angle BAC. I say that the square on BC is
equal to the (sum of the) squares on BA and AC.
For let the square BDEC have been described on BC, and (the squares) GB and HC on AB
and AC (respectively) [Prop. 1.46]. And let AL have been drawn through point A parallel to
either of BD or CE [Prop. 1.31]. And since angles BAC and BAG are each right-angles, so
two straight-lines AC and AG, not lying on the same side, make the adjacent angles equal to
two right-angles at the same point A on some straight-line BA . Thus, CA is straight-on to AG
[Prop. 1.14]. So, for the same (reasons), BA is also straight-on to AH. And since angle DBC
is equal to FBA, for (they are) both right-angles, let ABC have been added to both. Thus, the
whole (angle) DBA is equal to the whole (angle) FBC. And since DB is equal to BC, and FB to
BA, the two (straight-lines) DB, BA are equal to the two (straight-lines) CB, BF,
19
respectively.
And angle DBA (is) equal to angle FBC. Thus, the base AD [is] equal to the base FC, and the
triangle ABD is equal to the triangle FBC [Prop. 1.4]. And parallelogram BL [is] double (the
19
The Greek text has FB, BC, which is obviously a mistake.
l0

p
v u c | c i ui i i , . v c
e : : v c] : v c| | o pp ;
;. op cp e , | o pp
: ; ; o v o | i , :
c. c o pc vo v, v c , vo e
, . o v vo i : c| i vo e , e
.
v i o o vo o u i
: c| i vo e o ] e e o
c i.
l06
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 47
area) of triangle ABD. For they have the same base, BD, and are between the same parallels,
BD and AL [Prop. 1.41]. And parallelogram GB is double (the area) of triangle FBC. For again
they have the same base, FB, and are between the same parallels, FB and GC [Prop. 1.41].
[And the doubles of equal things are equal to one another.]
20
Thus, the parallelogram BL is also
equal to the square GB. So, similarly, AE and BK being joined, the parallelogram CL can be
shown (to be) equal to the square HC. Thus, the whole square BDEC is equal to the two squares
GB and HC. And the square BDEC is described on BC, and the (squares) GB and HC on BA
and AC (respectively). Thus, the square on the side BC is equal to the (sum of the) squares on
the sides BA and AC.
Thus, in a right-angled triangle, the square on the side subtending the right-angle is equal to the
(sum of the) squares on the sides surrounding the right-[angle]. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
20
This is an additional common notion.
l0

p

v o vo pi e e : i vo e e u
e , p uo e e u e
o c.
v u o vo pi i : c i vo e ,
e , o o c uo .
v vo u p u; o ov | : ,
| c . c| : c| , : c| | o vo ;
vo ;. o o vo v v vo e ,
: c| i vo e , . vv i pc vo e ,
: c| o vo o c uo i c vo e , :
c| o vo u o v vo : c| ; vo
; e | v c : | c| : c| , c
, | , i , : i | : v
uo ; uo c] :. o c uo o v | uo .
v vv o vo pi e e : i vo e e u
e , p uo e e u
e o c o c i.
l08
ELEMENTS BOOK 1
Proposition 48
A B D
C
If the square on one of the sides of a triangle is equal to the (sum of the) squares on the remaining
sides of the triangle then the angle contained by the remaining sides of the triangle is a right-
angle.
For let the square on one of the sides, BC, of triangle ABC be equal to the (sum of the) squares
on the sides BA and AC. I say that angle BAC is a right-angle.
For let AD have been drawn from point A at right-angles to the straight-line AC [Prop. 1.11],
and let AD have been made equal to BA [Prop. 1.3], and let DC have been joined. Since DA is
equal to AB, the square on DA is thus also equal to the square on AB.
21
Let the square on AC
have been added to both. Thus, the squares on DA and AC are equal to the squares on BA and
AC. But, the (squares) on DA and AC are equal to the (square) on DC. For angle DAC is a
right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. But, the (squares) on BA and AC are equal to the (square) on BC. For
(that) was assumed. Thus, the square on DC is equal to the square on BC. So DC is also equal
to BC. And since DA is equal to AB, and AC (is) common, the two (straight-lines) DA, AC
are equal to the two (straight-lines) BA, AC. And the base DC is equal to the base BC. Thus,
angle DAC [is] equal to angle BAC [Prop. 1.8]. But DAC is a right-angle. Thus, BAC is also a
right-angle.
Thus, if the square on one of the sides of a triangle is equal to the (sum of the) squares on the
remaining sides of the triangle then the angle contained by the remaining sides of the triangle is
a right-angle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
21
Here, use is made of the additional common notion that the squares of equal things are themselves equal. Later
on, the inverse notion is used.
l09

ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Fundamentals of geometric algebra

i pp o uo e o
e ue.
o c pp e | p uu pp
c ou i | p p .
ll2
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Denitions
1 Any right-angled parallelogram is said to be contained by the two straight-lines containing
a(ny) right-angle.
2 And for any parallelogrammic gure, let any one whatsoever of the parallelograms about
its diagonal, (taken) with its two complements, be called a gnomon.
ll`

v e ui, p c c ue i ou pp, o p
o uo e ue : c| i u vp | c e pp
p o.
ui | , , | p , e c, v v , pi ,
o o uo e , p o : c| ; uo e , p;
o; | ; uo e , | c ; uo e , .
v vo u o ov , | : , | v pc u
, v c e , , | ,
, .
c o i , , . c o pc o uo e , pc
v uo e , , : c o c o uo e , pc v
uo e , , : c . o c o uo e , : v ,
, . | c op o o uo e , o v uo e , : c| ;
uo , | ; uo , | c ; uo , .
v v e ui, p c c ue i ou pp, o p
o uo e ue : c| i u vp | c e pp
p o o c i.
ll4
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 1
22
H
A
B D E C
G
F
K L
If there are two straight-lines, and one of them is cut into any number of pieces whatsoever, then
the rectangle contained by the two straight-lines is equal to the (sum of the) rectangles contained
by the uncut (straight-line), and every one of the pieces (of the cut straight-line).
Let A and BC be the two straight-lines, and let BC be cut, at random, at points D and E. I say
that the rectangle contained by A and BC is equal to the rectangle(s) contained by A and BD,
by A and DE, and, nally, by A and EC.
For let BF have been drawn from point B, at right-angles to BC [Prop. 1.11], and let BG be
made equal to A [Prop. 1.3], and let GH have been drawn through (point) G, parallel to BC
[Prop. 1.31], and let DK, EL, and CH have been drawn through (points) D, E, and C (respec-
tively), parallel to BG [Prop. 1.31].
So the (rectangle) BH is equal to the (rectangles) BK, DL, and EH. And BH is the (rectangle
contained) by A and BC. For it is contained by GB and BC, and BG (is) equal to A. And BK (is)
the (rectangle contained) by A and BD. For it is contained by GB and BD, and BG (is) equal to
A. And DL (is) the (rectangle contained) by A and DE. For DK, that is to say BG [Prop. 1.34],
(is) equal to A. Similarly, EH (is) the (rectangle contained) by A and EC. Thus, the (rectangle
contained) by A and BC is equal to the (rectangles contained) by A and BD, by A and DE, and,
nally, by A and EC.
Thus, if there are two straight-lines, and one of them is cut into any number of pieces whatsoever,
then the rectangle contained by the two straight-lines is equal to the (sum of the) rectangles con-
tained by the uncut (straight-line), and every one of the pieces (of the cut straight-line). (Which
22
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: a (b +c +d + ) = a b +a c +a d + .
ll

v ui pp p, e c, o uo o | c e pp -
p o : c| ; vo o ;.
ui v p, e c, v o pi , o o uo e ,
p o pv u uo , p o : c| ; vo
;.
v vo o , | | u o; e ,
.
c| o i , . c o pc o vo , o c
o uo e , p o pc v uo e , , : c
o c o uo e , : v . o v uo e , pv
u uo e , : c| ; vo ;.
v v ui pp p, e c, o uo o | c e pp
p o : c| ; vo o ; o c i.
ll6
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 2
23
B A C
D F E
If a straight-line is cut at random, then the (sum of the) rectangle(s) contained by the whole
(straight-line), and each of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to the square on the whole.
For let the straight-line AB have been cut, at random, at point C. I say that the rectangle con-
tained by AB and BC, plus the rectangle contained by BA and AC, is equal to the square on AB.
For let the square ADEB have been described on AB [Prop. 1.46], and let CF have been drawn
through C, parallel to either of AD or BE [Prop. 1.31].
So the (square) AE is equal to the (rectangles) AF and CE. And AE is the square on AB. And
AF (is) the rectangle contained by the (straight-lines) BA and AC. For it is contained by DA and
AC, and AD (is) equal to AB. And CE (is) the (rectangle contained) by AB and BC. For BE
(is) equal to AB. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by BA and AC, plus the (rectangle contained)
by AB and BC, is equal to the square on AB.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut at random, then the (sum of the) rectangle(s) contained by the whole
(straight-line), and each of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to the square on the whole.
23
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: a b +a c = a
2
if a = b +c.
ll

v ui pp p, e c, o uo o | co e pp p
o : c| ; uo e pp p; o; | ; vo u -
p pp ;.
ui v p, e c, v o , o o uo e , p
o : c| ; uo e , p; o; pv u vo
.
v vo o , | c| o , | v u
o; e , . : c o i , c o
pc o uo e , p o pc v uo e , ,
: c o c o uo e , : v o c o vo
o v uo e , p o : c| ; uo e ,
p; o; pv u vo .
v v ui pp p, e c, o uo o | co e pp -
p o : c| ; uo e pp p; o; | ; vo
u p pp ; o c i.
ll8
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 3
24
B A C
F D E
If a straight-line is cut at random, then the rectangle contained by the whole (straight-line), and
one of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to the rectangle contained by (both of) the pieces,
and the square on the aforementioned piece.
For let the straight-line AB have been cut, at random, at (point) C. I say that the rectangle con-
tained by AB and BC is equal to the rectangle contained by AC and CB, plus the square on BC.
For let the square CDEB have been described on CB [Prop. 1.46], and let ED have been
drawn through to F, and let AF have been drawn through A, parallel to either of CD or BE
[Prop. 1.31]. So the (rectangle) AE is equal to the (rectangle) AD and the (square) CE. And
AE is the rectangle contained by AB and BC. For it is contained by AB and BE, and BE (is)
equal to BC. And AD (is) the (rectangle contained) by AC and CB. For DC (is) equal to CB.
And DB (is) the square on CB. Thus, the rectangle contained by AB and BC is equal to the
rectangle contained by AC and CB, plus the square on BC.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut at random, then the rectangle contained by the whole (straight-line),
and one of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to the rectangle contained by (both of) the
pieces, and the square on the aforementioned piece. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
24
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: (a +b) a = a b +a
2
.
ll9

v ui pp p, e c, o vo o : c| i vo e
pp | ; | uo e pp p; o;.
ui v pp p, e c, v o . , o o vo
: c| i vo e , | ; | uo e ,
p; o;.
v vo o , | c , | v pc u
o; e , , v c u o; e ,
. | c| c , | i uv cp , co
uo : c| co | v uo . v uo uo
c :, c| | v c : | uo v uo
c : e | v ; c : v pc c :.
c | v c : i v c| o . , o
| o. c| v c | i uv cp ui
], | v uo , oi i :. o c uo o v |
uo e | | v | uo , o i. o v c| o
c c | i v c c vo . v v uv
| o c c vo , vo] v v ,
vo e , i. | c| : c| o ; , c o o
uo e , : v | o v : c| ; uo , v v ,
: c| ; | uo e , . c c | v , vo e , v
v v , , , : c| i vo e , | ; |
uo e , p; o;. vv v , , , o c| o , o
c vo o v vo : c| i vo e ,
| ; | uo e , p; o;.
l20
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 4
25
H
A C B
G
K
D F E
If a straight-line is cut at random, then the square on the whole (straight-line) is equal to the
(sum of the) squares on the pieces (of the straight-line), and twice the rectangle contained by the
pieces.
For let the straight-line AB have been cut, at random, at (point) C. I say that the square on AB is
equal to the (sum of the) squares on AC and CB, and twice the rectangle contained by AC and
CB.
For let the square ADEB have been described on AB [Prop. 1.46], and let BD have been joined,
and let CF have been drawn through C, parallel to either of AD or EB [Prop. 1.31], and let
HK have been drawn through G, parallel to either of AB or DE [Prop. 1.31]. And since CF is
parallel to AD, and BD has fallen across them, the external angle CGB is equal to the internal
and opposite (angle) ADB [Prop. 1.29]. But, ADB is equal to ABD, since the side BA is also
equal to AD [Prop. 1.5]. Thus, angle CGB is also equal to GBC. So the side BC is equal to the
side CG [Prop. 1.6]. But, CB is equal to GK, and CG to KB [Prop. 1.34]. Thus, GK is also
equal to KB. Thus, CGKB is equilateral. So I say that (it is) also right-angled. For since CG is
parallel to BK [and the straight-line CB has fallen across them], the angles KBC and GCB are
thus equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.29]. But KBC (is) a right-angle. Thus, BCG (is) also a
right-angle. So the opposite (angles) CGK and GKB are also right-angles [Prop. 1.34]. Thus,
CGKB is right-angled. And it was also shown (to be) equilateral. Thus, it is a square. And it
is on CB. So, for the same (reasons), HF is also a square. And it is on HG, that is to say [on]
AC [Prop. 1.34]. Thus, the squares HF and KC are on AC and CB (respectively). And the
(rectangle) AG is equal to the (rectangle) GE [Prop. 1.43]. And AG is the (rectangle contained)
by AC and CB. For CG (is) equal to CB. Thus, GE is also equal to the (rectangle contained)
by AC and CB. Thus, the (rectangles) AG and GE are equal to twice the (rectangle contained)
by AC and CB. And HF and CK are the squares on AC and CB (respectively). Thus, the four
(gures) HF, CK, AG, and GE are equal to the squares on AC and BC, and twice the rectangle
25
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: (a +b)
2
= a
2
+b
2
+ 2 a b.
l2l

v v ui pp p, e c, o vo o : c| i vo
e pp | ; | uo e pp p; o; o c
i.
l22
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 4
contained by AC and CB. But, the (gures) HF, CK, AG, and GE are (equivalent to) the whole
of ADEB, which is the square on AB. Thus, the square on AB is equal to the squares on AC and
CB, and twice the rectangle contained by AC and CB.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut at random, then the square on the whole (straight-line) is equal to
the (sum of the) squares on the pieces (of the straight-line), and twice the rectangle contained by
the pieces. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l2`

v ui pp p i : | v, o uo e v o pp -
p o pv u vo p e pe : c| ; vo
p ;.
ui p i pc : v o , i c v v o , o o
uo e , p o pv u vo : c| ; vo
;.
v vo o , | c , | v pc u
o; e , , v c u o; e ,
, | v u o; e , . |
c| : c| o p ; p, o o o
v o o; ; : c. vv o ; : c, c| | c
: | o v ; : c. o o o v o ;
26
p : c. vv o o uo e , c : v | o
v p : c| ; uo , . o o , o c : ; vo
o v p | o : c| ; uo e , p; o; |
; vo ;. vv o p | o o c| o ,
o c vo o v uo e , p o pv u vo
: c| ; vo ;.
v v ui pp p i : | v, o uo e v o pp
p o pv u vo p e pe : c| ; vo
p ; o c i.
26
Note the (presumably mistaken) double use of the label M in the Greek text.
l24
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 5
27
F
M
A B C D
E G
K
N
P
L
H
O
If a straight-line is cut into equal and unequal (pieces), then the rectangle contained by the
unequal pieces of the whole (straight-line), plus the square on the difference between the (equal
and unequal) pieces, is equal to the square on half (of the straight-line).
For let any straight-line AB have been cutequally at C, and unequally at D. I say that the
rectangle contained by AD and DB, plus the square on CD, is equal to the square on CB.
For let the square CEFB have been described on CB [Prop. 1.46], and let BE have been joined,
and let DG have been drawn through D, parallel to either of CE or BF [Prop. 1.31], and again
let KM have been drawn through H, parallel to either of AB or EF [Prop. 1.31], and again
let AK have been drawn through A, parallel to either of CL or BM [Prop. 1.31]. And since
the complement CH is equal to the complement HF [Prop. 1.43], let the (square) DM have
been added to both. Thus, the whole (rectangle) CM is equal to the whole (rectangle) DF.
But, (rectangle) CM is equal to (rectangle) AL, since AC is also equal to CB [Prop. 1.36].
Thus, (rectangle) AL is also equal to (rectangle) DF. Let (rectangle) CH have been added to
both. Thus, the whole (rectangle) AH is equal to the gnomon NOP. But, AH is the (rectangle
contained) by AD and DB. For DH (is) equal to DB. Thus, the gnomon NOP is also equal to
the (rectangle contained) by AD and DB. Let LG, which is equal to the (square) on CD, have
been added to both. Thus, the gnomon NOP and the (square) LG are equal to the rectangle
contained by AD and DB, and the square on CD. But, the gnomon NOP and the (square) LG is
(equivalent to) the whole square CEFB, which is on CB. Thus, the rectangle contained by AD
and DB, plus the square on CD, is equal to the square on CB.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut into equal and unequal (pieces), then the rectangle contained by the
unequal pieces of the whole (straight-line), plus the square on the difference between the (equal
and unequal) pieces, is equal to the square on half (of the straight-line). (Which is) the very thing
27
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: a b + [(a +b)/2 b]
2
= [(a +b)/2]
2
.
l2

v ui pp p , u ui c u, o uo o
p | p p o pv u vo p
: c| ; vo p c p | p -
;.
ui p v o pi, u ui c
u , o o uo e , p o pv u vo
: c| ; vo ;.
v vo o , | c , | v pc u
p o; e , , v c u p o; e
, , | c v u o; e ,
.
| u : c| , : c| | o ; . vv o ; : c.
| o v ; c :. o o o v o ;
p c :. vv o c o uo e , : c |
o v p : c| ; uo e , p; o;]. o -
o , o c : ; vo ; o v uo e , p
o pv u vo : c| ; p | ; . vv o
p | o o c| o , o c vo o v uo
e , p o pv u vo : c| ; vo
;.
v v ui pp p , u ui c u, o uo
o p | p p o pv u vo
p : c| ; vo p c p | p
; o c i.
l26
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 6
28
O
C B D
E G F
M
N
P
H
A
K L
If a straight-line is cut in half, and any straight-line added to it straight-on, then the rectan-
gle contained by the whole (straight-line) with the (straight-line) having being added, and the
(straight-line) having being added, plus the square on half (of the original straight-line), is equal
to the square on the sum of half (of the original straight-line) and the (straight-line) having been
added.
For let any straight-line AB have been cut in half at point C, and let any straight-line BD have
been added to it straight-on. I say that the rectangle contained by AD and DB, plus the square
on CB, is equal to the square on CD.
For let the square CEFD have been described on CD [Prop. 1.46], and let DE have been joined,
and let BG have been drawn through point B, parallel to either of EC or DF [Prop. 1.31], and
let KM have been drawn through point H, parallel to either of AB or EF [Prop. 1.31], and
nally let AK have been drawn through A, parallel to either of CL or DM [Prop. 1.31].
Therefore, since AC is equal to CB, (rectangle) AL is also equal to (rectangle) CH [Prop. 1.36].
But, (rectangle) CH is equal to (rectangle) HF [Prop. 1.43]. Thus, (rectangle) AL is also equal
to (rectangle) HF. Let (rectangle) CM have been added to both. Thus, the whole (rectangle)
AM is equal to the gnomon NOP. But, AM is the (rectangle contained) by AD and DB. For
DM is equal to DB. Thus, gnomon NOP is also equal to the [rectangle contained] by AD and
DB. Let LG, which is equal to the square on BC, have been added to both. Thus, the rectan-
gle contained by AD and DB, plus the square on CB, is equal to the gnomon NOP, and the
(square) LG. But the gnomon NOP and the (square) LG is (equivalent to) the whole square
CEFD, which is on CD. Thus, the rectangle contained by AD and DB, plus the square on CB,
is equal to the square on CD.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut in half, and any straight-line added to it straight-on, then the rect-
angle contained by the whole (straight-line) with the (straight-line) having being added, and the
(straight-line) having being added, plus the square on half (of the original straight-line), is equal
to the square on the sum of half (of the original straight-line) and the (straight-line) having been
added. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
28
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: (2 a +b) b +a
2
= (a +b)
2
.
l2

v ui pp p, e c, o vo o | o v co e pp v
p : c| ; | uo o | u ip pp -
p; o; | ; vo u u pp ;.
ui p, e c, v o pi , o v vo e ,
: c| ; | uo e , p; o; | ; vo
;.
v vo o | o p.
| u : c| o ; , o o o v o o; ;
: c v v , c u . vv v , o c p |
o o v p | o c u . c c u
| o | uo e , : v o v p | o
: c| ; | uo e , . o o , o c vo
o v p | v , : c| ; | uo e ,
p; o; | ; vo ;. vv o p | v ,
o c| o | o , v c vo e , v v
vo e , : c| ; ] | uo e , p; o; pv
u vo .
v v ui pp p, e c, o vo o | o v co e pp
v p : c| ; | uo o | u ip pp
p; o; | ; vo u u pp ; o c i.
l28
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 7
29
M
A C B
H
D N E
F
G
K
L
If a straight-line is cut at random, then the sum of the squares on the whole (straight-line), and
one of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to twice the rectangle contained by the whole,
and the said piece, and the square on the remaining piece.
For let any straight-line AB have been cut, at random, at point C. I say that the (sum of the)
squares on AB and BC is equal to twice the rectangle contained by AB and BC, and the square
on CA.
For let the square ADEB have been described on AB [Prop. 1.46], and let the (rest of) the gure
have been drawn.
Therefore, since (rectangle) AG is equal to (rectangle) GE [Prop. 1.43], let the (square) CF
have been added to both. Thus, the whole (rectangle) AF is equal to the whole (rectangle)
CE. Thus, (rectangle) AF plus (rectangle) CE is double (rectangle) AF. But, (rectangle) AF
plus (rectangle) CE is the gnomon KLM, and the square CF. Thus, the gnomon KLM, and
the square CF, is double the (rectangle) AF. But double the (rectangle) AF is also twice the
(rectangle contained) by AB and BC. For BF (is) equal to BC. Thus, the gnomon KLM, and
the square CF, are equal to twice the (rectangle contained) by AB and BC. Let DG, which is
the square on AC, have been added to both. Thus, the gnomon KLM, and the squares BG and
GD, are equal to twice the rectangle contained by AB and BC, and the square on AC. But,
the gnomon KLM and the squares BG and GD is (equivalent to) the whole of ADEB and CF,
which are the squares on AB and BC (respectively). Thus, the (sum of the) squares on AB and
BC is equal to twice the rectangle contained by AB and BC, and the square on AC.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut at random, then the sum of the squares on the whole (straight-
line), and one of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to twice the rectangle contained by the
whole, and the said piece, and the square on the remaining piece. (Which is) the very thing it
29
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: (a +b)
2
+a
2
= 2 (a +b) a +b
2
.
l29

v ui pp p, e c, o uo o | co e pp -
p o pv u vo u u pp : c| ; v
o | u ip pp e vo pi v ;.
ui p, e c, v o pi , o o uo e
, p o pv u vo : c| ; vo ,
e vo pi v ;.
v c u ui] , | : , | v-
vo o , | u o p.
| u : c| , vv pc c :, c , |
v c :. v v uv | c :. | c| : c|
, c , : v c| | o pc ; , o c ; . vv o ;
c : p v u pp | o v ; :
c v v v , , , : v c. v v
c u . c| : c| , vv pc , :,
c , , c :, | v : c. | c| : c|
pc , c , : c| | o pc ; , o c ; . vv o
; c : p v u pp | o v ;
: c v v v , , , : v c v v u
c . c c | v v , , , u
v v o, i o p, c u . | c| o o uo
e , c : v o v uo e , c
u . c c u | o p o v uo e
l`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 8
30
U
A C B D
N
P
Q
G
K
R
T
E H L F
S
M
O
If a straight-line is cut at random, then four times the rectangle contained by the whole (straight-
line), and one of the pieces (of the straight-line), plus the square on the remaining piece, is equal
to the square described on the whole and the former piece, as on one (complete straight-line).
For let any straight-line AB have been cut, at random, at point C. I say that four times the rect-
angle contained by AB and BC, plus the square on AC, is equal to the square described on AB
and BC, as on one (complete straight-line).
For let BD have been produced in a straight-line [with the straight-line AB], and let BD be made
equal to BC [Prop. 1.3], and let the square AEFD have been described on AD [Prop. 1.46], and
let the (rest of the) gure have been drawn double.
Therefore, since CB is equal to BD, but CB is equal to GK [Prop. 1.34], and BD to KN
[Prop. 1.34], GK is thus also equal to KN. So, for the same (reasons), QR is equal to RP.
And since BC is equal to BD, and GK to KN, (square) CK is thus also equal to (square) KD,
and (square) GR to (square) RN [Prop. 1.36]. But, (square) CK is equal to (square) RN. For
(they are) complements in the parallelogram CP [Prop. 1.43]. Thus, (square) KD is also equal
to (square) GR. Thus, the four (squares) DK, CK, GR, and RN are equal to one another. Thus,
the four (taken together) are quadruple (square) CK. Again, since CB is equal to BD, but BD
(is) equal to BKthat is to say, CGand CB is equal to GKthat is to say, GQCG is thus
also equal to GQ. And since CG is equal to GQ, and QR to RP, (rectangle) AG is also equal
to (rectangle) MQ, and (rectangle) QL to (rectangle) RF [Prop. 1.36]. But, (rectangle) MQ is
equal to (rectangle) QL. For (they are) complements in the parallelogramML [Prop. 1.43].Thus,
30
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: 4 (a +b) a +b
2
= [(a +b) +a]
2
.
l`l

, : c| ; p. o o , o c : ; vo
; o v uo e , p o pv u vo
: c| ; p | ; . vv o p | o o c|
o , o c vo o v uo e , pv u vo
: c| ; vo ; : c . o v uo e ,
p o pv u vo : c| ; vo , ;
vo | e vo pi v ;.
v v ui pp p, e c, o uo o | co e pp
p o pv u vo u u pp : c| ; v
o | u ip pp e vo pi v ; o c i.
l`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 8
(rectangle) AG is also equal to (rectangle) RF. Thus, the four (rectangles) AG, MQ, QL, and
RF are equal to one another. Thus, the four (taken together) are quadruple (rectangle) AG. And
it was also shown that the four (squares) DK, CK, GR, and RN (taken together are) quadruple
(square) CK. Thus, the eight (gures taken together), which comprise the gnomon STU, are
quadruple (rectangle) AK. And since AK is the (rectangle contained) by AB and BD, for BK
(is) equal to BD, four times the (rectangle contained) by AB and BD is quadruple (rectangle)
AK. But quadruple (rectangle) AK was also shown (to be equal to) the gnomon STU. Thus,
four times the (rectangle contained) by AB and BD is equal to the gnomon STU. Let OH, which
is equal to the square on AC, have been added to both. Thus, four times the rectangle contained
by AB and BD, plus the square on AC, is equal to the gnomon STU, and the (square) OH.
But, the gnomon STU and the (square) OH is (equivalent to) the whole square AEFD, which is
on AD. Thus, four times the (rectangle contained) by AB and BD, plus the (square) on AC, is
equal to the square on AD. And BD (is) equal to BC. Thus, four times the rectangle contained
by AB and BD, plus the square on AC, is equal to the (square) on AD, that is to say the square
described on AB and BC, as on one (complete straight-line).
Thus, if a straight-line is cut at random, then four times the rectangle contained by the whole
(straight-line), and one of the pieces (of the straight-line), plus the square on the remaining
piece, is equal to the square described on the whole and the former piece, as on one (complete
straight-line). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l``

v ui pp p i : | v, v vo e v o pp
c u vo p | u vo p e pe .
ui p i pc : v o , | c v v o , o v
vo e , c e vo e , .
v vo u o ov , | : c; e , , |
c | , , | v pc u , v c u
, | c . | c| : c| , : c| | uo
uo . | c| o c o ; , | v | uo , p; o :
i i : p v o c c e uo , . | v uv |
c e uo , p c o o v uo o c. | c|
uo p c o, o c uo : c co | v
uo v uo p c o : v c|] uo
uo e | v c :. c| o ; p
c o, o c uo : v c| co | v uo
v uo p c o : v o ; uo e |
v ; c :. | c| : c| , : c| | o vo
; vo v v vo e , c u vo . i c vo
e , : c| o vo o v uo o v vo
c u vo . , c| : c| , : | o vo
; vo v v vo e , c u vo
. i c vo e , : c| o vo o
v vo c u vo . : c o v vo
c u vo . c c | o vo u vo
v v vo e , c e vo e , . i c
vo e , : c| o vo o c uo o
v vo c e vo e , . ; c vo : v
l`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 9
31
F
A C B D
E
G
If a straight-line is cut into equal and unequal (pieces), then the (sum of the) squares on the
unequal pieces of the whole (straight-line) is double the (sum of the) square on half (the straight-
line), and (the square) on the difference between the (equal and unequal) pieces.
For let any straight-line AB have been cutequally at C, and unequally at D. I say that the (sum
of the) squares on AD and DB is double the (sum of the squares) on AC and CD.
For let CE have been drawn from (point) C, at right-angles to AB [Prop. 1.11], and let it be
made equal to each of AC and CB [Prop. 1.3], and let EA and EB have been joined. And let
DF have been drawn through (point) D, parallel to EC [Prop. 1.31], and (let) FG (have been
drawn) through (point) F, (parallel) to AB [Prop. 1.31]. And let AF have been joined. And
since AC is equal to CE, the angle EAC is also equal to the (angle) AEC [Prop. 1.5]. And since
the (angle) at C is a right-angle, the (sum of the) remaining angles (of triangle AEC), EAC and
AEC, is thus equal to one right-angle [Prop. 1.32]. And they are equal. Thus, (angles) CEA and
CAE are each half a right-angle. So, for the same (reasons), (angles) CEB and EBC are also
each half a right-angle. Thus, the whole (angle) AEB is a right-angle. And since GEF is half a
right-angle, and EGF (is) a right-anglefor it is equal to the internal and opposite (angle) ECB
[Prop. 1.29]the remaining (angle) EFG is thus half a right-angle [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, angle
GEF [is] equal to EFG. So the side EG is also equal to the (side) GF [Prop. 1.6]. Again, since
the angle at B is half a right-angle, and (angle) FDB (is) a right-anglefor again it is equal
to the internal and opposite (angle) ECB [Prop. 1.29]the remaining (angle) BFD is half a
right-angle [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, the angle at B (is) equal to DFB. So the side FD is also equal to
the side DB [Prop. 1.6]. And since AC is equal to CE, the (square) on AC (is) also equal to the
(square) on CE. Thus, the (sum of the) squares on AC and CE is double the (square) on AC.
And the square on EA is equal to the (sum of the) squares on AC and CE. For angle ACE (is)
31
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: a
2
+b
2
= 2[([a +b]/2)
2
+ ([a +b]/2 b)
2
].
l`

vo e , o v o ; v v vo e , c e vo
e , . : c v v vo e ,
c e vo e , .
v v ui pp p i : | v, v vo e v o pp
c u vo p | u vo p e pe
o c i.
l`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 9
a right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (square) on EA is double the (square) on AC. Again, since
EG is equal to GF, the (square) on EG (is) also equal to the (square) on GF. Thus, the (sum
of the squares) on EG and GF is double the square on GF. And the square on EF is equal to
the (sum of the) squares on EG and GF [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the square on EF is double the
(square) on GF. And GF (is) equal to CD [Prop. 1.34]. Thus, the (square) on EF is double the
(square) on CD. And the (square) on EA is also double the (square) on AC. Thus, the (sum of
the) squares on AE and EF is double the (sum of the) squares on AC and CD. And the square
on AF is equal to the (sum of the squares) on AE and EF. For the angle AEF is a right-angle
[Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the square on AF is double the (sum of the squares) on AC and CD. And
the (sum of the squares) on AD and DF (is) equal to the (square) on AF. For the angle at D is
a right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (sum of the squares) on AD and DF is double the (sum of
the) squares on AC and CD. And DF (is) equal to DB. Thus, the (sum of the) squares on AD
and DB is double the (sum of the) squares on AC and CD.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut into equal and unequal (pieces), then the (sum of the) squares on the
unequal pieces of the whole (straight-line) is double the (sum of the) square on half (the straight-
line), and (the square) on the difference between the (equal and unequal) pieces. (Which is) the
very thing it was required to show.
l`

v ui pp p , u ui c u, o vo o
p | o vo p v p c u
vo p | u vo p c p | p e vo
pi v .
ui p v o , u ui c u
, o v vo e , c e vo e , .
v vo u p o ov , | : c; e ,
, | c | , | v pc u , v c
u . | c| i u v , ui
c , | uo , v | oi : i | v uo ,
oe c i | c v c oe cp p |
v , cp c| v , p pu. c | p
v o , | c . | c| : c| , : c| | uo
uo | o o ; p v o c] c e uo ,
. v v uv | c e uo , p c o o v c|
uo . | c| p o c uo , p v o | uo .
c c | uo o : c uo cv v uo
p c o v uo uo c : e | v ;
c :. , c| uo p c o, o c o ; :
c v o ; v uo p c o : v uo
uo e | v ; c :. | c| : c|
], : c| |] o vo ; vo ; v v
vo e , c u vo . i c vo e ,
: c| o vo o v vo c u vo
. , c| : c| , : c| | o vo ; vo
v v vo e , c u vo .i c vo e , : c| o
l`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 10
32
G
E
A
C B
F
D
If a straight-line is cut in half, and any straight-line added to it straight-on, then the sum of the
square on the whole (straight-line) with the (straight-line) having been added, and the (square)
on the (straight-line) having been added, is double the (sum of the square) on half (the straight-
line), and the square described on the sum of half (the straight-line) and (straight-line) having
been added, as on one (complete straight-line).
For let any straight-line AB have been cut in half at (point) C, and let any straight-line BD have
been added to it straight-on. I say that the (sum of the) squares on AD and DB is double the
(sum of the) squares on AC and CD.
For let CE have been drawn from point C, at right-angles to AB [Prop. 1.11], and let it be made
equal to each of AC and CB [Prop. 1.3], and let EA and EB have been joined. And let EF have
been drawn through E, parallel to AD [Prop. 1.31], and let FD have been drawn through D,
parallel to CE [Prop. 1.31]. And since the straight-lines EC and FD (are) parallel, and some
straight-line EF falls across (them), the (internal angles) CEF and EFD are thus equal to two
right-angles [Prop. 1.29]. Thus, FEB and EFD are less than two right-angles. And (straight-
lines) produced from (internal angles) less than two right-angles meet together [Post. 5]. Thus,
being produced in the direction of B and D, the (straight-lines) EB and FD will meet. Let them
have been produced, and let them meet together at G, and let AG have been joined. And since
AC is equal to CE, angle EAC is also equal to (angle) AEC [Prop. 1.5]. And the (angle) at C (is)
a right-angle. Thus, EAC and AEC [are] each half a right-angle [Prop. 1.32]. So, for the same
(reasons), CEB and EBC are also each half a right-angle. Thus, (angle) AEB is a right-angle.
And since EBC is half a right-angle, DBG (is) thus also half a right-angle [Prop. 1.15]. And
BDG is also a right-angle. For it is equal to DCE. For (they are) alternate (angles) [Prop. 1.29].
Thus, the remaining (angle) DGB is half a right-angle. Thus, DGB is equal to DBG. So side BD
32
This proposition is a geometric version of the algebraic identity: (2 a +b)
2
+b
2
= 2 [a
2
+ (a +b)
2
].
l`9

vo o v vo c u vo . : c o
v vo c u vo . c c | o vo
u vo v v vo e , c e vo e ,
. i c vo e , : c| o vo
o v vo c e vo e , . ; c vo : c| v
vo e , v v vo e , ] c e vo e ,
]. : c v v vo e , ] c e vo
e , .
v v ui pp p , u ui c u, o vo o
p | o vo p v p c
u vo p | u vo p c p | p
e vo pi v o c i.
l40
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 10
is also equal to side GD [Prop. 1.6]. Again, since EGF is half a right-angle, and the (angle) at F
(is) a right-angle, for it is equal to the opposite (angle) at C [Prop. 1.34], the remaining (angle)
FEG is thus half a right-angle. Thus, angle EGF (is) equal to FEG. So the side GF is also equal
to the side EF [Prop. 1.6]. And since [EC is equal to CA] the square on EC is [also] equal to
the square on CA. Thus, the (sum of the) squares on EC and CA is double the square on CA.
And the (square) on EA is equal to the (sum of the squares) on EC and CA [Prop. 1.47]. Thus,
the square on EA is double the square on AC. Again, since FG is equal to EF, the (square) on
FG is also equal to the (square) on FE. Thus, the (sum of the squares) on GF and FE is double
the (square) on EF. And the (square) on EG is equal to the (sum of the squares) on GF and
FE [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (square) on EG is double the (square) on EF. And EF (is) equal to
CD [Prop. 1.34]. Thus, the square on EG is double the (square) on CD. But it was also shown
that the (square) on EA (is) double the (square) on AC. Thus, the (sum of the) squares on AE
and EG is double the (sum of the) squares on AC and CD. And the square on AG is equal to the
(sum of the) squares on AE and EG [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (square) on AG is double the (sum
of the squares) on AC and CD. And the (square) on AG is equal to the (sum of the squares) on
AD and DG [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (sum of the) [squares] on AD and DG is double the (sum
of the) [squares] on AC and CD. And DG (is) equal to DB. Thus, the (sum of the) [squares] on
AD and DB is double the (sum of the) squares on AC and CD.
Thus, if a straight-line is cut in half, and any straight-line added to it straight-on, then the sum
of the square on the whole (straight-line) with the (straight-line) having been added, and the
(square) on the (straight-line) having been added, is double the (sum of the square) on half (the
straight-line), and the square described on the sum of half (the straight-line) and (straight-line)
having been added, as on one (complete straight-line). (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
l4l

i ui pi e o uo o | u c e pp p
o : | ; vo u u pp ;.
i ui i pi e o uo o | u c e
pp p o : | ; vo u u pp ;.
v vo o , | p v o
pi, | c , | c| o , | : , |
v vo o , | c| o , o
p v o , e o uo e , p o : i ; vo
;.
| v ui p v o , c u , o v uo e
, p o pv u vo : c| ; vo
;. : c o v uo e , pv u vo : c| ;
vo . vv ; vo : c| v vo e , o v o ; o v
uo e , pv u vo : c| i vo e , . o v o
vo o v o uo e , p o : c| ; vo
;. c o pc uo e , o : v o c vo
o o v : c| ; . o v o o v o ;
: c. c o pc o uo e , : v o c o vo
o v uo e , p o : c| ; vo ;.
l42
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 11
33
E
F G
A
C K
H
B
D
To cut a given straight-line, so that the rectangle contained by the whole (straight-line), and one
of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to the square on the remaining piece.
Let AB be the given straight-line. So it is required to cut AB, such that the rectangle contained
by the whole (straight-line), and one of the pieces (of the straight-line), is equal to the square on
the remaining piece.
For let the square ABDC have been described on AB [Prop. 1.46], and let AC have been cut in
half at point E [Prop. 1.10], and let BE have been joined. And let CA have been drawn through
to (point) F, and let EF be made equal to BE [Prop. 1.3]. And let the square FH have been
described on AF [Prop. 1.46], and let GH have been drawn through to (point) K. I say that AB
has been cut at H, so as to make the rectangle contained by AB and BH equal to the square on
AH.
For since the straight-line AC has been cut in half at E, and FA has been added to it, the rectangle
contained by CF and FA, plus the square on AE, is thus equal to the square on EF [Prop. 2.6].
And EF (is) equal to EB. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by CF and FA, plus the (square)
on AE, is equal to the (square) on EB. But, the (sum of the squares) on BA and AE is equal
to the (square) on EB. For the angle at A (is) a right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (rectangle
contained) by CF and FA, plus the (square) on AE, is equal to the (sum of the squares) on BA
and AE. Let the square on AE have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remaining rectangle
contained by CF and FA is equal to the square on AB. And FK is the (rectangle contained) by
CF and FA. For AF (is) equal to FG. And AD (is) the (square) on AB. Thus, the (rectangle)
FK is equal to the (square) AD. Let (rectangle) AK have been subtracted from both. Thus, the
remaining (square) FH is equal to the (rectangle) HD. And HD is the (rectangle contained) by
33
This manner of cutting a straight-lineso that the ratio of the whole to the larger piece is equal to the ratio of
the larger to the smaller pieceis sometimes called the Golden Section.
l4`

v i ui p v o e o uo e , p
o : i ; vo ; o c .
l44
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 11
AB and BH. For AB (is) equal to BD. And FH (is) the (square) on AH. Thus, the rectangle
contained by AB and BH is equal to the square on HA.
Thus, the given straight-line AB has been cut at (point) H, so as to make the rectangle contained
by AB and BH equal to the square on HA. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
l4

i vp o vo vpi u i
pi c e vo e vpi e e ; p;
| uo pi e | vpi , c , | vp-
p co uo o vp; ;.
vp o vpi c uo , | vo u
p c| ci . , o o vo pi
c e vo e , ; | uo e , p; o;.
| v ui p, e c, v o pi, o v vo : c|
i vo e , | ; | uo e , p; o;. o
o vo v v vo e , : c| i vo e , ,
| ; | uo e , p; o;]. vv i pc vo e ,
: c| o vo o v ; i c vo e , : o
vo o v vo : c| i vo e ,
| ; | uo e , p; o; e o vo e vo
e , pi c ; | uo e , p; o;.
v i vp o vo vpi u i
pi c e vo e vpi e e
; p; | u pi e | vpi , c , |
vpp co uo o vp; ; o c i.
l46
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 12
34
B
D A C
In obtuse-angled triangles, the square on the side subtending the obtuse angle is greater than the
(sum of the) squares on the sides containing the obtuse angle by twice the (rectangle) contained
by one of the sides around the obtuse angle, to which a perpendicular (straight-line) falls, and
the (straight-line) cut off outside (the triangle) by the perpendicular (straight-line) towards the
obtuse angle.
Let ABC be an obtuse-angled triangle, having the obtuse angle BAC. And let BD be drawn from
point B, perpendicular to CA produced [Prop. 1.12]. I say that the square on BC is greater than
the (sum of the) squares on BA and AC, by twice the rectangle contained by CA and AD.
For since the straight-line CD has been cut, at random, at point A, the (square) on DC is thus
equal to the (sum of the) squares on CA and AD, and twice the rectangle contained by CA and
AD [Prop. 2.4]. Let the (square) on DB have been added to both. Thus, the (sum of the squares)
on CD and DB is equal to the (sum of the) squares on CA, AD, and DB, and twice the [rectangle
contained] by CA and AD. But, the (sum of the squares) on CD and DB is equal to the (square)
on CB. For the angle at D (is) a right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. And the (sum of the squares) on AD
and DB (is) equal to the (square) on AB [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the square on CB is equal to the
(sum of the) squares on CA and AB, and twice the rectangle contained by CA and AD. So the
square on CB is greater than the (sum of the) squares on CA and AB by twice the rectangle
contained by CA and AD.
Thus, in obtuse-angled triangles, the square on the side subtending the obtuse angle is greater
than the (sum of the) squares on the sides containing the obtuse angle by twice the (rectangle)
contained by one of the sides around the obtuse angle, to which a perpendicular (straight-line)
falls, and the (straight-line) cut off outside (the triangle) by the perpendicular (straight-line)
towards the obtuse angle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
34
This proposition is equivalent to the well-known cosine formula: BC
2
= AB
2
+AC
2
2 ABAC cos BAC, since
cos BAC = AD/AB.
l4

i o o vo oi u i
c c e vo e oi e e ; p;
| uo pi e | oi , c , | vpp
co uo o o; ;.
o o oi c o ; , | vo u
p c| , o o vo c c e vo
e , ; | uo e , p; o;.
| v ui p, e c, v o , v v vo e , :
c| ; | uo e , p; o; | ; vo ;. o
o vo v v vo e , , : c| ;
| uo e , p; o; | i vo e , . vv
i pc vo e , : o vo o v o ; ; i c vo e
, : o vo v v vo e , : c| ; vo | ; |
uo e , e p o vo c c e vo e ,
; | uo e , p; o;.
v i o o vo oi u i
c c e vo e oi e e ; p;
| uo pi e | oi , c , | vpp
co uo o o; ; o c i.
l48
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 13
35
B D C
A
In acute-angled triangles, the square on the side subtending the acute angle is less than the (sum
of the) squares on the sides containing the acute angle by twice the (rectangle) contained by
one of the sides around the acute angle, to which a perpendicular (straight-line) falls, and the
(straight-line) cut off inside (the triangle) by the perpendicular (straight-line) towards the acute
angle.
Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle, having an acute angle at (point) B. And let AD have been
drawn from point A, perpendicular to BC [Prop. 1.12]. I say that the square on AC is less than
the (sum of the) squares on CB and AB, by twice the rectangle contained by CB and BD.
For since the straight-line CB has been cut, at random, at (point) D, the (sum of the) squares on
CB and BD is thus equal to twice the rectangle contained by CB and BD, and the square on DC
[Prop. 2.7]. Let the square on DA have been added to both. Thus, the (sum of the) squares on
CB, BD, and DA is equal to twice the rectangle contained by CB and BD, and the (sum of the)
squares on AD and DC. But, the (square) on AB (is) equal to the (sum of the squares) on BD
and DA. For the angle at (point) D is a right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. And the (square) on AC (is)
equal to the (sum of the squares) on AD and DC [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (sum of the squares)
on CB and BA is equal to the (square) on AC, and twice the (rectangle contained) by CB and
BD. So the (square) on AC alone is less than the (sum of the) squares on CB and BA by twice
the rectangle contained by CB and BD.
Thus, in acute-angled triangles, the square on the side subtending the acute angle is less than the
(sum of the) squares on the sides containing the acute angle by twice the (rectangle) contained
by one of the sides around the acute angle, to which a perpendicular (straight-line) falls, and the
(straight-line) cut off inside (the triangle) by the perpendicular (straight-line) towards the acute
angle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
35
This proposition is equivalent to the well-known cosine formula: AC
2
= AB
2
+BC
2
2 ABBC cos ABC, since
cos ABC = BD/AB.
l49

; upp; : .
o c upp o i ; upp; : .
v ; cpp; : pp o o i pc u
: c| , o i : o c. v ; upp; :
o i c u, p e , p c. c p , | c
c| o , | : , | p v o , | ; ; ,
p c c| e , p o , | c c| o
, | c .
| u ui p i pc : v o , i c v v o , o v uo
e , p o pv u vo : c| ; vo
;. : c o v uo e , pv u vo :
c| ; vo . ; c vo : c| v vo e , o v uo
e , pv u vo : c| i vo e , . o v o vo
o v o uo e , p o : c| ; vo
;. vv o uo e , o c : v o v
pp : c| ; vo ;. : c o ; upp;.
| o v upp : c| ; vo vp; ;.
; v upp; ; : o vo v-
p o c .
l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 2
Proposition 14
H
A
B
C
G
E
F
D
To construct a square equal to a given rectilinear gure.
Let A be the given rectilinear gure. So it is required to construct a square equal to the rectilinear
gure A.
For let the right-angled parallelogramBD have been constructed, equal to the rectilinear gure A
[Prop. 1.45]. Therefore, if BE is equal to ED, then that (which) was prescribed has taken place.
For the square BD has been constructed, equal to the rectilinear gure A. And if not, then one
of BE or ED is greater (than the other). Let BE be greater, and let it have been produced to
F, and let EF be made equal to ED [Prop. 1.3]. And let BF have been cut in half at (point) G
[Prop. 1.10]. And, with center G, and radius one of GB or GF, let the semi-circle BHF have
been drawn. And let DE have been produced to H, and let GH have been joined.
Therefore, since the straight-line BF has been cutequally at G, and unequally at Ethe rect-
angle contained by BE and EF, plus the square on EG, is thus equal to the square on GF
[Prop. 2.5]. And GF (is) equal to GH. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by BE and EF, plus the
(square) on GE, is equal to the (square) on GH. And the (square) on GH is equal to the (sum
of the) squares on HE and EG [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by BE and EF,
plus the (square) on GE, is equal to the (sum of the squares) on HE and EG. Let the square
on GE have been taken from both. Thus, the remaining rectangle contained by BE and EF is
equal to the square on EH. But, BD is the (rectangle contained) by BE and EF. For EF (is)
equal to ED. Thus, the parallelogram BD is equal to the square on HE. And BD (is) equal to
the rectilinear gure A. Thus, the rectilinear gure A is also equal to the square (which) can be
described on EH.
Thus, a square(namely), that (which) can be described on EHhas been constructed, equal
to the given rectilinear gure A. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
ll

ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Fundamentals of plane geometry involving
circles

i, e | p : i, e | c e : i.
ui c , \p u | cp u p
o .
c v : \p v u p v.
; : v vo u ui , o | vo u c
uv vp : e.
i c v , c p .
pp c| o p p u u | .
pp c c| p u u | .
pp c c, o c| u pp pi |
v uu c| v u, c u pp, ce ui,
p uo e ce ue.
c | ui vp , c c
.
p c c, o o ; ; u , o p
p u e e ue | vpp u ue
.
p pp c| v p :, c | | : v
i.
l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Denitions
1 Equal circles are (circles) whose diameters are equal, or whose (distances) from the centers
(to the circumferences) are equal (i.e., whose radii are equal).
2 A straight-line said to touch a circle is any (straight-line) which, meeting the circle and
being produced, does not cut the circle.
3 Circles said to touch one another are any (circles) which, meeting one another, do not cut
one another.
4 In a circle, straight-lines are said to be equally far from the center when the perpendiculars
drawn to them from the center are equal.
5 And (that straight-line) is said to be further (from the center) on which the greater perpen-
dicular falls (from the center).
6 A segment of a circle is the gure contained by a straight-line and a circumference of a
circle.
7 And the angle of a segment is that contained by a straight-line and a circumference of a
circle.
8 And the angle in a segment is the angle contained by the joined straight-lines, when any
point is taken on the circumference of a segment, and straight-lines are joined from it to the
ends of the straight-line which is the base of the segment.
9 And when the straight-lines containing an angle cut off some circumference, the angle is
said to stand upon that (circumference).
10 And a sector of a circle is the gure contained by the straight-lines surrounding an angle,
and the circumference cut off by them, when the angle is constructed at the center of a
circle.
11 Similar segments of circles are those accepting equal angles, or in which the angles are
equal to one another.
l

u o ui.
o | o i u o ui.
i u, e c, ui , | p v o pi, | vo
u o ov | c| o , | p v o
, o o c| u ].
, v i , c o , | c | , , . | c| : c|
, c , | , i , : i| c c;
| c : c v uo ; uo
: c. o c ui c ui i v c : v ,
o c e : e c o v c| uo . c| c | uo
o : v uo uo , p c o c| v. u v
o c| u . op p, o u v u .
o v pi c| u ].
p
, o cv c ; ui ui | o ov p,
c| p c| o u . o c .
l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 1
D
A
G
B
F
C
E
To nd the center of a given circle.
Let ABC be the given circle. So it is required to nd the center of circle ABC.
Let some straight-line AB have been drawn through (ABC), at random, and let (AB) have been
cut in half at point D [Prop. 1.9]. And let DC have been drawn from D, at right-angles to AB
[Prop. 1.11]. And let (CD) have been drawn through to E. And let CE have been cut in half at
F [Prop. 1.9]. I say that (point) F is the center of the [circle] ABC.
For (if) not then, if possible, let G (be the center of the circle), and let GA, GD, and GB have
been joined. And since AD is equal to DB, and DG (is) common, the two (straight-lines) AD,
DG are equal to the two (straight-lines) BD, DG
36
respectively. And the base GA is equal to
the base GB. For (they are both) radii. Thus, the angle ADG is equal to GDB [Prop. 1.8]. And
when a straight-line stood upon (another) straight-line make adjacent angles (which are) equal
to one another, each of the equal angles is a right-angle [Def. 1.10]. Thus, GDB is a right-angle.
And FDB is also a right-angle. Thus, FDB (is) equal to GDB, the greater to the lesser. The very
thing is impossible. Thus, (point) G is not the center of the circle ABC. So, similarly, we can
show that neither is any other (point) than F.
Thus, point F is the center of the [circle] ABC.
Corollary
So, from this, (it is) manifest that if any straight-line in a circle cuts any (other) straight-line in
half, and at right-angles, then the center of the circle is on the former (straight-line). (Which
is) the very thing it was required to do.
36
The Greek text has GD, DB, which is obviously a mistake.
l

v c| pi, c| v pi cp
ui co i u .
o , | c| uu i pi v ,
, o vo u c| o cp ui co i u .
, v i , co e , | i o u ,
| c o , | c | , , | .
| u : c| , : v | uo uo | c|
u p v , p v uo uo .
: c uo uo p v uo uo . uo c p
p v u p v . : c . p v
c p o c| v. u v vo u c| o
cp ui co i u . op p, o uc c u
co v.
v v c| pi, c| v pi cp
ui co i u o c i.
l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 2
B
D
C
E
F
A
If two points are taken somewhere on the circumference of a circle then the straight-line joining
the points will fall inside the circle.
Let ABC be a circle, and let two points A and B have been taken somewhere on its circumference.
I say that the straight-line joining A to B will fall inside the circle.
For (if) not then otherwise, if possible, let it fall outside (the circle), like AEB (in the gure).
And let the center of the circle ABC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at point) D. And
let DA and DB have been joined, and let DFE have been drawn through.
Therefore, since DA is equal to DB, the angle DAE (is) thus also equal to DBE [Prop. 1.5].
And since in triangle DAE the one side, AEB, has been produced, angle DEB (is) thus greater
than DAE [Prop. 1.16]. And DAE (is) equal to DBE [Prop. 1.5]. Thus, DEB (is) greater than
DBE. And the greater angle is subtended by the greater side [Prop. 1.19]. Thus, DB (is) greater
than DE. And DB (is) equal to DF. Thus, DF (is) greater than DE, the lesser than the greater.
The very thing is impossible. Thus, the straight-line joining A to B will not fall outside the circle.
So, similarly, we can show that neither (will it fall) on the circumference itself. Thus, (it will fall)
inside (the circle).
Thus, if two points are taken somewhere on the circumference of a circle then the straight-line
joining the points will fall inside the circle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l9

v c ; ui v u ui p v u p, | o
ov u p | cv o ov u p, | u p.
o , | c u; ui v u ui p v u
p v o pi , o | o ov u p.
i v o u , | c o , | c | , .
| c| : c| , c , | : i] |
: v uo ; uo : c. o c ui c ui
i v c : v , o c e : e c c
v e uo , o c. v v u u p v u
u p | o ov p.
v o ov p , o | u p, , o
: c| .
e v ue , c| : c| , : c| | uo
uo . c| c | o uo o uo : v c
, v | : c | p v p; ; :
ue u uo p e : e | v v v v i i
i : c : v .
v v c ; ui v u ui p v u p, |
o ov u p | cv o ov u p, | u p o c
i.
l60
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 3
D
A
E
F
B
C
In a circle, if any straight-line through the center cuts in half any straight-line not through the
center, then it also cuts it at right-angles. And (conversely) if it cuts it at right-angles, then it also
cuts it in half.
Let ABC be a circle, and within it, let some straight-line through the center, CD, cut in half
some straight-line not through the center, AB, at the point F. I say that (CD) also cuts (AB) at
right-angles.
For let the center of the circle ABC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at point) E, and
let EA and EB have been joined.
And since AF is equal to FB, and FE (is) common, two (sides of triangle AFE) [are] equal
to two (sides of triangle BFE). And the base EA (is) equal to the base EB. Thus, angle AFE
is equal to angle BFE [Prop. 1.8]. And when a straight-line stood upon (another) straight-line
makes adjacent angles (which are) equal to one another, each of the equal angles is a right-angle
[Def. 1.10]. Thus, AFE and BFE are each right-angles. Thus, the (straight-line) CD, which is
through the center and cuts in half the (straight-line) AB, which is not through the center, also
cuts (AB) at right-angles.
And so let CD cut AB at right-angles. I say that it also cuts (AB) in half. That is to say, that AF
is equal to FB.
For, with the same construction, since EA is equal to EB, angle EAF is also equal to EBF
[Prop. 1.5]. And the right-angle AFE is also equal to the right-angle BFE. Thus, EAF and
EFB are two triangles having two angles equal to two angles, and one side equal to one side
(namely), their common (side) EF, subtending one of the equal angles. Thus, they will also have
the remaining sides equal to the (corresponding) remaining sides [Prop. 1.26]. Thus, AF (is)
equal to FB.
Thus, in a circle, if any straight-line through the center cuts in half any straight-line not through
the center, then it also cuts it at right-angles. And (conversely) if it cuts it at right-angles, then it
also cuts it in half. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l6l

v c ; ui p v p | u u, u p v
.
o , | c u; ui | , p v v o p
v u u , o u p v .
i v , p v e : | pc , c
| i o u , | c o , | c .
| u ui v u ui p v u p,
| o ov u p o v c| uo , c| ui ui
p, | o ov u p o v uo . c c |
uo o : v uo uo c p o c| v.
u v | , p v .
v v c ; ui p v p | u u, u p
v o c i.
l62
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 4
E
F
C
B
D
A
In a circle, if two straight-lines, which are not through the center, cut one another, then they do
not cut one another in half.
Let ABCD be a circle, and within it, let two straight-lines, AC and BD, which are not through
the center, cut one another at (point) E. I say that they do not cut one another in half.
For, if possible, let them cut one another in half, such that AE is equal to EC, and BE to ED.
And let the center of the circle ABCD have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at point) F,
and let FE have been joined.
Therefore, since some straight-line through the center, FE, cuts in half some straight-line not
through the center, AC, it also cuts it at right-angles [Prop. 3.3]. Thus, FEA is a right-angle.
Again, since some straight-line FE cuts in half some straight-line BD, it also cuts it at right-
angles [Prop. 3.3]. Thus, FEB (is) a right-angle. But FEA was also shown (to be) a right-angle.
Thus, FEA (is) equal to FEB, the lesser to the greater. The very thing is impossible. Thus, AC
and BD do not cut one another in half.
Thus, in a circle, if two straight-lines, which are not through the center, cut one another, then
they do not cut one another in half. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l6`

v p v, u c ue o uo .
v | , p v v v , pi. , o u c
ue o uo .
i v , c o , | c , | , e c. | c| o
pi c| u , : c| . , c| o pi
c| u , : c| c c | : |
v c : c p o c| v. u v o pi
c| e , .
v v p v, u c ue o uo o c i.
l64
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 5
D
A
C
E
F
G
B
If two circles cut one another then they will not have the same center.
For let the two circles ABC and CDG cut one another at points B and C. I say that they will not
have the same center.
For, if possible, let E be (the common center), and let EC have been joined, and let EFG have
been drawn through (the two circles), at random. And since point E is the center of the circle
ABC, EC is equal to EF. Again, since point E is the center of the circle CDG, EC is equal to
EG. But EC was also shown (to be) equal to EF. Thus, EF is also equal to EG, the lesser to
the greater. The very thing is impossible. Thus, point E is not the (common) center of the circles
ABC and CDG.
Thus, if two circles cut one another then they will not have the same center. (Which is) the very
l6

v c v, u c ue o uo .
v | , c v v o pi , o u c
ue o uo .
i v , c o , | c , | , e c, .
| u o pi c| u , : c| . , c| o
pi c| u , : c| . c c : |
v c :, c p o c| v. u v o pi
c| e , .
v v c v, u c ue o uo o c i.
l66
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 6
C
A
D
B
F
E
If two circles touch one another then they will not have the same center.
For let the two circles ABC and CDE touch one another at point C. I say that they will not have
the same center.
For, if possible, let F be (the common center), and let FC have been joined, and let FEB have
been drawn through (the two circles), at random.
Therefore, since point F is the center of the circle ABC, FC is equal to FB. Again, since point
F is the center of the circle CDE, FC is equal to FE. But FC was shown (to be) equal to FB.
Thus, FE is also equal to FB, the lesser to the greater. The very thing is impossible. Thus, point
F is not the (common) center of the circles ABC and CDE.
Thus, if two circles touch one another then they will not have the same center. (Which is) the
l6

v c| p pi, o p c u , vo c u
p o o ui , p pc c, c o ,
c c , e c v v| c | u v p
c, c p : vo u p u o o c c
c.
o , p c uu c , | c| i pi
o , o p c u , c u c o , | vo u o
o ui | , , , o p p c
, c c , e c v pc p, c .
v | , , . | c| o | |
p i, | v , p i. : c | v , :
i| ] p v . , c| : c| , c ,
| , | i , : i. vv | uo uo
p v p c. v v uv | p
c.
, c| | , p i, : c , | v ,
p i. v v p c. p
pc v , c c , p c pc , c .
, o | vo u p p : u o o c
c c. v o u; | ; o u p; ;
uo ; : uo , | c . c| u : c| ,
c , | , | i , : i | uo ;
l68
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 7
H
A
B
G
F
D
E
C
K
If some point, which is not the center of the circle, is taken on the diameter of a circle, and some
straight-lines radiate from the point towards the (circumference of the) circle, then the greatest
(straight-line) will be that on which the center (lies), and the least the remainder (of the same
diameter). And for the others, a (straight-line) nearer
37
to the (straight-line) through the center
is always greater than a (straight-line) further away. And only two equal (straight-lines) will
radiate from the point towards the (circumference of the) circle, (one) on each (side) of the least
(straight-line).
Let ABCD be a circle, and let AD be its diameter, and let some point F, which is not the center of
the circle, have been taken on AD. Let E be the center of the circle. And let some straight-lines,
FB, FC, and FG, radiate from F towards (the circumference of) circle ABCD. I say that FA
is the greatest (straight-line), FD the least, and of the others, FB (is) greater than FC, and FC
than FG.
For let BE, CE, and GE have been joined. And since for every triangle (any) two sides are
greater than the remaining (side) [Prop. 1.20], EB and EF is thus greater than BF. And AE
(is) equal to BE [thus, BE and EF is equal to AF]. Thus, AF (is) greater than BF. Again,
since BE is equal to CE, and FE (is) common, the two (straight-lines) BE, EF are equal to the
two (straight-lines) CE, EF (respectively). But, angle BEF (is) also greater than angle CEF.
38
Thus, the base BF is greater than the base CF [Prop. 1.24]. So, for the same (reasons), CF is
greater than FG.
Again, since GF and FE are greater than EG [Prop. 1.20], and EG (is) equal to ED, GF and
FE are thus greater than ED. Let EF have been taken from both. Thus, the remainder GF is
greater than the remainder FD. Thus, FA (is) the greatest (straight-line), FD the least, and FB
(is) greater than FC, and FC than FG.
37
Presumably, in an angular sense.
38
This is not proved, except by reference to the gure.
l69

uo : v : c. , o v : u
i o o vo u p. i v , . |
c| : c, vv : c], | v c :,
c v u v : o v. u v vo u p
c i o o : p v p.
v v c| p pi, o p c u , vo c
u p o o ui , p pc c, c o ,
c c , e c v v| c | u v p
c, c p : vo u uu p u o o c c
c o c i.
l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 7
I also say that frompoint F only two equal (straight-lines) will radiate towards (the circumference
of) circle ABCD, (one) on each (side) of the least (straight-line) FD. For let the (angle) FEH,
equal to angle GEF, have been constructed at the point E on the straight-line EF [Prop. 1.23],
and let FH have been joined. Therefore, since GE is equal to EH, and EF (is) common, the two
(straight-lines) GE, EF are equal to the two (straight-lines) HE, EF (respectively). And angle
GEF (is) equal to angle HEF. Thus, the base FG is equal to the base FH [Prop. 1.4]. So I say
that another (straight-line) equal to FG will not radiate towards (the circumference of) the circle
from point F. For, if possible, let FK (so) radiate. And since FK is equal to FG, but FH [is
equal] to FG, FK is thus also equal to FH, the nearer to the (straight-line) through the center
equal to the further away. The very thing (is) impossible. Thus, another (straight-line) equal to
GF will not radiate towards (the circumference of) the circle. Thus, (there is) only one (such
straight-line).
Thus, if some point, which is not the center of the circle, is taken on the diameter of a circle,
and some straight-lines radiate from the point towards the (circumference of the) circle, then the
greatest (straight-line) will be that on which the center (lies), and the least the remainder (of
the same diameter). And for the others, a (straight-line) nearer to the (straight-line) through the
center is always greater than a (straight-line) further away. And only two equal (straight-lines)
will radiate from the same point towards the (circumference of the) circle, (one) on each (side)
of the least (straight-line). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
ll

v pi c, vo c u p o o e ui
, e p pc v u , | c , e c, e pc o
e ue p p c v u , e c v v| c v
u v p c, e c o e
ue c p c p u p | p, e c v v|
c c v c c, c p : vo u p
u o o c c c.
o , | u i pi co o , | v uu
ui | , , , , c c v u . , o e pc o
e ue p p c v u ,
p c pc c , e c o
e ue c p c p u p | p
, v| c c c c c| v, pc , c
.
i v o u | c o | c | , , ,
, , .
| c| : c| , v : c| i , .
v | , p i | v p c. , c| :
c| , c , | , v i , : i |
uo uo p c. v p c
op p, o | p c p pc v , p c
pc , c .
l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 8
C
H
L
K
G
M
A
E
F
B
D
N
If some point is taken outside a circle, and some straight-lines are drawn from the point to the
(circumference of the) circle, one of which (passes) through the center, the remainder (being)
random, then for the straight-lines radiating towards the concave (part of the) circumference,
the greatest is that (passing) through the center. For the others, a (straight-line) nearer
39
to the
(straight-line) through the center is always greater than one further away. For the straight-lines
radiating towards the convex (part of the) circumference, the least is that between the point and
the diameter. For the others, a (straight-line) nearer to the least (straight-line) is always less than
one further away. And only two equal (straight-lines) will radiate towards the (circumference of
the) circle, (one) on each (side) of the least (straight-line).
Let ABC be a circle, and let some point D have been taken outside ABC, and from it let some
straight-lines, DA, DE, DF, and DC, have been drawn through (the circle), and let DA be
through the center. I say that for the straight-lines radiating towards the concave (part of the)
circumference, AEFC, the greatest is the one (passing) through the center, (namely) AD, and
(that) DE (is) greater than DF, and DF than DC. For the straight-lines radiating towards
the convex (part of the) circumference, HLKG, the least is the one between the point and the
diameter AG, (namely) DG, and a (straight-line) nearer to the least (straight-line) DG is always
less than one farther away, (so that) DK (is less) than DL, and DL than DH.
For let the center of the circle have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at point) M [Prop. 3.1].
And let ME, MF, MC, MK, ML, and MH have been joined.
And since AM is equal to EM, let MD have been added to both. Thus, AD is equal to EM and
39
Presumably, in an angular sense.
l`

| c| | , p i, : c , v
p c e c c | c| u c| pi e
e ui co | , , | v , e ,
c i : c v c c. op
p, o | c c c pc v , c c pc
c .
, o | p : vo u p u o o c c
c o u; | ; o u p; ; uo
; : uo , | c . | c| : c| , c
, | , i , : i| c c; | uo
; uo : v : c. ], o u;
v : u i o o vo u p. i v ,
| c . c| u c :, v c :, | v
c :, c c v c] : o v c.
u v : o o vo u p c c
c u.
v v pi c, vo c u p o o e
ui , e p pc v u | c , e c, e pc o
e ue p p c v u , e c v v|
c v u v p c, e c o
e ue c p c p u p | p, e
c v v| c c v c c, c p : vo u
p u o o c c c o c i.
l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 8
MD. But, EM and MD is greater than ED [Prop. 1.20]. Thus, AD is also greater than ED.
Again, since ME is equal to MF, and MD (is) common, the (straight-lines) EM, MD are thus
equal to FM, MD. And angle EMD is greater than angle FMD.
40
Thus, the base ED is greater
than the base FD [Prop. 1.24]. So, similarly, we can show that FD is also greater than CD.
Thus, AD (is) the greatest (straight-line), and DE (is) greater than DF, and DF than DC.
And since MK and KD is greater than MD [Prop. 1.20], and MG (is) equal to MK, the remain-
der KD is thus greater than the remainder GD. So GD is less than KD. And since in triangle
MLD, the two internal straight-lines MK and KD were constructed on one of the sides, MD,
then MK and KD are thus less than ML and LD [Prop. 1.21]. And MK (is) equal to ML. Thus,
the remainder DK is less than the remainder DL. So, similarly, we can show that DL is also less
than DH. Thus, DG (is) the least (straight-line), and DK (is) less than DL, and DL than DH.
I also say that only two equal (straight-lines) will radiate from point D towards (the circumfer-
ence of) the circle, (one) on each (side) on the least (straight-line), DG. Let the angle DMB,
equal to angle KMD, have been constructed at the point M on the straight-line MD [Prop. 1.23],
and let DB have been joined. And since MK is equal to MB, and MD (is) common, the two
(straight-lines) KM, MD are equal to the two (straight-lines) BM, MD, respectively. And an-
gle KMD (is) equal to angle BMD. Thus, the base DK is equal to the base DB [Prop. 1.4].
[So] I say that another (straight-line) equal to DK will not radiate towards the (circumference
of the) circle from point D. For, if possible, let (such a straight-line) radiate, and let it be DN.
Therefore, since DK is equal to DN, but DK is equal to DB, then DB is thus also equal to DN,
(so that) a (straight-line) nearer to the least (straight-line) DG [is] equal to one further off. The
very thing was shown (to be) impossible. Thus, not more than two equal (straight-lines) will
radiate towards (the circumference of) circle ABC from point D, (one) on each side of the least
(straight-line) DG.
Thus, if some point is taken outside a circle, and some straight-lines are drawn from the point
to the (circumference of the) circle, one of which (passes) through the center, the remainder
(being) random, then for the straight-lines radiating towards the concave (part of the) circum-
ference, the greatest is that (passing) through the center. For the others, a (straight-line) nearer
to the (straight-line) through the center is always greater than one further away. For the straight-
lines radiating towards the convex (part of the) circumference, the least is that between the point
and the diameter. For the others, a (straight-line) nearer to the least (straight-line) is always less
than one further away. And only two equal (straight-lines) will radiate towards the (circumfer-
ence of the) circle, (one) on each (side) of the least (straight-line). (Which is) the very thing it
40
l

v pi c, v c u p o o
: ui, o c pi c| u .
o , co c uu pi o , | vo u o o
: ui | , , , o o pi
c| u .
v | , | p v v , pi, | ci
| , c| v , , , pi.
| u : c| , c , | , i , : i
| : v uo ; uo : c o
v c e uo , e v p | o o. |
c, cv c ; ui ui | o ov p, c| p
c| o u , c| v c| o u . v v uv |
c| c o u . | uc c o c | ,
ui o pi o v pi c| u .
v v pi c, vo c u p o o
: ui, o c pi c| u o c i.
l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 9
D
E
B
C
G
A
K
L
F
H
If some point is taken inside a circle, and more than two equal straight-lines radiate from the
point towards the (circumference of the) circle, then the point taken is the center of the circle.
Let ABC be a circle, and D a point inside it, and let more than two equal straight-lines, DA, DB,
and DC, radiate from D towards (the circumference of) circle ABC. I say that point D is the
center of circle ABC.
For let AB and BC have been joined, and (then) have been cut in half at points E and F (respec-
tively) [Prop. 1.10]. And ED and FD being joined, let them have been drawn through to points
G, K, H, and L.
Therefore, since AE is equal to EB, and ED (is) common, the two (straight-lines) AE, ED are
equal to the two (straight-lines) BE, ED (respectively). And the base DA (is) equal to the base
DB. Thus, angle AED is equal to angle BED [Prop. 1.8]. Thus, angles AED and BED (are)
each right-angles [Def. 1.10]. Thus, GK cuts AB in half, and at right-angles. And since, if some
straight-line in a circle cuts some (other) straight-line in half, and at right-angles, then the center
of the circle is on the former (straight-line) [Prop. 3.1 corr.], the center of the circle is thus on
GK. So, for the same (reasons), the center of circle ABC is also on HL. And the straight-lines
GK and HL have no common (point) other than point D. Thus, point D is the center of circle
ABC.
Thus, if some point is taken inside a circle, and more than two equal straight-lines radiate from
the point towards the (circumference of the) circle, then the point taken is the center of the circle.
l

u p v pi .
i v , o o p v pi v , ,
, , | ci | , p v v , pi | vo e ,
i , o ov vi | , c| v , pi.
| u c ; ; ui ui | o ov p,
c| v c| o u . , c| c ; ; u; ; ui
ui | o ov p, c| v c| o
u . c c | c| , | uc p | , ui
v o o v pi c| u . op p, o |
u c| o v p v e , o
u c o o c| v.
u v p v pi o c i.
l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 10
B
A
C
D
E
L
O
G
M
P
F
K
N
H
A circle does not cut a(nother) circle at more than two points.
For, if possible, let the circle ABC cut the circle DEF at more than two points, B, G, F, and H.
And BH and BG being joined, let them (then) have been cut in half at points K and L (respec-
tively). And KC and LM being drawn at right-angles to BH and BG fromK and L (respectively)
[Prop. 1.11], let them (then) have been drawn through to points A and E (respectively).
Therefore, since in circle ABC some straight-line AC cuts some (other) straight-line BH in half,
and at right-angles, the center of circle ABC is thus on AC [Prop. 3.1 corr.]. Again, since in
the same circle ABC some straight-line NO cuts some (other straight-line) BG in half, and at
right-angles, the center of circle ABC is thus on NO [Prop. 3.1 corr.]. And it was also shown (to
be) on AC. And the straight-lines AC and NO meet at no other (point) than P. Thus, point P
is the center of circle ABC. So, similarly, we can show that P is also the center of circle DEF.
Thus, two circles cutting one another, ABC and DEF, have the same center P. The very thing is
impossible [Prop. 3.5].
Thus, a circle does not cut a(nother) circle at more than two points. (Which is) the very thing it
l9

v c v c, | ue v , c| v ue
cp ui | cp c| i e .
v | , c v co v o pi, | i
u pc o , u c o , o vo u c| o
cp ui cp c| o i.
, v i , e , | c | , .
| u | , , , p i, v
v p c. : c | v
p c| c p o c| v u v vo u c| o
cp u| co i v o v c| i.
v v c v c, | ue v ], c| v
ue cp ui | cp] c| i e o c
i.
l80
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 11
F
A
B
C
G
H
E
D
If two circles touch one another internally, and their centers are found, then the straight-line
joining their centers, being produced, will fall upon the point of union of the circles.
For let two circles, ABC and ADE, touch one another internally at point A, and let the center F
of circle ABC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and (the center) G of (circle) ADE [Prop. 3.1]. I say
that the line joining G to F, being produced, will fall on A.
For (if) not then, if possible, let it fall like FGH (in the gure), and let AF and AG have been
joined.
Therefore, since AG and GF is greater than FA, that is to say FH [Prop. 1.20], let FG have
been taken from both. Thus, the remainder AG is greater than the remainder GH. And AG (is)
equal to GD. Thus, GD is also greater than GH, the lesser than the greater. The very thing is
impossible. Thus, the straight-line joining F to G will not fall outside (one circle but inside the
other). Thus, it will fall upon the point of union (of the circles) at point A.
Thus, if two circles touch one another internally, [and their centers are found], then the straight-
line joining their centers, [being produced], will fall upon the point of union of the circles. (Which
l8l

v c v c, c| v ue cp v
c c.
v | , c v co v o pi, | i
u pc o , u c o , o vo u c| o cp
ui v v o c c.
, v i , c e , | c | , .
| u o pi c| u , : c| . , c| o
pi c| u , : c| . c c |
: | v , i , : i e o e , p c vv
| c o c| v. u v vo u c| o cp ui v
v o c u c u v.
v v c v c, c| v ue cp ui]
v c c o c i.
l82
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 12
E
F
B
D
C
A
G
If two circles touch one another externally then the (straight-line) joining their centers will go
through the point of union.
For let two circles, ABC and ADE, touch one another externally at point A, and let the center
F of ABC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and (the center) G of ADE [Prop. 3.1]. I say that the
straight-line joining F to G will go through the point of union at A.
For (if) not then, if possible, let it go like FCDG (in the gure), and let AF and AG have been
joined.
Therefore, since point F is the center of circle ABC, FA is equal to FC. Again, since point G is
the center of circle ADE, GA is equal to GD. And FA was also shown (to be) equal to FC. Thus,
the (straight-lines) FA and AG are equal to the (straight-lines) FC and GD. So the whole of FG
is greater than FA and AG. But, (it is) also less [Prop. 1.20]. The very thing is impossible. Thus,
the straight-line joining F to G will not fail to go through the point of union at A. Thus, (it will
go) through it.
Thus, if two circles touch one another externally then the [straight-line] joining their centers will
go through the point of union. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l8`

u c v pi c, c co c co
c.
i v , o u c co v
pi c v , .
| i u pc o , u c o .
v vo u c| o cp c| v , i. e . |
c| o pi c| u , : c| p v
; v p . , c| o pi c| u
, : c| c c u | ; p o v u v
c co v pi c.
, o uc c.
i v , o u c co v pi c
v , , | c .
| u e , : c| c pi
v , , c| v pi cp ui co c i vv u pc
co c, u c c o v u v c co v
pi c. c , o uc c.
v u c v pi ] c, c co c co
c o c i.
l84
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 13
D
G H
F
E
A
C
B
K
A circle does not touch a(nother) circle at more than one point, whether they touch internally or
externally.
For, if possible, let circle ABDC
41
touch circle EBFDrst of all, internallyat more than one
point, D and B.
And let the center G of circle ABDC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and (the center) H of EBFD
[Prop. 3.1].
Thus, the (straight-line) joining G and H will fall on B and D [Prop. 3.11]. Let it fall like BGHD
(in the gure). And since point G is the center of circle ABDC, BG is equal to GD. Thus, BG
(is) greater than HD. Thus, BH (is) much greater than HD. Again, since point H is the center
of circle EBFD, BH is equal to HD. But it was also shown (to be) much greater than the same.
The very thing (is) impossible. Thus, a circle does not touch a(nother) circle internally at more
than one point.
So, I say that neither (does it touch) externally (at more than one point).
For, if possible, let circle ACK touch circle ABDC externally at more than one point, A and C.
And let AC have been joined.
Therefore, since two points, A and C, have been taken somewhere on the circumference of each
of the circles ABDC and ACK, the straight-line joining the points will fall inside each (circle)
[Prop. 3.2]. But, it fell inside ABDC, and outside ACK [Def. 3.3]. The very thing (is) absurd.
Thus, a circle does not touch a(nother) circle externally at more than one point. And it was shown
that neither (does it) internally.
Thus, a circle does not touch a(nother) circle at more than one point, whether they touch inter-
nally or externally. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
41
l8

; | : ui : v vo u , | | : v vo u
: v i.
o , | c u; : ui c | , , o | , :
v vo u .
i v o u | c o , | vo u c| v ,
| , , | c | , .
| u ui | u ui p v u o ov
p, | u p. : v v . v v uv
| c c : : v | . | c| :
c| , : | o vo ; vo . vv ; pc vo : v
vo e , o v o ; ; c vo : v vo e ,
o v o ; v v vo e , : c| i vo e , , e o
vo : c| ; vo : c o v o vo
; vo : c : v . c c ; : v vo u
ui , o | vo u c uv vp : e | v ,
: v vo u .
v | , ui : v vo u , : c
. , o : c| | .
e v ue op p, o c pc , c
| c| : c| , : c| o vo ; vo vv ;
pc vo : c| v vo e , , ; c vo : v vo e , . v
l86
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 14
F
B
D
G
E
A
C
In a circle, equal straight-lines are equally far from the center, and (straight-lines) which are
equally far from the center are equal to one another.
Let ABDC
42
be a circle, and let AB and CD be equal straight-lines within it. I say that AB and
CD are equally far from the center.
For let the center of circle ABDC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at) E. And let
EF and EG have been drawn from (point) E, perpendicular to AB and CD (respectively)
[Prop. 1.12]. And let AE and EC have been joined.
Therefore, since some straight-line, EF, through the center (of the circle), cuts some (other)
straight-line, AB, not through the center, at right-angles, it also cuts it in half [Prop. 3.3]. Thus,
AF (is) equal to FB. Thus, AB (is) double AF. So, for the same (reasons), CD is also double
CG. And AB is equal to CD. Thus, AF (is) also equal to CG. And since AE is equal to EC, the
(square) on AE (is) also equal to the (square) on EC. But, the (sum of the squares) on AF and
EF (is) equal to the (square) on AE. For the angle at F (is) a right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. And the
(sum of the squares) on EG and GC (is) equal to the (square) on EC. For the angle at G (is) a
right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (sum of the squares) on AF and FE is equal to the (sum of
the squares) on CG and GE, of which the (square) on AF is equal to the (square) on CG. For
AF is equal to CG. Thus, the remaining (square) on FE is equal to the (remaining square) on
EG. Thus, EF (is) equal to EG. And straight-lines in a circle are said to be equally far from the
center when perpendicular (straight-lines) which are drawn to them from the center are equal
[Def. 3.4]. Thus, AB and CD are equally far from the center.
42
l8

v vo e , : c| i vo e , e o vo ; vo c
: : v o v o vo : c| ; vo : v
c pc , c : v .
; v | : ui : v vo u , | | : v vo u
: v i o c i.
l88
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 14
So, let the straight-lines AB and CD be equally far from the center. That is to say, let EF be
equal to EG. I say that AB is also equal to CD.
For, with the same construction, we can, similarly, show that AB is double AF, and CD (double)
CG. And since AE is equal to CE, the (square) on AE is equal to the (square) on CE. But, the
(sum of the squares) on EF and FA is equal to the (square) on AE [Prop. 1.47]. And the (sum
of the squares) on EG and GC (is) equal to the (square) on CE [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (sum of
the squares) on EF and FA is equal to the (sum of the squares) on EG and GC, of which the
(square) on EF is equal to the (square) on EG. For EF (is) equal to EG. Thus, the remaining
(square) on AF is equal to the (remaining square) on CG. Thus, AF (is) equal to CG. And AB
is double AF, and CD double CG. Thus, AB (is) equal to CD.
Thus, in a circle, equal straight-lines are equally far from the center, and (straight-lines) which
are equally far from the center are equal to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
l89

; p pc p, e c v v| c u v
p c.
o , p c uu c , c o , | c pc
p c , v c , o p p c , p c
.
v vo u c| v , | , . | c| c pc
u c| , v c , p v . :
, | v u o ov vi c| o , | c |
, , , .
| c| : c| , : c| | . , c| : c| pc
, c , v i , : c. v | pc ,
p i | p c], : c v p
c. | c| | , i , : i, | uo
uo p c], v p c. vv
c : | p c]. p pc v p, p c
.
; v p pc p, e c v v| c u
v p c o c i.
l90
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 15
M
G
N
D
C
H
A
F
L E
B
K
In a circle, a diameter (is) the greatest (straight-line), and for the others, a (straight-line) nearer
to the center is always greater than one further away.
Let ABCD be a circle, and let AD be its diameter, and E (its) center. And let BC be nearer to
the diameter AD
43
, and FG further away. I say that AD is the greatest (straight-line), and BC
(is) greater than FG.
For let EH and EK have been drawn from the center E, at right-angles to BC and FG (respec-
tively) [Prop. 1.12]. And since BC is nearer to the center, and FG further away, EK (is) thus
greater than EH [Def. 3.5]. Let EL be made equal to EH [Prop. 1.3]. And LM being drawn
through L, at right-angles to EK [Prop. 1.11], let it have been drawn through to N. And let ME,
EN, FE, and EG have been joined.
And since EH is equal to EL, BC is also equal to MN [Prop. 3.14]. Again, since AE is equal to
EM, and ED to EN, AD is thus equal to ME and EN. But, ME and EN is greater than MN
[Prop. 1.20] [also AD is greater than MN], and MN (is) equal to BC. Thus, AD is greater than
BC. And since the two (straight-lines) ME, EN are equal to the two (straight-lines) FE, EG
(respectively), and angle MEN [is] greater than angle FEG,
44
the base MN is thus greater than
the base FG [Prop. 1.24]. But, MN was shown (to be) equal to BC [(so) BC is also greater than
FG]. Thus, the diameter AD (is) the greatest (straight-line), and BC (is) greater than FG.
Thus, in a circle, a diameter (is) the greatest (straight-line), and for the others, a (straight-line)
nearer to the center is always greater than one further away. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
43
Euclid should have said to the center, rather than to the diameter AD, since BC, AD and FG are not
necessarily parallel.
44
l9l

p; u o ov v v vp co i u , | i
o p u | c ui u pi, | pc
u p \ o upp p c, c c.
o | o | p , o vo u
o ov v v vp co i u .
, v i , co e , | c .
| : c| , : c| | uo ; uo . o c
uo o v | uo u | | uo ,
oi : i o c| v. u v vo u p o ov
vp co i u . op ip, o u c| co
v.
e , o i o p u |
c ui u pi.
i v , p e , | vo u p c|
. | c| o c uo , c c o uo , p v .
: c p v , c p o c| v.
u v i o p u | c ui pi.
, o | pc u p p u u |
\ o upp p c, c p u
| u \ o upp c c.
l92
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 16
H
F
E
G
D
B
A
C
A (straight-line) drawn at right-angles to the diameter of a circle, from its end, will fall outside the
circle. And another straight-line cannot be inserted into the space between the (aforementioned)
straight-line and the circumference. And the angle of the semi-circle is greater than any acute
rectilinear angle whatsoever, and the remaining (angle is) less (than any acute rectilinear angle).
Let ABC be a circle around the center D and the diameter AB. I say that the (straight-line)
drawn from A, at right-angles to AB [Prop 1.11], from its end, will fall outside the circle.
For (if) not then, if possible, let it fall inside, like CA (in the gure), and let DC have been joined.
Since DA is equal to DC, angle DAC is also equal to angle ACD [Prop. 1.5]. And DAC (is) a
right-angle. Thus, ACD (is) also a right-angle. So, in triangle ACD, the two angles DAC and
ACD are equal to two right-angles. The very thing is impossible [Prop. 1.17]. Thus, the (straight-
line) drawn from point A, at right-angles to BA, will not fall inside the circle. So, similarly, we
can show that neither (will it fall) on the circumference. Thus, (it will fall) outside (the circle).
Let it fall like AE (in the gure). So, I say that another straight-line cannot be inserted into the
space between the straight-line AE and the circumference CHA.
For, if possible, let it be inserted like FA (in the gure), and let DG have been drawn from point
D, perpendicular to FA [Prop. 1.12]. And since AGD is a right-angle, and DAG (is) less than a
right-angle, AD (is) thus greater than DG [Prop. 1.19]. And DA (is) equal to DH. Thus, DH (is)
greater than DG, the lesser than the greater. The very thing is impossible. Thus, another straight-
line cannot be inserted into the space between the straight-line (AE) and the circumference.
l9`

i v c upp p pc p u u |
, c c p u |
u, i o p | u ui pi,
p pc p uo u |
uo ue p, c c p u |
u. u p u v p u u
| c p oi uo ue p, uc p c
p u | u.
p
, o p; u o ov v v vp c
u | o ui c p c pi, c | v
u; p co uu c] o c i.
l94
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 16
And I also say that the semi-circular angle contained by the straight-line BA and the circum-
ference CHA is greater than any acute rectilinear angle whatsoever, and the remaining (angle)
contained by the circumference CHA and the straight-line AE is less than any acute rectilinear
angle whatsoever.
For if any rectilinear angle is greater than the (angle) contained by the straight-line BA and
the circumference CHA, or less than the (angle) contained by the circumference CHA and the
straight-line AE, then a straight-line can be inserted into the space between the circumference
CHA and the straight-line AEanything which will make (an angle) contained by straight-lines
greater than the angle contained by the straight-line BA and the circumference CHA, or less
than the (angle) contained by the circumference CHA and the straight-line AE. But (such a
straight-line) cannot be inserted. Thus, an acute (angle) contained by straight-lines cannot be
greater than the angle contained by the straight-line BA and the circumference CHA, neither
(can it be) less than the (angle) contained by the circumference CHA and the straight-line AE.
Corollary
So, from this, (it is) manifest that a (straight-line) drawn at right-angles to the diameter of a
circle, from its end, touches the circle [and that the straight-line touches the circle at a single
point, inasmuch as it was also shown that a (straight-line) meeting (the circle) at two (points)
falls inside it [Prop. 3.2] ]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l9

o u p u cp ui pp vi.
o pc c pi o , o c | o i vo u p u
cp ui pp vi.
i v o u o , | c , | ; pc ;
p c ; o , | vo u o ov
, | c | , , o vo u p u cp
.
| v o c| e , , : v c| pc , c
| , i , : i | o
; v : c, | o ; ; :
c, | | | i i : v uo uo . o c
uo o v | uo . c c u c p; u
o ov v v vp c u v c u
.
o u v p u u u cp ui
pp o c .
l96
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 17
D
A
C G
E
B
F
To draw a straight-line touching a given circle from a given point.
Let A be the given point, and BCD the given circle. So it is required to draw a straight-line
touching circle BCD from point A.
For let the center E of the circle have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let AE have been joined. And
let (the circle) AFG have been drawn with center E and radius EA. And let DF have been drawn
from from (point) D, at right-angles to EA [Prop. 1.11]. And let EF and AB have been joined.
I say that the (straight-line) AB has been drawn from point A touching circle BCD.
For since E is the center of circles BCD and AFG, EA is thus equal to EF, and ED to EB. So
the two (straight-lines) AE, EB are equal to the two (straight-lines) FE, ED (respectively). And
they contain a common angle at E. Thus, the base DF is equal to the base AB, and triangle DEF
is equal to triangle EBA, and the remaining angles (are equal) to the (corresponding) remaining
angles [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, (angle) EDF (is) equal to EBA. And EDF (is) a right-angle. Thus,
EBA (is) also a right-angle. And EB is a radius. And a (straight-line) drawn at right-angles to
the diameter of a circle, from its end, touches the circle [Prop. 3.16 corr.]. Thus, AB touches
circle BCD.
Thus, the straight-line AB has been drawn touching the given circle BCD from the given point
A. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
l9

v c ui, vo c u c| \ c ui,
ci c c| cp.
v u c ui v o pi, | i o
u o , | vo u c| o c , o c
c| .
i v p, vo u c| .
| u uo o c, oi v c| uo uo c p
p v u p v : c p v
| c p o c| v. u v c
c| . op ip, o u v v c c|
.
v v c ui, vo c u c| \ c ui,
ci c c| cp o c i.
l98
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 18
D
A
G
C
E
F
B
If some straight-line touches a circle, and some (other) straight-line is joined from the center (of
the circle) to the point of contact, then the (straight-line) so joined will be perpendicular to the
tangent.
For let some straight-line DE touch the circle ABC at point C, and let the center F of circle
ABC have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let FC have been joined from F to C. I say that FC is
perpendicular to DE.
For if not, let FG have been drawn from F, perpendicular to DE [Prop. 1.12].
Therefore, since angle FGC is a right-angle, (angle) FCG is thus acute [Prop. 1.17]. And the
greater angle subtends the greater side [Prop. 1.19]. Thus, FC (is) greater than FG. And FC
(is) equal to FB. Thus, FB (is) also greater than FG, the lesser than the greater. The very thing
is impossible. Thus, FG is not perpendicular to DE. So, similarly, we can show that neither (is)
any other (straight-line) than FC. Thus, FC is perpendicular to DE.
Thus, if some straight-line touches a circle, and some (other) straight-line is joined fromthe center
(of the circle) to the point of contact, then the (straight-line) so joined will be perpendicular to
the tangent. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l99

v c ui, vo c \ cp o ov ] ui
pp v, c| v c o u .
v u c ui v o pi, | vo u
o ov , o c| c o u .
, v i , c o , | c .
| u] u c ui , vo c u c| \
c , v c c| o v c| uo . c| c
| uo o : v c| uo uo c p o c|
v. u v o c| u . op p, o u v
c| .
v v c ui, vo c \ cp o ov ui
pp v, c| v c o u o c i.
200
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 19
B
D E
C
F
A
If some straight-line touches a circle, and a straight-line is drawn from the point of contact, at
right-[angles] to the tangent, then the center (of the circle) will be on the (straight-line) so drawn.
For let some straight-line DE touch the circle ABC at point C. And let CA have been drawn from
C, at right-angles to DE [Prop. 1.11]. I say that the center of the circle is on AC.
For (if) not, if possible, let F be (the center of the circle), and let CF have been joined.
[Therefore], since some straight-line DE touches the circle ABC, and FC has been joined from
the center to the point of contact, FC is thus perpendicular to DE [Prop. 3.18]. Thus, FCE is a
right-angle. And ACE is also a right-angle. Thus, FCE is equal to ACE, the lesser to the greater.
The very thing is impossible. Thus, F is not the center of circle ABC. So, similarly, we can show
that neither is any (point) other (than one) on AC.
Thus, if some straight-line touches a circle, and a straight-line is drawn from the point of contact,
at right-angles to the tangent, then the center (of the circle) will be on the (straight-line) so
drawn. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
20l

; o ; ; c| o ;, o u
c | .
o , | o pc ; ; uu c uo , o c
; uo , c c u , o
c| uo uo .
i v c| o .
| u : c| , : | uo uo | v uo ,
uo i. : c uo i uo , | uo
v uo c . v v uv | uo uo c .
o v uo o uo c .
, | c c uo , | ci c c|
o . op p, o c uo uo , e uo
c uo v uo c uo .
; v o ; ; c| o ;, o u
c | ] o c i.
202
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 20
E
A
C
B
F
G
D
In a circle, the angle at the center is double that at the circumference, when the angles have the
same circumference base.
Let ABC be a circle, and let BEC be an angle at its center, and BAC (one) at (its) circumference.
And let themhave the same circumference base BC. I say that angle BEC is double (angle) BAC.
For being joined, let AE have been drawn through to F.
Therefore, since EA is equal to EB, angle EAB (is) also equal to EBA [Prop. 1.5]. Thus, angle
EAB and EBA is double (angle) EAB. And BEF (is) equal to EAB and EBA [Prop. 1.32].
Thus, BEF is also double EAB. So, for the same (reasons), FEC is also double EAC. Thus, the
whole (angle) BEC is double the whole (angle) BAC.
So let a (straight-line) have been inected again, and let there be another angle, BDC. And
DE being joined, let it have been produced to G. So, similarly, we can show that angle GEC is
double EDC, of which GEB is double EDB. Thus, the remaining (angle) BEC is double the
(remaining angle) BDC.
Thus, in a circle, the angle at the center is double that at the circumference, when [the angles]
have the same circumference base. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
20`

; | c ; u; pp : v i.
o , | c ; u; pp ; c | uo ,
, o | uo , : v i.
i v u o , | c o , | c | , .
| c| pc uo o ; ; c, c uo o ;, |
c u , v uo c| uo
. v v uv uo | uo c : v uo uo
.
; v | c ; u; pp : v i o c i.
204
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 21
D
A
B
F
E
C
In a circle, angles in the same segment are equal to one another.
Let ABCD be a circle, and let BAD and BED be angles in the same segment BAED. I say that
angles BAD and BED are equal to one another.
For let the center of circle ABCD have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at point) F. And let
BF and FD have been joined.
And since angle BFD is at the center, and BAD at the circumference, and they have the same
circumference base BCD, angle BFD is thus double BAD [Prop. 3.20]. So, for the same (rea-
sons), BFD is also double BED. Thus, BAD (is) equal to BED.
Thus, in a circle, angles in the same segment are equal to one another. (Which is) the very thing
20

e c i | v | oi : i.
o , | c u; c o , o | v
| oi : i.
| , .
| u o | i | oi : i, u v |
i | uo , , | oi : i. : c pc uo uo
c v ; u; pp i ; c uo uo c v ; u;
pp i ; o v uo i uo , : c.
uo | v uo , , i uo , : i. v | uo ,
, | oi : i. | | uo , v | oi : i. op
p, o | | uo , | oi : i.
e v c i | v | oi : i o c
i.
206
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 22
D
A
B
C
For quadrilaterals within circles, the (sum of the) opposite angles is equal to two right-angles.
Let ABCD be a circle, and let ABCD be a quadrilateral within it. I say that the (sum of the)
opposite angles is equal to two right-angles.
Let AC and BD have been joined.
Therefore, since the three angles of every triangle are equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.32], the
three angles CAB, ABC, and BCA of triangle ABC are thus equal to two right-angles. And
CAB (is) equal to BDC. For they are in the same segment BADC [Prop. 3.21]. And ACB (is
equal) to ADB. For they are in the same segment ADCB [Prop. 3.21]. Thus, the whole of ADC
is equal to BAC and ACB. Let ABC have been added to both. Thus, ABC, BAC, and ACB are
equal to ABC and ADC. But, ABC, BAC, and ACB are equal to two right-angles. Thus, ABC
and ADC are also equal to two right-angles. Similarly, we can show that angles BAD and DCB
are also equal to two right-angles.
Thus, for quadrilaterals within circles, the (sum of the) opposite angles is equal to two right-
angles. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
20

| u u pp op | v u c| v uv
p.
i v , c| u u pp op | v
c| v uv p v , , | , | c | , .
| u op c o pp ; pp, op c pp c| v
p :, : v c| uo uo co c o
c| v.
u v c| u u pp op | v c| v uv
p o c i.
208
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 23
C
A B
D
Two similar and unequal segments of circles cannot be constructed on the same side of the same
straight-line.
For, if possible, let the two similar and unequal segments of circles, ACB and ADB, have been
constructed on the same side of the same straight-line AB. And let ACD have been drawn
through (the segments), and let CB and DB have been joined.
Therefore, since segment ACB is similar to segment ADB, and similar segments of circles are
those accepting equal angles [Def. 3.11], angle ACB is thus equal to ADB, the external to the
internal. The very thing is impossible [Prop. 1.16].
Thus, two similar and unequal segments of circles cannot be constructed on the same side of the
same straight-line.
209

v c| : ue op pp : v c.
v c| : ue e , op pp v , , o
: c| o pp ; pp.
pp v u pp c| o | p u pc p c| o
c u c| , cp | o pi c| o pi v o :
| c c| cp cp | o pp c| o
. i v ui c| cp, o c pp c| o p cp,
co uu i co , e o , | p v
pi o c v. u v cpp u c|
u cp | o pp c| o cp v, | : u; c.
v v c| : ue op pp : v c o c i.
2l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 24
F
A B
E
C D
G
Similar segments of circles on equal straight-lines are equal to one another.
For let AEB and CFD be similar segments of circles on the equal straight-lines AB and CD
(respectively). I say that segment AEB is equal to segment CFD.
For let the segment AEB be applied to the segment CFD, the point A being placed on (point)
C, and the straight-line AB on CD. The point B will also coincide with point D, on account of
AB being equal to CD. And if AB coincides with CD, the segment AEB will also coincide with
CFD. For if the straight-line AB coincides with CD, and the segment AEB does not coincide
with CFD, then it will surely either fall inside it, outside (it),
45
or it will miss like CGD (in
the gure), and a circle (will) cut (another) circle at more than two points. The very thing is
impossible [Prop. 3.10]. Thus, if the straight-line AB is applied to CD, the segment AEB cannot
fail to also coincide with CFD. Thus, it will coincide, and will be equal to it [C.N. 4].
Thus, similar segments of circles on equal straight-lines are equal to one another. (Which is) the
45
Both this possibilility, and the previous one, are precluded by Prop. 3.23.
2ll

pp o , u c pp.
o c pp o i u pp o ,
u c pp.
p v v o , | vo u p o ov ,
| c uo v uo p c| : c.
p, | o u; | ; o u p; ;
uo ; : uo , | c| o , | c . c| u :
c| uo uo , : v c| | ui . | c| : c|
, c , | , i , : i| c c;
| uo ; uo c : o v c v
c :. vv c : | v c : | i v
| , , : v i o v ; ; p c c| e , ,
p | v e e p | c pp.
v pp o . | , e o pp c
c p v o o co uu .
p c] i uo : uo , : p c;
e , | i | , , : v c, | c o u
p , | c o p.
v c uo c uo , | p o u; | ;
o u p; ; uo ; :, co u pp i o
c| , | c o pp pi p.
v pp o o c .
2l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 25
C
C
D
A A
D
C
E
B B B
A
D
E
To complete the circle for a given segment of a circle, the very one of which it is a segment.
Let ABC be the given segment of a circle. So it is required to complete the circle for segment
ABC, the very one of which it is a segment.
For let AC have been cut in half at (point) D [Prop. 1.10], and let DB have been drawn from
point D, at right-angles to AC [Prop. 1.11]. And let AB have been joined. Thus, angle ABD is
surely either greater than, equal to, or less than (angle) BAD.
First of all, let it be greater. And let (angle) BAE have been constructed, equal to angle ABD, at
the point A on the straight-line BA [Prop. 1.23]. And let DB have been drawn through to E, and
let EC have been joined. Therefore, since angle ABE is equal to BAE, the straight-line EB is
thus also equal to EA [Prop. 1.6]. And since AD is equal to DC, and DE (is) common, the two
(straight-lines) AD, DE are equal to the two (straight-lines) CD, DE, respectively. And angle
ADE is equal to angle CDE. For each (is) a right-angle. Thus, the base AE is equal to the base
CE [Prop. 1.4]. But, AE was shown (to be) equal to BE. Thus, BE is also equal to CE. Thus,
the three (straight-lines) AE, EB, and EC are equal to one another. Thus, if a circle is drawn
with center E, and radius one of AE, EB, or EC, it will also go through the remaining points (of
the segment), and the (associated circle) will be completed [Prop. 3.9]. Thus, a circle has been
completed from the given segment of a circle. And (it is) clear that the segment ABC is less than
a semi-circle, on account of the center E lying outside it.
[And], similarly, even if angle ABD is equal to BAD, (since) AD becomes equal to each of BD
[Prop. 1.6] and DC, the three (straight-lines) DA, DB, and DC will be equal to one another.
And point D will be the center of the completed circle. And ABC will manifestly be a semi-circle.
And if ABD is less than BAD, and we construct (angle BAE), equal to angle ABD, at the point
A on the straight-line BA [Prop. 1.23], then the center will fall on DB, inside the segment ABC.
And segment ABC will manifestly be greater than a semi-circle.
Thus, a circle has been completed from the given segment of a circle. (Which is) the very thing it
was required to do.
2l`

i : | : c| : e , c o i
c o i e i.
: | , | c ui : c o pc i
| uo , , o c i | uo , , o : c|
;.
v | , .
| c| : i| | , , : i| | c e | ,
i , : | o ; ; o ; : v
c :. | c| : c| o ; o ; , op v c| o
pp ; pp i c| : ue e , ] v c c| : ue op
pp : v c : v o pp ; . c c | o o
o; ; ; : v ; c| :.
v i : | : c| : e , c o i
c o i e i o c i.
2l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 26
A
G
C
K
H
D
F
L
B E
Equal angles stand upon equal circumferences in equal circles, whether they are standing at the
center or at the circumference.
Let ABC and DEF be equal circles, and within them let BGC and EHF be equal angles at the
center, and BAC and EDF (equal angles) at the circumference. I say that circumference BKC
is equal to circumference ELF.
For let BC and EF have been joined.
And since circles ABC and DEF are equal, their radii are equal. So the two (straight-lines) BG,
GC (are) equal to the two (straight-lines) EH, HF (respectively). And the angle at G (is) equal
to the angle at H. Thus, the base BC is equal to the base EF [Prop. 1.4]. And since the angle at
A is equal to the (angle) at D, the segment BAC is thus similar to the segment EDF [Def. 3.11].
And they are on equal straight-lines [BC and EF]. And similar segments of circles on equal
straight-lines are equal to one another [Prop. 3.24]. Thus, segment BAC is equal to (segment)
EDF. And the whole circle ABC is also equal to the whole circle DEF. Thus, the remaining
circumference BKC is equal to the (remaining) circumference ELF.
Thus, equal angles stand upon equal circumferences in equal circles, whether they are standing
at the center or at the circumference. (Which is) the very thing which it was required to show.
2l

i : | c| : e i : v i, c o
i c o i e i.
v : i , c| : e e , o pc i ,
| uo , , o c i | uo ,
, o pc uo uo c :, c uo uo c :.
i v v c uo uo , p ue p c. c p uo
, | o u; | ; o u p; ; uo ;
: uo | c : c| : e , o o i
e : v ;. vv c : | v
c : c p o c| v. u v v c uo
uo : v. c pc uo p o ; , c uo
p o ; : v | o ; o ; .
v i : | c| : e i : v i, c
o i c o i e i o c i.
2l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 27
A
G
C
K
D
H
F B
E
Angles standing upon equal circumferences in equal circles are equal to one another, whether
they are standing at the center or at the circumference.
For let the angles BGC and EHF at the centers G and H, and the (angles) BAC and EDF at the
circumferences, stand upon the equal circumferences BC and EF, in the equal circles ABC and
DEF (respectively). I say that angle BGC is equal to (angle) EHF, and BAC is equal to EDF.
For if BGC is unequal to EHF, one of them is greater. Let BGC be greater, and let the (angle)
BGK, equal to the angle EHF, have been constructed at the point G on the straight-line BG
[Prop. 1.23]. But equal angles (in equal circles) stand upon equal circumferences, when they are
at the centers [Prop. 3.26]. Thus, circumference BK (is) equal to circumference EF. But, EF is
equal to BC. Thus, BK is also equal to BC, the lesser to the greater. The very thing is impossible.
Thus, angle BGC is not unequal to EHF. Thus, (it is) equal. And the (angle) at A is half BGC,
and the (angle) at D half EHF [Prop. 3.20]. Thus, the angle at A (is) also equal to the (angle)
at D.
Thus, angles standing upon equal circumferences in equal circles are equal to one another,
whether they are standing at the center or at the circumference. (Which is) the very thing it
2l

i : | : ui : vu pc p p
c c c.
: | , , | c i : ui c | , v
pc , p vu v c , c , o
pc p : c| p ; c c
.
i v v e v , , | c | , , , .
| c| : i, : i| | | c e | , | i ,
: i | : v uo ; uo
: c. | c : c| : e , o o i e :
v . c| c | o o o; ; ; : |
v ; : c.
v i : | : ui : vu pc p p
c c c o c i.
2l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 28
F
A
K
C
B
G
D
L
H
E
Equal straight-lines cut off equal circumferences in equal circles, the greater (circumference being
equal) to the greater, and the lesser to the lesser.
Let ABC and DEF be equal circles, and let AB and DE be equal straight-lines in these circles,
cutting off the greater circumferences ACB and DFE, and the lesser (circumferences) AGB and
DHE (respectively). I say that the greater circumference ACB is equal to the greater circumfer-
ence DFE, and the lesser circumference AGB to (the lesser) DHE.
For let the centers of the circles, K and L, have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let AK, KB, DL,
and LE have been joined.
And since (ABC and DEF) are equal circles, their radii are also equal [Def. 3.1]. So the two
(straight-lines) AK, KB are equal to the two (straight-lines) DL, LE (respectively). And the
base AB (is) equal to the base DE. Thus, angle AKB is equal to angle DLE [Prop. 1.8]. And
equal angles stand upon equal circumferences, when they are at the centers [Prop. 3.26]. Thus,
circumference AGB (is) equal to DHE. And the whole circle ABC is also equal to the whole cir-
cle DEF. Thus, the remaining circumference ACB is also equal to the remaining circumference
DFE.
Thus, equal straight-lines cut off equal circumferences in equal circles, the greater (circumference
being equal) to the greater, and the lesser to the lesser. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
2l9

i : v : : ui u.
: | , , | c ui : v | ,
, | c | , ui , o : c| .
i v v e , | c v , , | c | , , ,
.
| c| : c| ;, : c| | uo
uo . | c| : i| | , , : i| | | c e |
, | i , : i | : v
: c
v i : v : : ui u o c i.
220
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 29
E
A
K
B
G
D
L
H
C F
Equal straight-lines subtend equal circumferences in equal circles.
Let ABC and DEF be equal circles, and within them let the equal circumferences BGC and
EHF have been cut off. And let the straight-lines BC and EF have been joined. I say that BC is
equal to EF.
For let the centers of the circles have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let them be (at) K and L. And
let BK, KC, EL, and LF have been joined.
And since the circumference BGC is equal to the circumference EHF, the angle BKC is also
equal to (angle) ELF [Prop. 3.27]. And since the circles ABC and DEF are equal, their radii
are also equal [Def. 3.1]. So the two (straight-lines) BK, KC are equal to the two (straight-lines)
EL, LF (respectively). And they contain equal angles. Thus, the base BC is equal to the base
EF [Prop. 1.4].
Thus, equal straight-lines subtend equal circumferences in equal circles. (Which is) the very thing
22l

i pi.
i i pi.
, | p v o , | vo u p u; o
ov , | c | , .
| c| : c| , c , | , | i , : i
| uo ; uo : o v c v
: c. | c : ui : vu pc p p c
c c c c e , e c p : v
;.
v i p v o pi o c .
222
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 30
D
A B C
To cut a given circumference in half.
Let ADB be the given circumference. So it is required to cut circumference ADB in half.
Let AB have been joined, and let it have been cut in half at (point) C [Prop. 1.10]. And let CD
have been drawn from point C, at right-angles to AB [Prop. 1.11]. And let AD, and DB have
been joined.
And since AC is equal to CB, and CD (is) common, the two (straight-lines) AC, CD are equal
to the two (straight-lines) BC, CD (respectively). And angle ACD (is) equal to angle BCD. For
(they are) each right-angles. Thus, the base AD is equal to the base DB [Prop. 1.4]. And equal
straight-lines cut off equal circumferences, the greater (circumference being equal) to the greater,
and the lesser to the lesser [Prop. 1.28]. And the circumferences AD and DB are each less than
a semi-circle. Thus, circumference AD (is) equal to circumference DB.
Thus, the given circumference has been cut in half at point D. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to do.
22`

; pc c ; p; o c, c c ; p pp c o,
c c ; c pp p o | c pc u p pp p
c| o, c u c pp c o.
o , p c uu c , c o , | c
| , , , , o pc c ; p; uo o c, c
c ; p u p pp uo c c| o, c c ;
c u p pp uo p c| o.
, | c| o .
| c| : c| , : c| | uo uo . , c| :
c| , : c| | uo uo o v uo | i uo
, : c. c| c | uo co u | i uo ,
: : v | uo uo o v c v c ;
p; uo o c.
| c| u | uo , oe c i, o
c uo , c v o c uo c c ; p u
p pp.
| c| c ; c o , e c c i |
v | oi : i | v uo , | oi :
i], c uo c o v uo p o c
c c ; c u p pp.
224
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 31
A
D
B
E
C
F
In a circle, the angle in a semi-circle is a right-angle, and that in a greater segment (is) less than
a right-angle, and that in a lesser segment (is) greater than a right-angle. And, further, the angle
of a segment greater (than a semi-circle) is greater than a right-angle, and the angle of a segment
less (than a semi-circle) is less than a right-angle.
Let ABCD be a circle, and let BC be its diameter, and E its center. And let BA, AC, AD, and
DC have been joined. I say that the angle BAC in the semi-circle BAC is a right-angle, and the
angle ABC in the segment ABC, (which is) greater than a semi-circle, is less than a right-angle,
and the angle ADC in the segment ADC, (which is) less than a semi-circle, is greater than a
right-angle.
Let AE have been joined, and let BA have been drawn through to F.
And since BE is equal to EA, angle ABE is also equal to BAE [Prop. 1.5]. Again, since CE is
equal to EA, ACE is also equal to CAE [Prop. 1.5]. Thus, the whole (angle) BAC is equal to the
two (angles) ABC and ACB. And FAC, (which is) external to triangle ABC, is also equal to the
two angles ABC and ACB [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, angle BAC (is) also equal to FAC. Thus, (they
are) each right-angles. [Def. 1.10]. Thus, the angle BAC in the semi-circle BAC is a right-angle.
And since the two angles ABC and BAC of triangle ABC are less than two right-angles [Prop. 1.17],
and BAC is a right-angle, angle ABC is thus less than a right-angle. And it is in segment ABC,
(which is) greater than a semi-circle.
And since ABCD is a quadrilateral within a circle, and for quadrilaterals within circles the (sum
of the) opposite angles is equal to two right-angles [Prop. 3.22] [angles ABC and ADC are thus
equal to two right-angles], and (angle) ABC is less than a right-angle. The remaining angle ADC
is thus greater than a right-angle. And it is in segment ADC, (which is) less than a semi-circle.
22

, o | pc u p pp p u ]
| u p c| o, c u c pp p
u ] ] | u c c| o. c u
. c| v uo e , ue o c, v uo |
u p p c| o. , c| uo e , ue o
c, v uo u | ] p c c| o.
; v pc c ; p; o c, c c ; p pp c
o, c c ; c pp] p o | c pc u p pp
] p c|] o, c u c pp ] c o o c
i.
226
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 31
I also say that the angle of the greater segment, (namely) that contained by the circumference
ABC and the straight-line AC, is greater than a right-angle. And the angle of the lesser segment,
(namely) that contained by the circumference AD[C] and the straight-line AC, is less than a right-
angle. And this is immediately apparent. For since the (angle contained by) the two straight-lines
BA and AC is a right-angle, the (angle) contained by the circumference ABC and the straight-
line AC is thus greater than a right-angle. Again, since the (angle contained by) the straight-lines
AC and AF is a right-angle, the (angle) contained by the circumference AD[C] and the straight-
line CA is less than a right-angle.
Thus, in a circle, the angle in a semi-circle is a right-angle, and that in a greater segment (is) less
than a right-angle, and that in a lesser [segment] (is) greater than a right-angle. And, further, the
[angle] of a segment greater (than a semi-circle) [is] greater than a right-angle, and the [angle]
of a segment less (than a semi-circle) is less than a right-angle. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
22

v c ui, vo c \ i o ui p
o , i i o cp, : c i c i cv u
pp .
v u c ui v o pi, | vo u p
ui i o p uo . , o i i
pv cp, : c i c i cv pp u ,
, o pc uo : c| c ; pp p ;, c
uo : c| c ; pp p ;.
v vo u o ov , | i c| o
pi o , | c | , , .
| c| u c ui v o , | vo \
cp o ov , c| v o c| u . v
p c u v uo c p; u o c. |
v | uo , p; o : i. c| c | uo o v uo :
c| i uo , . v uo v uo : c|
c ; cv pp u ; uo . | c| c ; c
o , | v uu | oi : i. i| c | | uo ,
| oi : | v uo , i uo , : i, e uo
uo c : v uo c ; cv u pp ;
uo ; c| :.
v v c ui, vo c \ i o ui
p o , i i o cp, : c i c i cv
u pp o c i.
228
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 32
A
E
B
F
D
C
If some straight-line touches a circle, and some (other) straight-line is drawn across, from the
point of contact into the circle, cutting the circle (in two), then those angles the (straight-line)
makes with the tangent will be equal to the angles in the alternate segments of the circle.
For let some straight-line EF touch the circle ABCD at the point B, and let some (other) straight-
line BD have been drawn from point B into the circle ABCD, cutting it (in two). I say that the
angles BD makes with the tangent EF will be equal to the angles in the alternate segments of
the circle. That is to say, that angle FBD is equal to one (of the) angle(s) constructed in segment
BAD, and angle EBD is equal to one (of the) angle(s) constructed in segment DCB.
For let BA have been drawn fromB, at right-angles to EF [Prop. 1.11]. And let the point C have
been taken somewhere on the circumference BD. And let AD, DC, and CB have been joined.
And since some straight-line EF touches the circle ABCD at point B, and BA has been drawn
from the point of contact, at right-angles to the tangent, the center of circle ABCD is thus on BA
[Prop. 3.19]. Thus, BA is a diameter of circle ABCD. Thus, angle ADB, being in a semi-circle,
is a right-angle [Prop, 3.31]. Thus, the remaining angles (of triangle ADB) BAD and ABD are
equal to one right-angle [Prop, 1.32] And ABF is also a right-angle. Thus, ABF is equal to BAD
and ABD. Let ABD have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remaining angle DBF is equal
to the angle BAD in the alternate segment of the circle. And since ABCD is a quadrilateral in a
circle, (the sum of) its opposite angles is equal to two right-angles [Prop. 3.22]. And DBF and
DBE is also equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13]. Thus, DBF and DBE is equal to BAD and
BCD, of which BAD was shown (to be) equal to DBF. Thus, the remaining angle DBE is equal
to the angle DCB in the alternate segment DCB of the circle.
Thus, if some straight-line touches a circle, and some (other) straight-line is drawn across, from
the point of contact into the circle, cutting the circle (in two), then those angles the (straight-line)
makes with the tangent will be equal to the angles in the alternate segments of the circle. (Which
229

| u pp p : ;
upp;.
i ui , c i upp o ; i c|
u pp p : o ; .
o ; ] oi c o vpi c oi, | e c|
o u; | ; p; o ; ;
: uo oi v c| | uo . o ov , | p
v o , | vo u p o ov , | c
.
| c| : c| , c , | , i , :
i | uo ;] uo : v :
c. o v ; pc ; p c ; p | v u .
| c o , | c . c| u v v p vo
u o o c , v c u c| u
u c ui , | vo v o \ i o
ui , v uo : c| c ; cv u pp ;
uo . v uo o ; c : | o ; v : c|
uo .
| v u pp o p
uo : o ; .
v o c o ; | c c| pp
p : o ; o ;]. ] o ; o ;
2`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 33
H
A
C
A
G
F
B
E
F
A
D
G
D
C
C
F
E E
B
B
D
To draw a segment of a circle, accepting an angle equal to a given rectilinear angle, on a given
straight-line.
Let AB be the given straight-line, and C the given rectilinear angle. So it is required to draw a
segment of a circle, accepting an angle equal to C, on the given straight-line AB.
So the [angle] C is surely either acute, a right-angle, or obtuse. First of all, let it be acute. And,
as in the rst diagram (from the left), let (angle) BAD, equal to angle C, have been constructed
at the point A on the straight-line AB [Prop. 1.23]. Thus, BAD is also acute. Let AE have been
drawn, at right-angles to DA [Prop. 1.11]. And let AB have been cut in half at F [Prop. 1.10].
And let FG have been drawn from point F, at right-angles to AB [Prop. 1.11]. And let GB have
been joined.
And since AF is equal to FB, and FG (is) common, the two (straight-lines) AF, FG are equal
to the two (straight-lines) BF, FG (respectively). And angle AFG (is) equal to [angle] BFG.
Thus, the base AG is equal to the base BG [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, the circle drawn with center G, and
radius GA, will also go through B (as well as A). Let it have been drawn, and let it be (denoted)
ABE. And let EB have been joined. Therefore, since AD is at the end of diameter AE, at (point)
A, at right-angles to AE, the (straight-line) AD thus touches the circle ABE [Prop. 3.16 corr.].
Therefore, since some straight-line AD touches the circle ABE, and some (other) straight-line
AB has been drawn across from the point of contact A into circle ABE, angle DAB is thus equal
to the angle AEB in the alternate segment of the circle [Prop. 3.32]. But, DAB is equal to C.
Thus, angle C is also equal to AEB.
Thus, a segment AEB of a circle, accepting the angle AEB (which is) equal to the given (angle)
C, has been drawn on the given straight-line AB.
2`l

: uo , e c c| , | p v o ,
| ; ; , p c o; e , , o .
v ui u v o o | o ; . |
: c| uo c ; pp o v | u c p; u.
vv | uo o ; : c. | c ; v : c| o ; .
v c| pp o p : o ; .
v o ; vpi c | u : o u; | ;
p; uo , e c c| , | o ov ,
| p v o , | o ov , | c
.
| c| : c| , | , | , i ,
: i | uo ; uo : v :
c o v ; pc ; p c ; p | v u .
c e o . | c| p; v v o o c , v
c u . | vo v o c v uo
: c| c ; cv u pp ; p ;. v uo
o ; : c. | c ; v pp : c| o ;
.
| v u pp o p
: o ; o c .
2`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 33
And so let C be a right-angle. And let it again be necessary to draw a segment of a circle on
AB, accepting an angle equal to the right-[angle] C. Let the (angle) BAD [again] have been
constructed, equal to the right-angle C [Prop. 1.23], as in the second diagram (from the left).
And let AB have been cut in half at F [Prop. 1.10]. And let the circle AEB have been drawn
with center F, and radius either FA or FB.
Thus, the straight-line AD touches the circle ABE, on account of the angle at A being a right-
angle [Prop. 3.16 corr.]. And angle BAD is equal to the angle in segment AEB. For (the latter
angle), being in a semi-circle, is also a right-angle [Prop. 3.31]. But, BAD is also equal to C.
Thus, the (angle) in (segment) AEB is also equal to C.
Thus, a segment AEB of a circle, accepting an angle equal to C, has again been drawn on AB.
And so let (angle) C be obtuse. And let (angle) BAD, equal to (C), have been constructed at the
point A on the straight-line AB [Prop. 1.23], as in the third diagram (from the left). And let AE
have been drawn, at right-angles to AD [Prop. 1.11]. And let AB have again been cut in half at
F [Prop. 1.10]. And let FG have been drawn, at right-angles to AB [Prop. 1.10]. And let GB
have been joined.
And again, since AF is equal to FB, and FG (is) common, the two (straight-lines) AF, FG are
equal to the two (straight-lines) BF, FG(respectively). And angle AFG(is) equal to angle BFG.
Thus, the base AG is equal to the base BG [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, a circle of center G, and radius GA,
being drawn, will also go through B (as well as A). Let it go like AEB (in the third diagram from
the left). And since AD is at right-angles to the diameter AE, at the end, AD thus touches circle
AEB [Prop. 3.16 corr.]. And AB has been drawn across (the circle) from the point of contact A.
Thus, angle BAD is equal to the angle constructed in the alternate segment AHB of the circle
[Prop. 3.32]. But, angle BAD is equal to C. Thus, the angle in segment AHB is also equal to C.
Thus, a segment AHB of a circle, accepting an angle equal to C, has been drawn on the given
straight-line AB. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
2``

o u pp vi p : ; upp;.
o | o , c i upp o ; i vo u
pp vi p : ; upp; o ;
.
u cp v o pi, | o u; |
; o u p; ; o ; ; : uo .
| u u c ui , | vo v o c
, uo v : c| c ; cv pp p ;. v
uo o ; c : | c ; v pp : c| o ; ;].
o u v u pp v o p :
; upp; o ; o c .
2`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 34
D
A
E
B
F
C
To cut off a segment, accepting an angle equal to a given rectilinear angle, from a given circle.
Let ABC be the given circle, and D the given rectilinear angle. So it is required to cut off a
segment, accepting an angle equal to the given rectilinear angle D, from the given circle ABC.
Let EF have been drawn touching ABC at point B.
46
And let (angle) FBC, equal to angle D,
have been constructed at the point B on the straight-line FB [Prop. 1.23].
Therefore, since some straight-line EF touches the circle ABC, and BC has been drawn across
(the circle) from the point of contact B, angle FBC is thus equal to the angle constructed in the
alternate segment BAC [Prop. 1.32]. But, FBC is equal to D. Thus, the (angle) in the segment
BAC is also equal to [angle] D.
Thus, the segment BAC, accepting an angle equal to the given rectilinear angle D, has been cut
off from the given circle ABC. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
46
Presumably, by nding the center of ABC [Prop. 3.1], drawing a straight-line between the center and point B,
and then drawing EF through point B, at right-angles to the aforementioned straight-line [Prop. 1.11].
2`

v c ; ui p v, o uo e pi pp p
o : c| ; uo e c pp p; o;.
v ; ; ui | , p v v o pi ,
o o uo e , p o : c| ; uo e , p;
o;.
i pc u | , v u i| e o | u , -
, o : ue e , , , | o uo e , p o
: c| ; uo e , p; o;.
c | , v u , | i o u , | c o
, | vo u c| v , u | , , | c |
, , .
| c| ui v u ui p v u o ov
p, | u p : v . c| u ui p i pc :
v o , i c v v o , o v uo e , p o pv
u vo : c| ; vo o] o vo
o v uo e , pv e vo e , : c| i vo e , . vv
i pc vo e , : c| o vo , | c vo e , : c| o
vo o v uo e , pv u vo : c| ; vo . : c
o v uo e , pv u vo : c| ; vo . v v
uv | o uo e , pv u vo i c| ; vo . c c
| o uo e , pv u vo : ; vo o v uo e ,
pv u vo : c| ; uo e , pv u vo . o v
2`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 35
A
E
G
B
C
E
B D
D
C
F
H
A
If two straight-lines in a circle cut one another then the rectangle contained by the pieces of one
is equal to the rectangle contained by the pieces of the other.
For let the two straight-lines AC and BD, in the circle ABCD, cut one another at point E. I say
that the rectangle contained by AE and EC is equal to the rectangle contained by DE and EB.
In fact, if AC and BD are through the center (as in the rst diagram from the left), so that E
is the center of circle ABCD, then (it is) clear that, AE, EC, DE, and EB being equal, the
rectangle contained by AE and EC is also equal to the rectangle contained by DE and EB.
So let AC and DB not be though the center (as in the second diagram from the left), and let the
center of ABCD have been found [Prop. 3.1], and let it be (at) F. And let FG and FH have
been drawn from F, perpendicular to the straight-lines AC and DB (respectively) [Prop. 1.12].
And let FB, FC, and FE have been joined.
And since some straight-line, GF, through the center cuts at right-angles some (other) straight-
line, AC, not through the center, then it also cuts it in half [Prop. 3.3]. Thus, AG (is) equal to
GC. Therefore, since the straight-line AC is cut equally at G, and unequally at E, the rectangle
contained by AE and EC plus the square on EG is thus equal to the (square) on GC [Prop. 2.5].
Let the (square) on GF have been added [to both]. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AE and
EC plus the (sum of the squares) on GE and GF is equal to the (sum of the squares) on CG and
GF. But, the (sum of the squares) on EG and GF is equal to the (square) on FE [Prop. 1.47],
and the (sum of the squares) on CG and GF is equal to the (square) on FC [Prop. 1.47]. Thus,
the (rectangle contained) by AE and EC plus the (square) on FE is equal to the (square) on
FC. And FC (is) equal to FB. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AE and EC plus the (square)
on FE is equal to the (square) on FB. So, for the same (reasons), the (rectangle contained) by
2`

o vo o v o uo e , p o : c| ; uo
e , p; o;.
v v c ; ui p v, o uo e pi pp p
o : c| ; uo e c pp p; o; o c
i.
2`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 35
DE and EB plus the (square) on FE is equal to the (square) on FB. And the (rectangle con-
tained) by AE and EC plus the (square) on FE was also shown (to be) equal to the (square)
on FB. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AE and EC plus the (square) on FE is equal to the
(rectangle contained) by DE and EB plus the (square) on FE. Let the (square) on FE have
been taken from both. Thus, the remaining rectangle contained by AE and EC is equal to the
rectangle contained by DE and EB.
Thus, if two straight-lines in a circle cut one another then the rectangle contained by the pieces
of one is equal to the rectangle contained by the pieces of the other. (Which is) the very thing it
2`9

v pi c, | v uu o o ui,
| pc ue p o , c c, c o uo o p |
co vpp p u p | : ; vo
cp ;.
v u i pi co o , | vo u o o
ui | ], | pc p o , c
c , o o uo e , p o : c| ; vo
;.
v ] v u c| u. c v u , | c o
u , | c o v c| uo . | c| ui
p v o , c u , o v uo e , pv u
vo : c| ; vo . : c o v uo e , pv u
vo : c| ; vo . ; c vo : c| v vo e , o v
uo e , pv u vo : c| i vo e , . o v o
vo o v o uo e , : c| ; vo cp.
vv p c v u u , | i o o , |
vo u c| , | c | , , o v c|
uo . | c| ui v u ui p v u
o ov p, | u p v c :. | c| ui
p v o pi, c u , o v uo e , pv u
vo : c| ; vo . o o vo o v uo e ,
pv e vo e , : c| i vo e , . i c vo e , :
c| o vo o v c] uo ] i c vo e , : c|
o vo o v uo e , pv u vo : c| ; vo . :
240
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 36
E
D
B
F
A
F
A
B
C
D
C
If some point is taken outside a circle, and two straight-lines radiate from it towards the circle,
and (one) of them cuts the circle, and the (other) touches (it), then the (rectangle contained)
by the whole (straight-line) cutting (the circle), and the (part of it) cut off outside (the circle),
between the point and the convex circumference, will be equal to the square on the tangent (line).
For let some point D have been taken outside circle ABC, and let two straight-lines, DC[A] and
DB, radiate from D towards circle ABC. And let DCA cut circle ABC, and let BD touch (it). I
say that the rectangle contained by AD and DC is equal to the square on DB.
[D]CA is surely either through the center, or not. Let it rst of all be through the center, and let
F be the center of circle ABC, and let FB have been joined. Thus, (angle) FBD is a right-angle
[Prop. 3.18]. And since straight-line AC is cut in half at F, let CD have been added to it. Thus,
the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC plus the (square) on FC is equal to the (square) on FD
[Prop. 2.6]. And FC (is) equal to FB. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC plus the
(square) on FB is equal to the (square) on FD. And the (square) on FD is equal to the (sum of
the squares) on FB and BD [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC plus
the (square) on FB is equal to the (sum of the squares) on FB and BD. Let the (square) on FB
have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remaining (rectangle contained) by AD and DC is
equal to the (square) on the tangent DB.
And so let DCA not be through the center of circle ABC, and let the center E have been found,
and let EF have been drawn from E, perpendicular to AC [Prop. 1.12]. And let EB, EC, and
ED have been joined. (Angle) EBD (is) thus a right-angle [Prop. 3.18]. And since some straight-
line, EF, through the center cuts some (other) straight-line, AC, not through the center, at right-
angles, it also cuts it in half [Prop. 3.3]. Thus, AF is equal to FC. And since the straight-line AC
is cut in half at point F, let CD have been added to it. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AD and
24l

c o v uo e , pv u vo : c| ; vo . ;
c vo : c| v vo e , o v uo o v uo e
, pv u vo : c| i vo e , . o v o vo
o v o uo e , : c| ; vo .
v v pi c, | v uu o o
ui, | pc ue p o , c c, c o uo o p
| co vpp p u p | : ; vo
cp ; o c i.
242
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 36
DC plus the (square) on FC is equal to the (square) on FD [Prop. 2.6]. Let the (square) on
FE have been added to both. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC plus the (sum
of the squares) on CF and FE is equal to the (sum of the squares) on FD and FE. But the
(sum of the squares) on CF and FE is equal to the (square) on EC. For [angle] EFC [is] a
right-angle [Prop. 1.47]. And the (sum of the squares) on DF and FE is equal to the (square)
on ED [Prop. 1.47]. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC plus the (square) on EC
is equal to the (square) on ED. And EC (is) equal to EB. Thus, the (rectangle contained) by
AD and DC plus the (square) on EB is equal to the (square) on ED. And the (square) on ED
is equal to the (sum of the squares) on EB and BD. For EBD (is) a right-angle [Prop. 1.47].
Thus, the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC plus the (square) on EB is equal to the (sum of
the squares) on EB and BD. Let the (square) on EB have been subtracted from both. Thus, the
remaining (rectangle contained) by AD and DC is equal to the (square) on BD.
Thus, if some point is taken outside a circle, and two straight-lines radiate from it towards the cir-
cle, and (one) of them cuts the circle, and (the other) touches (it), then the (rectangle contained)
by the whole (straight-line) cutting (the circle), and the (part of it) cut off outside (the circle), be-
tween the point and the convex circumference, will be equal to the square on the tangent (line).
24`

v pi c, vo c u p o o
ui, | pc ue p o , c , c o uo ] o
p | co vpp p u p |
: ; vo , c u .
v u i pi co o , | vo u o o
ui | , , | pc p o , c
, c c o uo e , : ; vo . , o c u
.
v u cp , | i o u , | c
o , | c | , , . v uo o c. | c| c
u , p c , o v uo e , : c| ; vo .
c | o uo e , : ; vo o v vo : c| ; vo
: v . c| c | : | , i ,
: i | ue v uo ; uo c :.
o c uo o v | uo . c cp p
c p; u o ov v v vp c u v
c u . op , i o c| .
v v pi c, vo c u p o o
ui, | pc ue p o , c , c o uo o p
| co vpp p u p | : ; vo
, c u o c i.
244
ELEMENTS BOOK 3
Proposition 37
E
F
A
B
D
C
If some point is taken outside a circle, and two straight-lines radiate from the point towards the
circle, and one of them cuts the circle, and the (other) meets (it), and the (rectangle contained)
by the whole (straight-line) cutting (the circle), and the (part of it) cut off outside (the circle),
between the point and the convex circumference, is equal to the (square) on the (straight-line)
meeting (the circle), then the (straight-line) meeting (the circle) will touch the circle.
For let some point D have been taken outside circle ABC, and let two straight-lines, DCA and
DB, radiate from D towards circle ABC, and let DCA cut the circle, and let DB meet (the cir-
cle). And let the (rectangle contained) by AD and DC be equal to the (square) on DB. I say that
DB touches circle ABC.
For let DE have been drawn touching ABC [Prop. 3.17], and let the center of the circle ABC
have been found, and let it be (at) F. And let FE, FB, and FD have been joined. (Angle) FED
is thus a right-angle [Prop. 3.18]. And since DE touches circle ABC, and DCA cuts (it), the
(rectangle contained) by AD and DC is thus equal to the (square) on DE [Prop. 3.36]. And the
(rectangle contained) by AD and DC was also equal to the (square) on DB. Thus, the (square)
on DE is equal to the (square) on DB. Thus, DE (is) equal to DB. And FE is also equal to
FB. So the two (straight-lines) DE, EF are equal to the two (straight-lines) DB, BF (respec-
tively). And their base, FD, is common. Thus, angle DEF is equal to angle DBF [Prop. 1.8].
And DEF (is) a right-angle. Thus, DBF (is) also a right-angle. And FB produced is a diameter,
And a (straight-line) drawn at right-angles to a diameter of a circle, at its end, touches the circle
[Prop. 3.16 corr.]. Thus, DB touches circle ABC. Similarly, (the same thing) can be shown, even
if the center is somewhere on AC.
Thus, if some point is taken outside a circle, and two straight-lines radiate from the point to-
wards the circle, and one of them cuts the circle, and the (other) meets (it), and the (rectangle
contained) by the whole (straight-line) cutting (the circle), and the (part of it) cut off outside
(the circle), between the point and the convex circumference, is equal to the (square) on the
(straight-line) meeting (the circle), then the (straight-line) meeting (the circle) will touch the
circle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
24

ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Construction of rectilinear gures in and
around circles

p upp i p upp c , o c e u
cp p e c i u, i o c, v.
p c op | p , o c v u -
p c u, | o , v.
p upp i c , o c u c-
p v u .
p c upp | , o c v u
p c u .
c i p op c , o u c
i u, i o c, v.
c | p , o u c
u, | o , v.
ui i cp , o v u c| u
.
248
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Denitions
1 A rectilinear gure is said to be inscribed in a(nother) rectilinear gure when each of the
angles of the inscribed gure touches each (respective) side of the (gure) in which it is
inscribed.
2 And, similarly, a (rectilinear) gure is said to be circumscribed about a(nother rectilinear)
gure when each side of the circumscribed (gure) touches each (respective) angle of the
(gure) about which it is circumscribed.
3 A rectilinear gure is said to be inscribed in a circle when each angle of the inscribed (gure)
touches the circumference of the circle.
4 And a rectilinear gure is said to be circumscribed about a circle when each side of the
circumscribed (gure) touches the circumference of the circle.
5 And, similarly, a circle is said to be inscribed in a (rectilinear) gure when the circumference
of the circle touches each side of the (gure) in which it is inscribed.
6 And a circle is said to be circumscribed about a rectilinear (gure) when the circumference
of the circle touches each angle of the (gure) about which it is circumscribed.
7 A straight-line is said to be inserted into a circle when its ends are on the circumference of
the circle.
249

i o u; p p u u p :
ui cp.
o | o , c i ui p p u p .
i i o u; : ui cp.
u p . i pc u : c| , o i : o
c cp v i o u; : . i c p c|
, : , | ; ; p c ; o
, | c .
| u pi c| u , : c| . vv
c : | v c :.
i v o o u; : cp o c
.
20
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 1
F
D
B C
E
A
To insert a straight-line equal to a given straight-line into a circle, (the latter straight-line) not
being greater than the diameter of the circle.
Let ABC be the given circle, and D the given straight-line (which is) not greater than the diameter
of the circle. So it is required to insert a straight-line, equal to the straight-line D, into the circle
ABC.
Let a diameter BC of circle ABC have been drawn.
47
Therefore, if BC is equal to D, then that
(which) was prescribed has taken place. For the (straight-line) BC, equal to the straight-line D,
has been inserted into the circle ABC. And if BC is greater than D, then let CE be made equal
to D [Prop. 1.3], and let the circle EAF have been drawn with center C and radius CE. And let
CA have been joined.
Therefore, since the point C is the center of circle EAF, CA is equal to CE. But, CE is equal to
D. Thus, D is also equal to CA.
Thus, CA, equal to the given straight-line D, has been inserted into the given circle ABC. (Which
47
Presumably, by nding the center of the circle [Prop. 3.1], and then drawing a line through it.
2l

i o ; ; i c.
o | o , o c c o i i o ;
; i c.
u cp v o , | o u; |
; o u p; ; uo ; : uo , o c u; | ;
o u p; ; uo ;] : uo , | c .
| u u c ui , | vo v o c i o
ui , v uo : c| c ; cv u pp
; uo . v uo uo c : | uo v uo
c :. v v uv | uo uo c : | v uo
uo c : i v c| o ; ;, |
c i o ].
i o v ; ; i c o c
.
22
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 2
D
H
C
B
E
F
A
G
To inscribe a triangle, equiangular to a given triangle, in a given circle.
Let ABC be the given circle, and DEF the given triangle. So it is required to inscribe a triangle,
equiangular to triangle DEF, in circle ABC.
Let GH have been drawn touching circle ABC at A.
48
And let (angle) HAC, equal to angle DEF,
have been constructed at the point A on the straight-line AH, and (angle) GAB, equal to [angle]
DFE, at the point A on the straight-line AG [Prop. 1.23]. And let BC have been joined.
Therefore, since some straight-line AH touches the circle ABC, and the straight-line AC has
been drawn across (the circle) from the point of contact A, (angle) HAC is thus equal to the
angle ABC in the alternate segment of the circle [Prop. 3.32]. But, HAC is equal to DEF. Thus,
angle ABC is also equal to DEF. So, for the same (reasons), ACB is also equal to DFE. Thus,
the remaining (angle) BAC is equal to the remaining (angle) EDF [Prop. 1.32]. [Thus, triangle
ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF, and has been inscribed in circle ABC].
Thus, a triangle, equiangular to the given triangle, has been inscribed in the given circle. (Which
48
See the footnote to Prop. 3.34.
2`

| o ; ; i .
o | o , o c c o i | o
; ; i .
c c v p v v , pi, | i u
o , | , e c, ui , | o u; | ;
o u p; ; pc uo ; : uo , c uo : uo
, | v e , , p cp u | , ,
.
| c| c u | , , v v , , pi, vo c u
c| v , , pi cp i| | , , , o| v i| | o
i , , p . | c| u |
oi : i, c | i i o , i o| | uo
, , | v | uo , | oi : i. i| c | |
uo , | oi : | v uo , i uo , : i,
e uo uo c : v uo uo c :.
op , o | uo uo c : | v uo
] uo c :. i v c| o ; ; |
| o .
| o v ; ; i o
c .
24
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 3
A
L C N
G
H
D
M
E
K
B
F
To circumscribe a triangle, equiangular to a given triangle, about a given circle.
Let ABC be the given circle, and DEF the given triangle. So it is required to circumscribe a
triangle, equiangular to triangle DEF, about circle ABC.
Let EF have been produced in each direction to points G and H. And let the center K of circle
ABC have been found [Prop. 3.1]. And let the straight-line KB have been drawn across (ABC),
at random. And let (angle) BKA, equal to angle DEG, have been constructed at the point K
on the straight-line KB, and (angle) BKC, equal to DFH [Prop. 1.23]. And let the (straight-
lines) LAM, MBN, and NCL have been drawn through the points A, B, and C (respectively),
touching the circle ABC.
49
And since LM, MN, and NL touch circle ABC at points A, B, and C (respectively), and KA,
KB, and KC are joined from the center K to points A, B, and C (respectively), the angles at
points A, B, and C are thus right-angles [Prop. 3.18]. And since the (sum of the) four angles of
quadrilateral AMBK is equal to four right-angles, in as much as AMBK (can) also (be) divided
into two triangles [Prop. 1.32], and angles KAM and KBM are (both) right-angles, the (sum of
the) remaining (angles), AKB and AMB, is thus equal to two right-angles. And DEG and DEF
is also equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13]. Thus, AKB and AMB is equal to DEG and DEF,
of which AKB is equal to DEG. Thus, the remainder AMB is equal to the remainder DEF. So,
similarly, it can be shown that LNB is also equal to DFE. Thus, the remaining (angle) MLN is
also equal to the [remaining] (angle) EDF [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle LMN is equiangular to
triangle DEF. And it has been drawn around circle ABC.
Thus, a triangle, equiangular to the given triangle, has been circumscribed about the given circle.
(Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
49
2

i o c c.
o c o i i o c.
p | uo , i , u, | p v
v o pi, | vo u c| v , , u | , ,
.
| c| : c| uo uo , c| c | o uo o uo
:, c v , v i | : c
| p v p; ; : u uo p e : e ue
| v v v v i i i : c : v .
v v uv | c :. | i v ui | , , : v
i o v ; ; | p c| e , , p | v e
e p | c e , , ue v o ov | v o i , ,
p . i v pi u, c p; u o ov v v
vp co u o v c u v o ; ; p
c c| e , , p pi v , , u c v ue,
| c o cpp i o . c e o .
i v o c o c o o c .
26
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 4
G
A
E
B
F
D
C
To inscribe a circle in a given triangle.
Let ABC be the given triangle. So it is required to inscribe a circle in triangle ABC.
Let the angles ABC and ACB have been cut in half by the straight-lines BD and CD (respec-
tively) [Prop. 1.9], and let them meet one another at point D, and let DE, DF, and DG have
been drawn from point D, perpendicular to the straight-lines AB, BC, and CA (respectively)
[Prop. 1.12].
And since angle ABD is equal to CBD, and the right-angle BED is also equal to the right-angle
BFD, EBD and FBD are thus two triangles having two angles equal to two angles, and one
side equal to one sidethe (one) subtending one of the equal angles (which is) common to the
(triangles)(namely), BD. Thus, they will also have the remaining sides equal to the (corre-
sponding) remaining sides [Prop. 1.26]. Thus, DE (is) equal to DF. So, for the same (reasons),
DG is also equal to DF. Thus, the three straight-lines DE, DF, and DG are equal to one another.
Thus, the circle drawn with center D, and radius one of E, F, or G,
50
will also go through the
remaining points, and will touch the straight-lines AB, BC, and CA, on account of the angles at
E, F, and G being right-angles. For if it cuts (one of) them then it will be a (straight-line) drawn
at right-angles to a diameter of the circle, from its end, falling inside the circle. They very thing
was shown (to be) absurd [Prop. 3.16]. Thus, the circle drawn with center D, and radius one of
E, F, or G, does not cut the straight-lines AB, BC, and CA. Thus, it will touch them. And the
circle will have been inscribed in triangle ABC. Let it have been (so) inscribed, like FGE (in the
gure).
Thus, the circle EFG has been inscribed in the given triangle ABC. (Which is) the very thing it
was required to do.
50
Here, and in the following propositions, it is understood that the radius is actually one of DE, DF, or DG.
2

| o c .
o c o i c | o c o .
p | , ui v v , pi, | vo e , p i
, o ov | , pu co u
c| u co .
p co v o , | c | , , . | c| :
c| , c | o ov , v c :.
op p, o | c : e | c : | i
v | , , : v i. o v ; ; p c c| e , ,
p | v e e p, | c pp o |
o . e o .
vv | , p c| u v o , e c c|
, | c . op p, o o pi c| u |
o p .
v | , p co u v o , e c c|
, c | , , . | c| : c| ,
c | o ov , v c :. op p,
o | c : e | c : o v ] ; ;
p c c| e , , p | v e e p, |
c pp | o .
| o c v o c .
28
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 5
C
D
A
E
B
F
D
A
E
C
B
A
E
C
F
B
F
D
To circumscribe a circle about a given triangle.
Let ABC be the given circle. So it is required to circumscribe a circle about the given triangle
ABC.
Let the straight-lines AB and AC have been cut in half at points Dand E (respectively) [Prop. 1.10].
And let DF and EF have been drawn from points D and E, at right-angles to AB and AC (re-
spectively) [Prop. 1.11]. So (DF and EF) will surely either meet inside triangle ABC, on the
straight-line BC, or beyond BC.
Let them, rst of all, meet inside (triangle ABC) at (point) F, and let FB, FC, and FA have
been joined. And since AD is equal to DB, and DF is common and at right-angles, the base AF
is thus equal to the base FB [Prop. 1.4]. So, similarly, we can show that CF is also equal to AF.
So that FB is also equal to FC. Thus, the three (straight-lines) FA, FB, and FC are equal to
one another. Thus, the circle drawn with center F, and radius one of A, B, or C, will also go
through the remaining points. And the circle will have been circumscribed about triangle ABC.
Let it have been (so) circumscribed, like ABC (in the rst diagram from the left).
And so, let DF and EF meet on the straight-line BC at (point) F, like in the second diagram
(from the left). And let AF have been joined. So, similarly, we can show that point F is the center
of the circle circumscribed about triangle ABC.
And so, let DF and EF meet outside triangle ABC, again at (point) F, like in the third diagram
(from the left). And let AF, BF, and CF have been joined. And again since AD is equal to DB,
and DF is common and at right-angles, the base AF is thus equal to the base BF [Prop. 1.4].
So, similarly, we can show that CF is also equal to AF. So that BF is also equal to FC. Thus,
[again] the circle drawn with center F, and radius one of FA, FB, and FC, will also go through
the remaining points. And it will have been circumscribed about triangle ABC.
Thus, a circle has been circumscribed about the given triangle. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to do.
29

i o c.
| o i i o c.
u p o ov v | , , | c
| , , , .
| c| : c| v o c | o ov ,
v : c. v v uv | c e , c; e ,
: c i v c| o . , o | o.
c| v ui p c u , p v c| o o
v uo . v v uv | c e uo , , o c
o v c| o . c c | i v
c. | c i o .
i v o c o o c .
260
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 6
C
B
A
E
D
To inscribe a square in a given circle.
Let ABCD be the given circle. So it is required to inscribe a square in circle ABCD.
Let two diameters of circle ABCD, AC and BD, have been drawn at right-angles to one another.
51
And let AB, BC, CD, and DA have been joined.
And since BE is equal to ED, for E (is) the center (of the circle), and EA is common and at
right-angles, the base AB is thus equal to the base AD [Prop. 1.4]. So, for the same (reasons),
each of BC and CD is equal to each of AB and AD. Thus, the quadrilateral ABCD is equilateral.
So I say that (it is) also right-angled. For since the straight-line BD is a diameter of circle ABCD,
BAD is thus a semi-circle. Thus, angle BAD (is) a right-angle [Prop. 3.31]. So, for the same
(reasons), (angles) ABC, BCD, and CDA are each right-angles. Thus, the quadrilateral ABCD
is right-angled. And it was also shown (to be) equilateral. Thus, it is a square [Def. 1.22]. And it
has been inscribed in circle ABCD.
Thus, the square ABCD has been inscribed in the given circle. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to do.
51
Presumably, by nding the center of the circle [Prop. 3.1], drawing a line through it, and then drawing a second
line through it, at right-angles to the rst [Prop. 1.11].
26l

| o .
o | o i | o .
u p o ov v | , , | v e ,
, , p cp u | , , , .
| u c u , vo c u c| v o c
c , | v o ; o i. v v uv | | o i , ,
p o i. | c| o c uo , c| c o | uo
, v c| . v v uv | c .
e | c . op p, o | c e ,
c . pp v c| v , , , , : v
c| pc , c . | c| : c| , vv | pc
c; e , , c c; e , c : | c v e ,
c; e , c :], i v c| o . ,
o | o. c| v pp c o , c o uo ,
o v | uo . op p, o | | o i , , o
i. o v c| o . c c | i v c. |
| o .
| o v o c .
262
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 7
D
H C K
B
G A F
E
To circumscribe a square about a given circle.
Let ABCD be the given circle. So it is required to circumscribe a square about circle ABCD.
Let two diameters of circle ABCD, AC and BD, have been drawn at right-angles to one another.
52
And let FG, GH, HK, and KF have been drawn through points A, B, C, and D (respectively),
touching circle ABCD.
53
Therefore, since FG touches circle ABCD, and EA has been joined from the center E to the
point of contact A, the angle at A is thus a right-angle [Prop. 3.18]. So, for the same (reasons),
the angles at points B, C, and D are also right-angles. And since angle AEB is a right-angle, and
EBG is also a right-angle, GH is thus parallel to AC [Prop. 1.29]. So, for the same (reasons),
AC is also parallel to FK. So that GH is also parallel to FK [Prop. 1.30]. So, similarly, we
can show that GF and HK are each parallel to BED. Thus, GK, GC, AK, FB, and BK are
(all) parallelograms. Thus, GF is equal to HK, and GH to FK [Prop. 1.34]. And since AC
is equal to BD, but AC (is) also (equal) to each of GH and FK, and BD is equal to each of
GF and HK [Prop. 1.34] [and each of GH and FK is thus equal to each of GF and HK], the
quadrilateral FGHK is thus equilateral. So I say that (it is) also right-angled. For since GBEA
is a parallelogram, and AEB is a right-angle, AGB is thus also a right-angle [Prop. 1.34]. So,
similarly, we can show that the angles at H, K, and F are also right-angles. Thus, FGHK is
right-angled. And it was also shown (to be) equilateral. Thus, it is a square [Def. 1.22]. And it
has been circumscribed about circle ABCD.
Thus, a square has been circumscribed about the given circle. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to do.
52
See the footnote to the previous proposition.
53
26`

i o c c.
o c o . i i o c.
p c e , v v , pi, | v pc u o; e
, o , v c u o; e ,
pp v c| c e , , , , , , , , |
| v ue | : i]. | c| : c| , c
pc p , c p , : v | e |
| v : v | . op p, o | c e ,
c; e , c : | v | , , , : v i]. o
v ; pc ; p c c| e , , , p | v e
e p | c e , , , ue v o ov | v o i
, , , i v pi o v , , , , p; u
o ov v v vp co i u o v c. u v o
; ; p c c| e , , , p pi v , , ,
u. c v ue | c cpp i o .
i v o c c o c .
264
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 8
G
A E D
K F
B H C
To inscribe a circle in a given square.
Let the given square be ABCD. So it is required to inscribe a circle in square ABCD.
Let AD and AB each have been cut in half at points E and F (respectively) [Prop. 1.10]. And let
EH have been drawn through E, parallel to either of AB or CD, and let FK have been drawn
through F, parallel to either of AD or BC [Prop. 1.31]. Thus, AK, KB, AH, HD, AG, GC, BG,
and GD are each parallelograms, and their opposite sides [are] manifestly equal [Prop. 1.34].
And since AD is equal to AB, and AE is half of AD, and AF half of AB, AE (is) thus also
equal to AF. So that the opposite (sides are) also (equal). Thus, FG (is) also equal to GE. So,
similarly, we can also show that each of GH and GK is equal to each of FG and GE. Thus, the
four (straight-lines) GE, GF, GH, and GK [are] equal to one another. Thus, the circle drawn
with center G, and radius one of E, F, H, or K, will also go through the remaining points. And
it will touch the straight-lines AB, BC, CD, and DA, on account of the angles at E, F, H, and
K being right-angles. For if the circle cuts AB, BC, CD, or DA, then a (straight-line) drawn at
right-angles to a diameter of the circle, from its end, will fall inside the circle. The very thing was
shown (to be) absurd [Prop. 3.16].Thus, the circle drawn with center G, and radius one of E, F,
H, or K, does not cut the straight-lines AB, BC, CD, or DA. Thus, it will touch them, and will
have been inscribed in the square ABCD.
Thus, a circle has been inscribed in the given square. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
do.
26

| o c .
o c o i | o .
i v | , p v v o .
| c| : c| , c , | , | i , :
i | : v uo ; uo : c
v uo p uo . op p, o | c e uo
, , p uo e , ue. | c| : c| uo
uo , c pc uo p uo , c uo p uo
, | uo v uo c : e | v c :.
op p, o | c e , ue] c; e , : c. |
v | , , , : v i. o v ; ; | p c|
e , , , p | v e e p | c pp
| o . e o .
| o c v o c .
266
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 9
C
B
A
E
D
To circumscribe a circle about a given square.
Let ABCD be the given square. So it is required to circumscribe a circle about square ABCD.
AC and BD being joined, let them cut one another at E.
And since DA is equal to AB, and AC (is) common, the two (straight-lines) DA, AC are thus
equal to the two (straight-lines) BA, AC. And the base DC (is) equal to the base BC. Thus,
angle DAC is equal to angle BAC [Prop. 1.8]. Thus, the angle DAB has been cut in half by AC.
So, similarly, we can show that ABC, BCD, and CDA have each been cut in half by the straight-
lines AC and DB. And since angle DAB is equal to ABC, and EAB is half of DAB, and EBA
half of ABC, EAB is thus also equal to EBA. So that side EA is also equal to EB [Prop. 1.6].
So, similarly, we can show that each of the [straight-lines] EA and EB are also equal to each
of EC and ED. Thus, the four (straight-lines) EA, EB, EC, and ED are equal to one another.
Thus, the circle drawn with center E, and radius one of A, B, C, or D, will also go through the
remaining points, and will have been circumscribed about the square ABCD. Let it have been
(so) circumscribed, like ABCD (in the gure).
Thus, a circle has been circumscribed about the given square. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to do.
26

c c c e o e
.
ui , | p v o pi, e o uo e ,
p o : | ; vo ; | ; ; | p
; o , | cp i o u; p p
u u p : ui | c | , , |
| o o .
| c| o uo e , : c| ; vo , : c , o v uo e
, : c| ; vo . | c| u : pi co o ,
| vo u o o ui | , , | pc ue
p, c , c o uo e , : ; vo , v c
u . c| u c pc , vo c v o c ,
v uo : c| c ; cv u pp ; uo . c|
u : c| uo uo , uo o v uo :
c| | i uo , . vv i uo , : c| co uo |
uo v : c| uo . vv uo uo c :, c| | v
c : e | uo uo c :. | i v | uo ,
, : v i. | c| : c| uo uo , : c| |
v ; . vv u : | v c :
e | uo ; uo c : | v uo , uo
i . : c uo i uo , | uo v uo c
. : c uo c; e uo , | c v e uo ,
uo c .
c v o c c e o e
o c .
268
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 10
C
D
A
E
B
To construct an isosceles triangle having each of the angles at the base double the remaining
(angle).
Let some straight-line AB be taken, and let it have been cut at point C so that the rectangle
contained by AB and BC is equal to the square on CA [Prop. 2.11]. And let the circle BDE
have been drawn with center A, and radius AB. And let the straight-line BD, equal to the
straight-line AC, being not greater than the diameter of circle BDE, have been inserted into
circle BDE [Prop. 4.1]. And let AD and DC have been joined. And let the circle ACD have been
circumscribed about triangle ACD [Prop. 4.5].
And since the (rectangle contained) by AB and BC is equal to the (square) on AC, and AC (is)
equal to BD, the (rectangle contained) by AB and BC is thus equal to the (square) on BD.
And since some point B has been taken outside of circle ACD, and two straight-lines BA and
BD have radiated from B towards the circle ABC, and (one) of them cuts (the circle), and (the
other) meets (the circle), and the (rectangle contained) by AB and BC is equal to the (square)
on BD, BD thus touches circle ABC [Prop. 3.37]. Therefore, since BD touches (the circle), and
DC has been drawn across (the circle) from the point of contact D, the angle BDC is thus equal
to the angle DAC in the alternate segment of the circle [Prop. 3.32]. Therefore, since BDC is
equal to DAC, let CDA have been added to both. Thus, the whole of BDA is equal to the two
(angles) CDA and DAC. But, CDA and DAC is equal to the external (angle) BCD [Prop. 1.32].
Thus, BDA is also equal to BCD. But, BDA is equal to CBD, since the side AD is also equal to
AB [Prop. 1.5]. So that DBA is also equal to BCD. Thus, the three (angles) BDA, DBA, and
BCD are equal to one another. And since angle DBC is equal to BCD, side BD is also equal
to side DC [Prop. 1.6]. But, BD was assumed (to be) equal to CA. Thus, CA is also equal to
CD. So that angle CDA is also equal to angle DAC [Prop. 1.5]. Thus, CDA and DAC is double
DAC. But BCD (is) equal to CDA and DAC. Thus, BCD is also double CAD. And BCD (is)
equal to to each of BDA and DBA. Thus, BDA and DBA are each double DAB.
Thus, the isosceles triangle ABD has been constructed having each of the angles at the base BD
double the remaining (angle). (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
269

i o i | i c.
o | o i i o i
| i c.
ic o c c e o i , e
o ; , | c i o ; ; i
o , e pc o ; ; : | uo , c c e o i ,
: c; e uo , | c v e uo , uo c
. p c e uo , uo c e , ue, |
c | , , ], , .
| u c e uo , e c| uo , | pp i|
uo e , ue, | v | uo , , , , :
v i. | c : c| : e | v | ,
, , , : v i. uo c v : : ui u |
v ui | , , , , : v i i v c| o
. , o | i. c| v ; c| :,
o v o ; c| :. |
c| pc uo , c| c
uo | uo v uo c :. v v uv | c e
uo , , e c; e uo , c : i v c| o
. c c | i.
i v o i | i c o c
.
20
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 11
D
A
B
C
F
G H
E
To inscribe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon in a given circle.
Let ABCDE be the given circle. So it is required to inscribed an equilateral and equiangular
pentagon in circle ABCDE.
Let the the isosceles triangle FGH be set up having each of the angles at G and H double the
(angle) at F [Prop. 4.10]. And let triangle ACD, equiangular to FGH, have been inscribed in
circle ABCDE, so that CAD is equal to the angle at F, and each of the (angles) at G and H
(are) equal to each of ACD and CDA (respectively) [Prop. 4.2]. Thus, ACD and CDA are each
double CAD. So let ACD and CDA have each been cut in half by each of the straight-lines CE
and DB (respectively) [Prop. 1.9]. And let AB, BC, [CD], DE and EA have been joined.
Therefore, since angles ACD and CDA are each double CAD, and are cut in half by the straight-
lines CE and DB, the ve angles DAC, ACE, ECD, CDB, and BDA are thus equal to one
another. And equal angles stand upon equal circumferences [Prop. 3.26]. Thus, the ve circum-
ferences AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA are equal to one another [Prop. 3.29]. Thus, the pentagon
ABCDE is equilateral. So I say that (it is) also equiangular. For since the circumference AB
is equal to the circumference DE, let BCD have been added to both. Thus, the whole circum-
ference ABCD is equal to the whole circumference EDCB. And the angle AED stands upon
circumference ABCD, and angle BAE upon circumference EDCB. Thus, angle BAE is also
equal to AED [Prop. 3.27]. So, for the same (reasons), each of the angles ABC, BCD, and
CDE are also equal to each of BAE and AED. Thus, pentagon ABCDE is equiangular. And it
was also shown (to be) equilateral.
Thus, an equilateral and equiangular pentagon has been inscribed in the given circle. (Which is)
2l

| o i | i .
o | o i c | o i
| i .
u cpp e e pi v , , , , , e :
| v , , , , | v e , , , , u
cp | , , , , , | i u o , |
c | , , , , .
| c| pc ui c u v o , vo c u c|
v o c c , v c c| o v c|
c e o ; e. v v uv | | o i , p o
i. | c| o c uo , o v vo : c| i vo e ,
. v v uv | i vo e , : c| o vo e v vo e ,
i vo e , c :, e o vo ; vo c : o v
o vo ; vo c :. : v . | c| : c|
, | , | , | i , : i |
c] : v pc uo ;] uo c : c uo
uo v pc uo uo , c uo uo . v v
uv | pc uo uo c , c uo uo . | c|
: c| , : c| | uo uo . c pc
uo uo , c uo uo : v | uo uo
c| c | uo uo :. c v , v
i | : c | p v p; ; : ue
| v v v v i i i : c |
22
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 12
H
A
B
K C L
D
F
G
E
M
To circumscribe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon about a given circle.
Let ABCDE be the given circle. So it is required to circumscribe an equilateral and equiangular
pentagon about circle ABCDE.
Let A, B, C, D, and E have been conceived as the angular points of a pentagon having been
inscribed (in circle ABCDE) [Prop. 3.11], such that the circumferences AB, BC, CD, DE, and
EA are equal. And let GH, HK, KL, LM, and MG have been drawn through (points) A, B, C,
D, and E (respectively), touching the circle.
54
And let the center F of the circle ABCDE have
been found [Prop. 3.1]. And let FB, FK, FC, FL, and FD have been joined.
And since the straight-line KL touches (circle) ABCDE at C, and FC has been joined from the
center F to the point of contact C, FC is thus perpendicular to KL [Prop. 3.18]. Thus, each of
the angles at C is a right-angle. So, for the same (reasons), the angles at B and D are also right-
angles. And since angle FCK is a right-angle, the (square) on FK is thus equal to the (sum of
the squares) on FC and CK [Prop. 1.47]. So, for the same (reasons), the (square) on FK is also
equal to the (sum of the squares) on FB and BK. So that the (sum of the squares) on FC and
CK is equal to the (sum of the squares) on FB and BK, of which the (square) on FC is equal
to the (square) on FB. Thus, the remaining (square) on CK is equal to the remaining (square)
on BK. Thus, BK (is) equal to CK. And since FB is equal to FC, and FK (is) common, the
two (straight-lines) BF, FK are equal to the two (straight-lines) CF, FK. And the base BK
[is] equal to the base CK. Thus, angle BFK is equal to [angle] KFC [Prop. 1.8]. And BKF (is
equal) to FKC [Prop. 1.8]. Thus, BFC (is) double KFC, and BKC (is double) FKC. So, for
the same (reasons), CFD is also double CFL, and DLC (is also double) FLC. And since circum-
54
2`

; : v pc ui , c uo uo . | c| : c|
, v . v v u | .
c : | v c :. op | c
e , , c; e , : i v c| o .
, o | i. c| v : c| uo uo , | c
pc uo uo , c uo uo , | uo v
uo c :. op | c e uo , , c;
e uo , : | v | uo , , , , :
v i. i v c| o . c c | i, |
| o .
[| o v i | i ] o
c .
24
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 12
-ference BC is equal to CD, angle BFC is also equal to CFD [Prop. 3.27]. And BFC is double
KFC, and DFC (is double) LFC. Thus, KFC is also equal to LFC. And angle FCK is also
equal to FCL. So, FKC and FLC are two triangles having two angles equal to two angles, and
one side equal to one side, (namely) their common (side) FC. Thus, they will also have the
remaining sides equal to the (corresponding) remaining sides, and the remaining angle to the
remaining angle [Prop. 1.26]. Thus, the straight-line KC (is) equal to CL, and the angle FKC
to FLC. And since KC is equal to LC, KL (is) thus double KC. So, for the same (reasons), it
can be shown that HK (is) also double BK. And BK is equal to KC. Thus, HK is also equal
to KL. So, similarly, each of HG, GM, and ML can also be shown (to be) equal to each of
HK and KL. Thus, pentagon GHKLM is equilateral. So I say that (it is) also equiangular. For
since angle FKC is equal to FLC, and HKL was shown (to be) double FKC, and KLM double
FLC, HKL is thus also equal to KLM. So, similarly, each of KHG, HGM, and GML can also
be shown (to be) equal to each of HKL and KLM. Thus, the ve angles GHK, HKL, KLM,
LMG, and MGH are equal to one another. Thus, the pentagon GHKLM is equiangular. And it
was also shown (to be) equilateral, and has been circumscribed about circle ABCDE.
[Thus, an equilateral and equiangular pentagon has been circumscribed about the given circle].
2

i o c , o c i | i, c.
o c i | i o i i o
c.
p v c e uo , e uo c e , ue
| vo u p, o p v | , ui, c |
, , ui. | c| : c| , c , | , |
i , : i | uo ; uo c] : v
c :, | o ; ; c :, | | |
i i : c, u i | : | u : v uo
uo . | c| c uo uo , : c pc uo uo
, c uo uo , | uo v uo c : v uo
uo v uo p uo u. op
, o | c e uo , p uo c e ,
ue. vo u p c| v , , , , u |
, , , , . | c| : c| uo uo , c| c | o
uo o] uo :, c v , v |
: c | p v p; ; : ue u uo
p e : e | v v v v i i i : c : v
;. op , o | c e , , c;
e , : c | v ui | , , , , : v i. o
v ; ; p c c| e , , , , p | v e
e p | c e , , , , ue v o ov | v o
i , , , , p . i v u c ue, vv pi u, p
p; u o ov v v vp co u o
26
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 13
H
A
G
B
C K D
L
E
M
F
To inscribe a circle in a given pentagon, which is equilateral and equiangular.
Let ABCDE be the given equilateral and equiangular pentagon. So it is required to inscribe a
circle in pentagon ABCDE.
For let angles BCD and CDE have each been cut in half by each of the straight-lines CF and DF
(respectively) [Prop. 1.9]. And from the point F, at which the straight-lines CF and DF meet
one another, let the straight-lines FB, FA, and FE have been joined. And since BC is equal to
CD, and CF (is) common, the two (straight-lines) BC, CF are equal to the two (straight-lines)
DC, CF. And angle BCF [is] equal to angle DCF. Thus, the base BF is equal to the base
DF, and triangle BCF is equal to triangle DCF, and the remaining angles will be equal to the
(corresponding) remaining angles, which the equal sides subtend [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, angle CBF
(is) equal to CDF. And since CDE is double CDF, and CDE (is) equal to ABC, and CDF to
CBF, CBA is thus also double CBF. Thus, angle ABF is equal to FBC. Thus, angle ABC has
been cut in half by the straight-line BF. So, similarly, it can be shown that BAE and AED have
each been cut in half by each of the straight-lines FA and FE (respectively). So let FG, FH, FK,
FL, and FM have been drawn from point F, perpendicular to the straight-lines AB, BC, CD,
DE, and EA (respectively) [Prop. 1.12]. And since angle HCF is equal to KCF, and the right-
angle FHC is also equal to the [right-angle] FKC, FHC and FKC are two triangles having
two angles equal to two angles, and one side equal to one side, (namely) their common (side)
FC, subtending one of the equal angles. Thus, they will also have the remaining sides equal to
the (corresponding) remaining sides [Prop. 1.26]. Thus, the perpendicular FH (is) equal to the
perpendicular FK. So, similarly, it can be shown that FL, FM, and FG are each equal to each of
FH and FK. Thus, the ve straight-lines FG, FH, FK, FL, and FM are equal to one another.
Thus, the circle drawn with center F, and radius one of G, H, K, L, or M, will also go through
the remaining points, and will touch the straight-lines AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA, on account of
2

v c. u v o ; ; p c c| e , , , , p
p pi v , , , , u c v ue.
e o .
i v o c , o c i | i, c o
c .
28
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 13
the angles at points G, H, K, L, and M being right-angles. For if it does not touch them, but cuts
them, it follows that a (straight-line) drawn at right-angles to the diameter of the circle, from the
end, falls inside the circle. The very thing was shown (to be) absurd [Prop. 3.16]. Thus, the circle
drawn with center F, and radius one of G, H, K, L, or M, does not cut the straight-lines AB,
BC, CD, DE, or EA. Thus, it will touch them. Let it have been drawn, like GHKLM (in the
gure).
Thus, a circle has been inscribed in the given pentagon, which is equilateral and equiangular.
29

| o c , o c i | i, .
o c , o c i | i, o i | o
.
p c e uo , e uo c e , , | vo
u p, o p | ui, c| v , , pi c ui |
, , . op ; o , o | c e uo , ,
e p uo c e , , ue. | c| : c| uo
uo , c pc uo p uo , c uo p
uo , | uo v uo c : e | v ;
c :. op , o | c e , , c; e , c
: | v ui | , , , , : v i. o v ; ; |
p c| e , , , , p | v e e p
| c pp. | c o .
| v o c , o c i | i,
o c .
280
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 14
F
A
B
C D
E
To circumscribe a circle about a given pentagon, which is equilateral and equiangular.
Let ABCDE be the given pentagon, which is equilateral and equiangular. So it is required to
circumscribe a circle about the pentagon ABCDE.
So let angles BCD and CDE have each been cut in half by each of the (straight-lines) CF and
DF (respectively) [Prop. 1.9]. And let the straight-lines FB, FA, and FE have been joined from
point F, at which the straight-lines meet, to the points B, A, and E (respectively). So, similarly,
to the (proposition) before this (one), it can be shown that angles CBA, BAE, and AED have
also each been cut in half by each of the straight-lines FB, FA, and FE (respectively). And since
angle BCD is equal to CDE, and FCD is half of BCD, and CDF half of CDE, FCD is thus also
equal to FDC. So that side FC is also equal to side FD [Prop. 1.6]. So, similarly, it can be shown
that FB, FA, and FE are also each equal to each of FC and FD. Thus, the ve straight-lines
FA, FB, FC, FD, and FE are equal to one another. Thus, the circle drawn with center F, and
radius one of FA, FB, FC, FD, or FE, will also go through the remaining points, and will have
been circumscribed. Let it have been (so) circumscribed, and let it be ABCDE.
Thus, a circle has been circumscribed about the given pentagon, which is equilateral and equian-
gular. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
28l

i o c i | i c.
o | o i i o c i
| i c.
u p , | i o u o , |
; pc ; p c ; o , | ci | ,
c| v , pi, | c | , , , , , , o
o c i c | i.
| v o pi c| u , : c| . , c|
o pi c| u , : c| . v c
: | v : c i v c| o | | i v
uu | uo , , : v i, c e ie
| o : v i i | i u | oi
: v uo c| oe. op | uo
oe. | c| ui c| i v c v uo ,
| oi : i, | v uo c| oe | v uo
, , : v i e | | v ui | uo ,
, : i| i uo , , ]. | c v | uo , , ,
, , : v i. | c : c| : e | c
v | , , , , , : v i. uo c v :
| : ui u | c v ui : v i i v c|
c. , o | i. c| v : c|
;, o v o c
282
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 15
C
H
D
B
A
G
F
E
To inscribe an equilateral and equiangular hexagon in a given circle.
Let ABCDEF be the given circle. So it is required to inscribe an equilateral and equiangular
hexagon in circle ABCDEF.
Let the diameter AD of circle ABCDEF have been drawn,
55
and let the center G of the circle
have been found [Prop. 3.1]. And let the circle EGCH have been drawn, with center D, and
radius DG. And EG and CG being joined, let them have been drawn across (the circle) to points
B and F (respectively). And let AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, and FA have been joined. I say that the
hexagon ABCDEF is equilateral and equiangular.
For since point G is the center of circle ABCDEF, GE is equal to GD. Again, since point D is
the center of circle GCH, DE is equal to DG. But, GE was shown (to be) equal to GD. Thus,
GE is also equal to ED. Thus, triangle EGD is equilateral. Thus, its three angles EGD, GDE,
and DEG are also equal to one another, inasmuch as the angles at the base of isosceles triangles
are equal to one another [Prop. 1.5]. And the three angles of the triangle are equal to two right-
angles [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, angle EGD is one third of two right-angles. So, similarly, DGC can
also be shown (to be) one third of two right-angles. And since the straight-line CG, standing on
EB, makes adjacent angles EGC and CGB equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.13], the remaining
angle CGB is thus also equal to one third of two right-angles. Thus, angles EGD, DGC, and
CGB are equal to one another. And hence the (angles) opposite to them BGA, AGF, and FGE
are also equal [to EGD, DGC, and CGB (respectively)] [Prop. 1.15]. Thus, the six angles EGD,
DGC, CGB, BGA, AGF, and FGE are equal to one another. And equal angles stand on equal
55
28`

: | c| pc uo , c| c
uo : v uo uo . op ,
o | | | u c v p : i| c; e uo ,
e i v c| o c. c c | i |
c i o .
i v o c i | i c o c
.
p
, o u c v : c| c u u .
p c i c| u cv v e v o cp
u vp, | o c i | i
v i c| u ip. | c v e op i c| u
ip i o c c cp | p o c .
284
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 15
circumferences [Prop. 3.26]. Thus, the six circumferences AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, and FA are
equal to one another. And equal straight-lines subtend equal circumferences [Prop. 3.29]. Thus,
the six straight-lines (AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, and FA) are equal to one another. Thus, hexagon
ABCDEF is equilateral. So, I say that (it is) also equiangular. For since circumference FA is
equal to circumference ED, let circumference ABCD have been added to both. Thus, the whole
of FABCD is equal to the whole of EDCBA. And angle FED stands on circumference FABCD,
and angle AFE on circumference EDCBA. Thus, angle AFE is equal to DEF [Prop. 3.27].
Similarly, it can also be shown that the remaining angles of hexagon ABCDEF are individually
equal to each of angles AFE and FED. Thus, hexagon ABCDEF is equiangular. And it was
also shown (to be) equilateral. And it has been inscribed in circle ABCDE.
Thus, an equilateral and equiangular hexagon has been inscribed in the given circle. (Which is)
Corollary
So, from this, (it is) manifest that a side of the hexagon is equal to the radius of the circle.
And similarly to a pentagon, if we draw tangents to the circle through the (sixfold) divisions of
the (circumference of the) circle, an equilateral and equiangular hexagon can be circumscribed
about the circle, analogously to the aforementioned pentagon. And, further, by (means) similar
to the aforementioned pentagon, we can inscribe and circumscribe a circle in (and about) a given
hexagon. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
28

i o i | i c.
o | o i i o i
| i c.
i o pc i u i uo cp
v , c i : v c| o : pp
, pc u u c , c -
p u u c e v e : . p
v o c v e , e c u
.
v v c v , : ui v o c u cpp i
o ] , c i uo cpp i |
i o c .
p c i c| u cv v e v o cp
u vp, | o i |
i. c c v e op i c| u | i o c -
cp | p o c .
286
ELEMENTS BOOK 4
Proposition 16
A
B
E
C
D
To inscribe an equilateral and equiangular fteen-sided gure in a given circle.
Let ABCD be the given circle. So it is required to inscribe an equilateral and equiangular fteen-
sided gure in circle ABCD.
Let the side AC of an equilateral triangle inscribed in (the circle) [Prop. 4.2], and (the side) AB
of an (inscribed) equilateral pentagon [Prop. 4.11], have been inscribed in circle ABCD. Thus,
just as the circle ABCD is (made up) of fteen equal pieces, the circumference ABC, being a
third of the circle, will be (made up) of ve such (pieces), and the circumference AB, being a
fth of the circle, will be (made up) of three. Thus, the remainder BC (will be made up) of two
equal (pieces). Let (circumference) BC have been cut in half at E [Prop. 3.30]. Thus, each of
the circumferences BE and EC is one fteenth of the circle ABCDE.
Thus, if, joining BE and EC, we continuously insert straight-lines equal to them into circle
ABCD[E] [Prop. 4.1], then an equilateral and equiangular fteen-sided gure will have been
inserted into (the circle). (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
And similarly to the pentagon, if we draw tangents to the circle through the (fteenfold) divisions
of the (circumference of the) circle, we can circumscribe an equilateral and equiangular fteen-
sided gure about the circle. And, further, through similar proofs to the pentagon, we can also
inscribe and circumscribe a circle in (and about) a given fteen-sided gure. (Which is) the very
thing it was required to do.
28

ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proportion
56
56
The theory of proportion set out in this book is generally attributed to Eudoxus of Cnidus. The novel feature
of this theory is its ability to deal with irrational magnitudes, which had hitherto been a major stumbling block for
Greek mathematicians. Throughout the footnotes in this book, , , , etc., denote general (possibly irrational)
magnitudes, whereas m, n, l, etc., denote positive integers.

c| p p o c u p, o p o pi.
c o pi u c, o p uo u c.
c| pe ope v .
c o v p , i p v u-
.
; u; ; p | e o | o ,
o v u i e u | i
ou po c c vp u vp
: vp c .
v c o uo c p v .
c e i o pc u u u u
, o c u p u u u
, o e o o p c , o
o o .
c c | o c c.
c p v , o e o o c
o o .
c p v , o e o o
c o o , | v| c op, e i v u.
290
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Denitions
1 A magnitude is a part of a(nother) magnitude, the lesser of the greater, when it measures
the greater.
57
2 And the greater (magnitude is) a multiple of the lesser when it is measured by the lesser.
3 A ratio is a certain type of condition with respect to size of two magnitudes of the same
kind.
58
4 (Those) magnitudes are said to have a ratio with respect to one another which, being mul-
tiplied, are capable of exceeding one another.
59
5 Magnitudes are said to be in the same ratio, the rst to the second, and the third to the
fourth, when equal multiples of the rst and the third either both exceed, are both equal to,
or are both less than, equal multiples of the second and the fourth, respectively, being taken
in corresponding order, according to any kind of multiplication whatever.
60
6 And let magnitudes having the same ratio be called proportional.
61
7 And when for equal multiples (as in Def. 5), the multiple of the rst (magnitude) exceeds
the multiple of the second, and the multiple of the third (magnitude) does not exceed the
multiple of the fourth, then the rst (magnitude) is said to have a greater ratio to the second
than the third (magnitude has) to the fourth.
8 And a proportion in three terms is the smallest (possible).
62
9 And when three magnitudes are proportional, the rst is said to have a squared
63
ratio to
the third with respect to the second.
64
10 And when four magnitudes are (continuously) proportional, the rst is said to have a
cubed
65
ratio to the fourth with respect to the second.
66
And so on, similarly, in successive
order, whatever the (continuous) proportion might be.
57
In other words, is said to be a part of if = m.
58
In modern notation, the ratio of two magnitudes, and , is denoted : .
59
In other words, has a ratio with respect to if m > and n > , for some m and n.
60
In other words, : :: : if and only if m > n whenever m > n, and m = n whenever m = n,
and m < n whenever m < n, for all m and n. This denition is the kernel of Eudoxus theory of proportion,
and is valid even if , , etc., are irrational.
61
Thus if and have the same ratio as and then they are proportional. In modern notation, : :: : .
62
In modern notation, a proportion in three terms, , and is written: : :: : .
63
Literally, double.
64
In other words, if : :: : then : ::
2
:
2
.
65
Literally, triple.
66
In other words, if : :: : :: : then : ::
3
:
3
.
29l

p p v pc p i p v c cp i cp.
v c| u p o o p | u cp o o
cp.
c| u cp e p o o p e cp.
c| u p pv u cp e co o uo o
cp.
c| u, u o p u cp, o
uo o cp.
c| u p o u, u o p
u cp.
: c| o pe | v ui : o
pp | c ; u; ;, o e c i p o e o
o c, u c i p o e o o c v
e v u e p.
p c v c, o e o pe | v ui : o
e pc c i p p o cp, u c
i p p o cp, e c c i p
cp o v , u c i v o p.
292
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
12 These magnitudes are said to be corresponding (magnitudes): the leading to the leading
(of two ratios), and the following to the following.
13 An alternate ratio is a taking of the (ratio of the) leading (magnitude) to the leading (of
two equal ratios), and (setting it equal to) the (ratio of the) following (magnitude) to the
following.
67
14 An inverse ratio is a taking of the (ratio of the) following (magnitude) as the leading and
the leading (magnitude) as the following.
68
15 A composition of a ratio is a taking of the (ratio of the) leading plus the following (magni-
tudes), as one, to the same following (magnitude).
69
16 A separation of a ratio is a taking of the (ratio of the) excess by which the leading (magni-
tude) exceeds the following to the same following (magnitude).
70
17 A conversion of a ratio is a taking of the (ratio of the) leading (magnitude) to the excess by
which the leading (magnitude) exceeds the following.
71
18 There being several magnitudes, and other (magnitudes) of equal number to them, (which
are) also in the same ratio taken two by two, a ratio via equality (or ex aequali) occurs
when as the rst is to the last in the rst (set of) magnitudes, so the rst (is) to the last in
the second (set of) magnitudes. Or alternately, (it is) a taking of the (ratio of the) outer
(magnitudes) by the removal of the inner (magnitudes).
72
19 There being three magnitudes, and other (magnitudes) of equal number to them, a per-
turbed proportion occurs when as the leading is to the following in the rst (set of) mag-
nitudes, so the leading (is) to the following in the second (set of) magnitudes, and as the
following (is) to some other (i.e., the remaining magnitude) in the rst (set of) magnitudes,
so some other (is) to the leading in the second (set of) magnitudes.
73
67
In other words, if : :: : then the alternate ratio corresponds to : :: : .
68
In other words, if : then the inverse ratio corresponds to : .
69
In other words, if : then the composed ratio corresponds to + : .
70
In other words, if : then the separated ratio corresponds to : .
71
In other words, if : then the converted ratio corresponds to : .
72
In other words, if , , are the rst set of magnitudes, and , , the second set, and : : :: : : , then
the ratio via equality (or ex aequali) corresponds to : :: : .
73
In other words, if , , are the rst set of magnitudes, and , , the second set, and : :: : as well as
: :: : , then the proportion is said to be perturbed.
29`

v ou p ou pe : o c c i -
, o c c e pe c, c | v e
.
ou p v , ou pe e , : o c
c i , o o c o u , c
| v , e , .
| v i c| o u | o u , o v c| c ;
p : ; , u | c ; : ; . o pc i v ; p
: v , , o c i v ; : v , c : o e ,
; e , . | c| : c| o pc ; , o c ; , : v o
; , | v , i , . v v uv : c| o ; , | v , i ,
o v c| c ; : ; , u | c i , : i , o
v c| o u , c | v , e , .
v v ou p ou pe : o c c i
, o c c e pe c, c | v e
o c i.
294
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 1
74
F
A G B C H D
E
If there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever (which are) equal multiples, respectively, of
some (other) magnitudes, of equal number (to them), then as many times as one of the (rst)
magnitudes is (divisible) by one (of the second), so many times will all (of the rst magnitudes)
also (be divisible) by all (of the second).
Let there be any number of magnitudes whatsoever, AB, CD, (which are) equal multiples, re-
spectively, of some (other) magnitudes, E, F, of equal number (to them). I say that as many
times as AB is (divisible) by E, so many times will AB, CD also be (divisible) by E, F.
For since AB, CD are equal multiples of E, F, thus as many magnitudes as (there) are in AB
equal to E, so many (are there) also in CD equal to F. Let AB have been divided into magni-
tudes AG, GB, equal to E, and CD into (magnitudes) CH, HD, equal to F. So, the number of
(divisions) AG, GB will be equal to the number of (divisions) CH, HD. And since AG is equal to
E, and CH to F, AG (is) thus equal to E, and AG, CH to E, F. So, for the same (reasons), GB
is equal to E, and GB, HD to E, F. Thus, as many (magnitudes) as (there) are in AB equal to
E, so many (are there) also in AB, CD equal to E, F. Thus, as many times as AB is (divisible)
by E, so many times will AB, CD also be (divisible) by E, F.
Thus, if there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever (which are) equal multiples, respec-
tively, of some (other) magnitudes, of equal number (to them), then as many times as one of
the (rst) magnitudes is (divisible) by one (of the second), so many times will all (of the rst
magnitudes) also (be divisible) by all (of the second). (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
74
In modern notation, this proposition reads m +m + = m( + + ).
29

v e i | , c | p
i | c , | c e | p i
c | | c .
e v o u i c | o
u , c c | p o u i | c o
u , o | c e | p o u i
c | | c o u .
| v i c| o u | o u , o v c| c ;
: ; , u | c ; : ; . v v uv | o c| c ; : ; ,
u | c ; : ; o v c| c o; ; : ; , u | c o;
; : ; o v c| o u , c | o u .
| c v e | p o u i c |
| c o u .
v v e i | , c | p
i | c , | c e | p
i c | | c o c i.
296
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 2
75
H
A B G
C
F
D E
If a rst (magnitude) and a third are equal multiples of a second and a fourth (respectively), and
a fth (magnitude) and a sixth (are) also equal multiples of the second and fourth (respectively),
then the rst (magnitude) and the fth, being added together, and the third and the sixth, (being
added together), will also be equal multiples of the second (magnitude) and the fourth (respec-
tively).
For let a rst (magnitude) AB and a third DE be equal multiples of a second C and a fourth F
(respectively). And let a fth (magnitude) BG and a sixth EH also be (other) equal multiples of
the second C and the fourth F (respectively). I say that the rst (magnitude) and the fth, being
added together, (to give) AG, and the third (magnitude) and the sixth, (being added together, to
give) DH, will also be equal multiples of the second (magnitude) C and the fourth F (respec-
tively).
For since AB and DE are equal multiples of C and F (respectively), thus as many (magnitudes)
as (there) are in AB equal to C, so many (are there) also in DE equal to F. And so, for the same
(reasons), as many (magnitudes) as (there) are in BG equal to C, so many (are there) also in EH
equal to F. Thus, as many (magnitudes) as (there) are in the whole of AG equal to C, so many
(are there) also in the whole of DH equal to F. Thus, as many times as AG is (divisible) by C, so
many times will DH also be divisible by F. Thus, the rst (magnitude) and the fth, being added
together, (to give) AG, and the third (magnitude) and the sixth, (being added together, to give)
DH, will also be equal multiples of the second (magnitude) C and the fourth F (respectively).
Thus, if a rst (magnitude) and a third are equal multiples of a second and a fourth (respec-
tively), and a fth (magnitude) and a sixth (are) also equal multiples of the second and fourth
(respectively), then the rst (magnitude) and the fth, being added together, and the third and
sixth, (being added together), will also be equal multiples of the second (magnitude) and the
fourth (respectively). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
75
In modern notation, this propostion reads m +n = (m+n) .
29

v e i | , c i -
u | , | : e c c i c
o pc u o c u .
e v o u i c | o u ,
| i e , i v , , o i c| o
u | o u .
| v i c| o u | o u , o v c| c ;
: ; , u | c ; : ; . o pc i v ; p : v
, , o c i v ; : v , c : o e , ;
e , . | c| i c| o u | o u , : c
o pc ; , o c ; , i v c| o u | o u
. v v uv i c| o u | o ou . c| u e
o u : c| | o u , c c
| p o u i | c o u , |
c v e | p o u i c| |
| c o u .
v v e i | , c u
| i , | : e c c i c
o pc u o c u o c i.
298
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 3
76
A
E K F
H G
C
D
B
L
If a rst (magnitude) and a third are equal multiples of a second and a fourth (respectively), and
equal multiples are taken of the rst and the third, then, via equality, the (magnitudes) taken will
also be equal multiples of the second (magnitude) and the fourth, respectively.
For let a rst (magnitude) A and a third C be equal multiples of a second B and a fourth D
(respectively), and let the equal multiples EF and GH have been taken of A and C (respectively).
I say that EF and GH are equal multiples of B and D (respectively).
For since EF and GH are equal multiples of A and C (respectively), thus as many (magnitudes)
as (there) are in EF equal to A, so many (are there) also in GH equal to C. Let EF have been
divided into magnitudes EK, KF equal to A, and GH into (magnitudes) GL, LH equal to C. So,
the number of (magnitudes) EK, KF will be equal to the number of (magnitudes) GL, LH. And
since A and C are equal multiples of B and D (respectively), and EK (is) equal to A, and GL to
C, EK and GL are thus equal multiples of B and D (respectively). So, for the same (reasons),
KF and LH are equal multiples of B and D (respectively). Therefore, since the rst (magnitude)
EK and the third GL are equal multiples of the second B and the fourth D (respectively), and
the fth (magnitude) KF and the sixth LH are also equal multiples of the second B and the
fourth D (respectively), then the rst (magnitude) and fth, being added together, (to give) EF,
and the third (magnitude) and sixth, (being added together, to give) GH, are thus also equal
multiples of the second (magnitude) B and the fourth D (respectively) [Prop. 5.2].
Thus, if a rst (magnitude) and a third are equal multiples of a second and a fourth (respectively),
and equal multiples are taken of the rst and the third, then, via equality, the (magnitudes) taken
will also be equal multiples of the second (magnitude) and the fourth, respectively. (Which is)
76
In modern notation, this proposition reads m(n) = (mn) .
299

v e o o uo c | o , | v i
u | o v i u |
ou po o uo c .
e v o o o o uo c | o o
o , | i e pc , i v , , e c , v, i c,
i v , , o c| e o o o , u o o o .
i v e pc , i v , , e c , v, i c, i
v , .
[|] c| i c| o pc u , o c u , | : e ,
: v , , : v c| o u | o u . v
v uv i c| o u | o u . | c c e o o
o , u o o o , | : e pc , i v , , e c
, v, i c, i v , , i v u o u , u |
o u , | i :, :, | i c, c. c v pc , e , i
, v c , e , v, i c, i c v e o
o o , u o o o .
v v e o o uo c | o , | v i
u | o v i u |
o uo c ou po o c i.
`00
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 4
77
N
A
B
E
G
K
M
C
D
F
H
L
If a rst (magnitude) has the same ratio to a second that a third (has) to a fourth then equal
multiples of the rst (magnitude) and the third will also have the same ratio to equal multiples
of the second and the fourth, being taken in corresponding order, according to any kind of multi-
plication whatsoever.
For let a rst (magnitude) A have the same ratio to a second B that a third C (has) to a fourth D.
And let equal multiples E and F have been taken of A and C (respectively), and other random
equal multiples G and H of B and D (respectively). I say that as E (is) to G, so F (is) to H.
For let equal multiples K and L have been taken of E and F (respectively), and other random
equal multiples M and N of G and H (respectively).
[And] since E and F are equal multiples of A and C (respectively), and the equal multiples K
and L have been taken of E and F (respectively), K and L are thus equal multiples of A and
C (respectively) [Prop. 5.3]. So, for the same (reasons), M and N are equal multiples of B and
D (respectively). And since as A is to B, so C (is) to D, and the equal multiples K and L have
been taken of A and C (respectively), and the other random equal multiples M and N of B and
D (respectively), then if K exceeds M then L also exceeds N, and if (K is) equal (to M then L is
also) equal (to N), and if (K is) less (than M then L is also) less (than N) [Def. 5.5]. And K and
L are equal multiples of E and F (respectively), and M and N other random equal multiples of
G and H (respectively). Thus, as E (is) to G, so F (is) to H [Def. 5.5].
Thus, if a rst (magnitude) has the same ratio to a second that a third (has) to a fourth then
equal multiples of the rst (magnitude) and the third will also have the same ratio to equal mul-
tiples of the second and the fourth, being taken in corresponding order, according to any kind of
multiplication whatsoever. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
77
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : then m : n :: m : n, for all m and n.
`0l

v p p i , o vc v, | o o
u u i c , o c o o u o.
v o p u i c , o vc o
v u , o | o o u u i c ,
o c o o o u .
c o u , | o u .
| c| i c| o u | o u , i v c| -
o u | o u . i c i o u |
o u . i v c| o c e , : v o
; . o v o o v o ; ; : c. | c| i
c| o u | o u , : c o ; , i v c|
o u | o u . i c u o u
| o u i v c| o u | o u . |
o v o u u i c , o c o o
o u .
v v p p i , o vc v, | o
o u u i c , o c | o o u o o c
i.
`02
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 5
78
D
A
G C
E
F
B
If a magnitude is the same multiple of a magnitude that a (part) taken away (is) of a (part) taken
away (respectively) then the remainder will also be the same multiple of the remainder as that
which the whole (is) of the whole (respectively).
For let the magnitude AB be the same multiple of the magnitude CD that the (part) taken
away AE (is) of the (part) taken away CF (respectively). I say that the remainder EB will also
be the same multiple of the remainder FD as that which the whole AB (is) of the whole CD
(respectively).
For as many times as AE is (divisible) by CF, so many times let EB also have been made
(divisible) by CG.
And since AE and EB are equal multiples of CF and GC (respectively), AE and AB are thus
equal multiples of CF and GF (respectively) [Prop. 5.1]. And AE and AB are assumed (to
be) equal multiples of CF and CD (respectively). Thus, AB is an equal multiple of each of
GF and CD. Thus, GF (is) equal to CD. Let CF have been subtracted from both. Thus, the
remainder GC is equal to the remainder FD. And since AE and EB are equal multiples of CF
and GC (respectively), and GC (is) equal to DF, AE and EB are thus equal multiples of CF
and FD (respectively). And AE and AB are assumed (to be) equal multiples of CF and CD
(respectively). Thus, EB and AB are equal multiples of FD and CD (respectively). Thus, the
remainder EB will also be the same multiple of the remainder FD as that which the whole AB
(is) of the whole CD (respectively).
Thus, if a magnitude is the same multiple of a magnitude that a (part) taken away (is) of a (part)
taken away (respectively) then the remainder will also be the same multiple of the remainder as
that which the whole (is) of the whole (respectively). (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
78
In modern notation, this proposition reads m m = m( ).
`0`

v p pe i , | v v e ue i
, | v v i ui : c| i ue .
v p v , pe e , i c , | v
v , e ue e , i c , o | v v ,
i , : c| i ue .
v o ; : , o | o ; : c.
v ; : o . c| i c| o u | o u ,
: c o pc ; , o c ; , i v c| o u | o
u . i c u o u | o u : v c|
o u | o u . c| u c e , u i
c| , : v c| o ; . o v o o v o
; ; : c. vv o ; c : | o v ; : c. e
i o ; : c, | o : c ; .
p p, o, ) o u , c | o
u .
v v p pe i , | v v e ue
i , | v v i ui : c| i ue
o c i.
`04
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 6
79
F
G B
C H D
A
K
E
If two magnitudes are equal multiples of two (other) magnitudes, and some (parts) taken away
(from the former magnitudes) are equal multiples of the latter (magnitudes, respectively), then
the remainders are also either equal to the latter (magnitudes), or (are) equal multiples of them
(respectively).
For let two magnitudes AB and CD be equal multiples of two magnitudes E and F (respectively).
And let the (parts) taken away (from the former) AG and CH be equal multiples of E and F (re-
spectively). I say that the remainders GB and HD are also either equal to E and F (respectively),
or (are) equal multiples of them.
For let GB be, rst of all, equal to E. I say that HD is also equal to F.
For let CK be made equal to F. Since AG and CH are equal multiples of E and F (respec-
tively), and GB (is) equal to E, and KC to F, AB and KH are thus equal multiples of E and
F (respectively) [Prop. 5.2]. And AB and CD are assumed (to be) equal multiples of E and F
(respectively). Thus, KH and CD are equal multiples of F and F (respectively). Therefore, KH
and CD are each equal multiples of F. Thus, KH is equal to CD. Let CH have be taken away
from both. Thus, the remainder KC is equal to the remainder HD. But, F is equal to KC. Thus,
HD is also equal to F. Hence, if GB is equal to E then HD will also be equal to F.
So, similarly, we can show that even if GB is a multiple of E then HD will be the same multiple
of F.
Thus, if two magnitudes are equal multiples of two (other) magnitudes, and some (parts) taken
away (from the former magnitudes) are equal multiples of the latter (magnitudes, respectively),
then the remainders are also either equal to the latter (magnitudes), or (are) equal multiples of
them (respectively). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
79
In modern notation, this proposition reads m n = (mn) .
`0

v : o o uo o uo c | o uo o v :.
: p v , , v , o c, p o , o c e ,
o o o uo c , | o o c e , .
i v e pc , i v , , u c v, o c,
o .
| u i c| o u | o u , : c o ; , : v
| o ; . v , o c, o . i v u o u , u | o u ,
| i :, :, | i c, c. c v pc , e , i ,
o c u v, o c, c v e o o o , u o o
o .
], o | o o c e , o uo c .
e v ue op p, o : c| o ; v o
i v u o u , u | u , | i :, :, | i c, c.
c o pc u , v c , e , v, i c, i
c v e o o o , u o o o .
v : v o o uo o uo c | o uo o v :.
p
, o cv p v v , | v v c. o
c i.
`06
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 7
D
B
A
C F
E
Equal (magnitudes) have the same ratio to the same (magnitude), and the latter (magnitude has
the same ratio) to the equal (magnitudes).
Let A and B be equal magnitudes, and C some other random magnitude. I say that A and B each
have the same ratio to C, and (that) C (has the same ratio) to each of A and B.
For let the equal multiples D and E have been taken of A and B (respectively), and the other
random multiple F of C.
Therefore, since D and E are equal multiples of A and B (respectively), and A (is) equal to B,
D (is) thus also equal to E. And F (is) different, at random. Thus, if D exceeds F then E also
exceeds F, and if (D is) equal (to F then E is also) equal (to F), and if (D is) less (than F then E
is also) less (than F). And D and E are equal multiples of A and B (respectively), and F another
random multiple of C. Thus, as A (is) to C, so B (is) to C [Def. 5.5].
[So] I say that C
80
also has the same ratio to each of A and B.
For, similarly, we can show, by the same construction, that D is equal to E. And F (has) some
other (value). Thus, if F exceeds D then it also exceeds E, and if (F is) equal (to D then it is
also) equal (to E), and if (F is) less (than D then it is also) less (than E). And F is a multiple of
C, and D and E other random equal multiples of A and B. Thus, as C (is) to A, so C (is) to B
[Def. 5.5].
Thus, equal (magnitudes) have the same ratio to the same (magnitude), and the latter (magni-
tude has the same ratio) to the equal (magnitudes).
Corollary
81
So (it is) clear, from this, that if some magnitudes are proportional then they will also be propor-
tional inversely. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
80
The Greek text has E, which is obviously a mistake.
81
In modern notation, this corollary reads that if : :: : then : :: : .
`0

e v pe o pi o o uo p c o c. | o uo
o o c p c o o pi.
v p v , , | c pi o , v , o c, o , o o
o o p c o o o , | o o o p
c o o .
| v pi c o u , ; : o o c e ,
p c c u pi. c o c u ,
| o , | c uu o pi o u , |
o c o u , | o pc u o c
u | i u pc o , c o , | c c| i, c
i o pp pc u , c pi u . i, |
c o pc u , c pi u .
| u o u c| c, o v u u c c. | c|
i c| o u | o u , i v c|
o u | o u . i c o u | o u
i v c| o u | o u . v , v e ,
i c| . , c| i c| o u | o u ,
: c o ; , : v | o ; . o c u u c c u v
o u c c. pi c o u o v o p e ,
pi c. vv p v , ; c :, c o u
c, p c v , u c , c c | o u
p v v , ; : c. vv o e , pi c o v
u u o c u u u. c v pc, e , i -
`08
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 8
M
F G H
C
F H G
A E B A E B
C
N N
L L
D D
K K
M
For unequal magnitudes, the greater (magnitude) has a greater ratio than the lesser to the same
(magnitude). And the latter (magnitude) has a greater ratio to the lesser (magnitude) than to
the greater.
Let AB and C be unequal magnitudes, and let AB be the greater (of the two), and D another
random magnitude. I say that AB has a greater ratio to D than C (has) to D, and (that) D has a
greater ratio to C than (it has) to AB.
For since AB is greater than C, let BE be made equal to C. So, the lesser of AE and EB, being
multiplied, will sometimes be greater than D [Def. 5.4]. First of all, let AE be less than EB, and
let AE have been multiplied, and let FG be a multiple of it which (is) greater than D. And as
many times as FG is (divisible) by AE, so many times let GH also have become (divisible) by
EB, and K by C. And let the double multiple L of D have been taken, and the triple multiple M,
and several more, (each increasing) in order by one, until the (multiple) taken becomes the rst
multiple of D (which is) greater than K. Let it have been taken, and let it also be the quadruple
multiple N of Dthe rst (multiple) greater than K.
Therefore, since K is less than N rst, K is thus not less than M. And since FG and GH are equal
multiples of AE and EB (respectively), FG and FH are thus equal multiples of AE and AB
(respectively) [Prop. 5.1]. And FG and K are equal multiples of AE and C (respectively). Thus,
FH and K are equal multiples of AB and C (respectively). Thus, FH, K are equal multiples of
AB, C. Again, since GH and K are equal multiples of EB and C, and EB (is) equal to C, GH
(is) thus also equal to K. And K is not less than M. Thus, GH not less than M either. And FG
(is) greater than D. Thus, the whole of FH is greater than D and M (added) together. But, D
and M (added) together is equal to N, inasmuch as M is three times D, and M and D (added)
together is four times D, and N is also four times D.Thus, M and D (added) together is equal to
`09

-, o c u v, o c, o v o o p
c o o o .
, o | o o o p c o o o .
e v ue op p, o o pc u u, o c
u u u. c o pc u , v c , e , v,
i c, i o v o o p c o o o .
v o u pi c. o c o p c c
u pi. , | c o pc u , pi c u
| o c o u , | o pc u ,
o c u . op p, o v , e , i c| |
i op o pc u , c pi u e o
u u c c. pi c o u o v o e , , u ,
u. o c u u u, c | o pi o u , u
, u u u. | e u i c p v.
e v v pe o pi o o uo p c o c | o
uo o o c p c o o pi o c i.
`l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 8
N. But, FH is greater than M and D. Thus, FH exceeds N. And K does not exceed N. And FH,
K are equal multiples of AB, C, and N another random multiple of D. Thus, AB has a greater
ratio to D than C (has) to D [Def. 5.7].
So, I say that D also has a greater ratio to C than D (has) to AB.
For, similarly, by the same construction, we can show that N exceeds K, and N does not exceed
FH. And N is a multiple of D, and FH, K other random equal multiples of AB, C (respectively).
Thus, D has a greater ratio to C than D (has) to AB [Def. 5.5].
And so let AE be greater than EB. So, the lesser, EB, being multiplied, will sometimes be greater
than D. Let it have been multiplied, and let GH be a multiple of EB (which is) greater than D.
And as many times as GH is (divisible) by EB, so many times let FG also have become (divisible)
by AE, and K by C. So, similarly (to the above), we can show that FH and K are equal multiples
of AB and C (respectively). And, similarly (to the above), let the multiple N of D, (which is)
the rst (multiple) greater than FG, have been taken. So, FG is again not less than M. And GH
(is) greater than D. Thus, the whole of FH exceeds D and M, that is to say N. And K does not
exceed N, inasmuch as FG, which (is) greater than GHthat is to say, Kalso does not exceed
N. And, following the above (arguments), we (can) complete the proof in the same manner.
Thus, for unequal magnitudes, the greater (magnitude) has a greater ratio than the lesser to the
same (magnitude). And the latter (magnitude) has a greater ratio to the lesser (magnitude) than
to the greater. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`ll

v o o uo o uo c o : v c | o i o uo o uo
c , ci : c.
v c e , o o o uo , o : c| o ; .
i v p, u i c e , o o o uo | c : v c|
o ; .
o o c e , o uo , o : c| o ;
.
i v p, u i o o c e , o uo | c : v c|
o ; .
v v o o uo o uo c : v c | o i o uo o
uo c , ci : c o c i.
`l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 9
B
C
A
(Magnitudes) having the same ratio to the same (magnitude) are equal to one another. And those
(magnitudes) to which the same (magnitude) has the same ratio are equal.
For let A and B each have the same ratio to C. I say that A is equal to B.
For if not, A and B would not each have the same ratio to C [Prop. 5.8]. But they do. Thus, A is
equal to B.
So, again, let C have the same ratio to each of A and B. I say that A is equal to B.
For if not, C would not have the same ratio to each of A and B [Prop. 5.8]. But it does. Thus, A
is equal to B.
Thus, (magnitudes) having the same ratio to the same (magnitude) are equal to one another. And
those (magnitudes) to which the same (magnitude) has the same ratio are equal. (Which is) the
`l`

e o o uo c o p c ci pi c o o c o
uo p c, ci c c.
v o o o p o o o , o pi c o
u .
i v p, : c| o ; c. : pc u u c| o ; c
v i e , o o o uo | . u c u v : c| o ; .
uc p c c o u o v i o o c | o
o o . u c u v c c o u . c c uc : pi v
c| o u .
o o o p o o o , o c c
o u .
i v p, : c| pi. : pc u u c o ; o v i o
c e , o uo | . u c u v : c| o ; . uc p
pi c o u o v i o o c | o o . u
c u v pi c o u . c , o uc : c v c| o u
.
e v o o uo c o p c pi c | o o o uo
p c, ci c c o c i.
`l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 10
C
A B
For (magnitudes) having a ratio to the same (magnitude), that (magnitude which) has the greater
ratio is (the) greater. And that (magnitude) to which the latter (magnitude) has a greater ratio is
(the) lesser.
For let A have a greater ratio to C than B (has) to C. I say that A is greater than B.
For if not, A is surely either equal to or less than B. In fact, A is not equal to B. For (then) A
and B would each have the same ratio to C [Prop. 5.7]. But they do not. Thus, A is not equal to
B. Neither, indeed, is A less than B. For (then) A would have a lesser ratio to C than B (has) to
C [Prop. 5.8]. But it does not. Thus, A is not less than B. And it was shown not (to be) equal
either. Thus, A is greater than B.
So, again, let C have a greater ratio to B than C (has) to A. I say that B is less than A.
For if not, (it is) surely either equal or greater. In fact, B is not equal to A. For (then) C would
have the same ratio to each of A and B [Prop. 5.7]. But it does not. Thus, A is not equal to B.
Neither, indeed, is B greater than A. For (then) C would have a lesser ratio to B than (it has) to
A [Prop. 5.8]. But it does not. Thus, B is not greater than A. And it was shown that (it is) not
equal (to A) either. Thus, B is less than A.
Thus, for (magnitudes) having a ratio to the same (magnitude), that (magnitude which) has the
greater ratio is (the) greater. And that (magnitude) to which the latter (magnitude) has a greater
ratio is (the) lesser. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`l

| ; u; ; | u| | v i| | u.
v e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o o o , u
o o o , o c| e o o o , u o o o .
i v e , , i v , , , e c , , v, i c,
i v , , .
| c c e o o o , u o o o , | : e pc , i
v , , e c , v, i c, i v , , i v
u o u , u | o u , | i : c, :, | i c, c.
, c c e o o o , u o o o , | : e , i
v , , e c , v, i c, i v , , i v
u o u , u | o u , | i :, :, | i c, c. vv
i ui o u , ui | o u , | i :, :, | i c, c
e | i u o u , u | o u , | i :, :, | i c,
c. c v pc , e , i , v c , e , v, i
c, i c v e o o o , u o o o .
| v ; u; ; | u| | v i| | u o c i.
`l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 11
82
N
G
A
B
L
H
M
D
C E
F
K
(Ratios which are) the same with the same ratio are also the same with one another.
For let it be that as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D, and as C (is) to D, so E (is) to F. I say that as A
is to B, so E (is) to F.
For let the equal multiples G, H, K have been taken of A, C, E (respectively), and the other
random equal multiples L, M, N of B, D, F (respectively).
And since as A is to B, so C (is) to D, and the equal multiples G and H have been taken of A and
C (respectively), and the other random equal multiples L and M of B and D (respectively), thus
if G exceeds L then H also exceeds M, and if (G is) equal (to L then H is also) equal (to M),
and if (G is) less (than L then H is also) less (than M) [Def. 5.5]. Again, since as C is to D, so E
(is) to F, and the equal multiples H and K have been taken of C and E (respectively), and the
other random equal multiples M and N of D and F (respectively), thus if H exceeds M then K
also exceeds N, and if (H is) equal (to M then K is also) equal (to N), and if (H is) less (than
M then K is also) less (than N) [Def. 5.5]. But if H was exceeding M then G was also exceeding
L, and if (H was) equal (to M then G was also) equal (to L), and if (H was) less (than M then
G was also) less (than L). And, hence, if G exceeds L then K also exceeds N, and if (G is) equal
(to L then K is also) equal (to N), and if (G is) less (than L then K is also) less (than N). And G
and K are equal multiples of A and E (respectively), and L and N other random equal multiples
of B and F (respectively). Thus, as A is to B, so E (is) to F [Def. 5.5].
Thus, (ratios which are) the same with the same ratio are also the same with one another. (Which
82
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : :: : then : :: : .
`l

v ou p v, c e c e p o c e cp, u
v v p o v v cp.
ou p v v , , , , , , e o o o , u o
o o , | o o , o c| e o o o , u v , , o v
, , .
i v e pc , , i v , , , e c , , v, i c,
i v , , .
| c c e o o o , u o o o , | o o o , | : e
pc , , i v , , e c , , v, i c, i
v , , , i v u o u , u | o u , | o u , | i
:, :, | i c, c. e | i u o u , u | v , ,
e , , , | i :, :, | i c, c. c o pc | v , , u
| e , , i , c cv ou p ou pe
: o c c i , o c c e pe c,
c | v e . v v uv | o | v , , u
| e , , i c| c v e o o o , u v , ,
o v , , .
v v ou p v, c e c e p o c e cp,
u v v p o v v cp o c i.
`l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 12
83
N
A C E
B D F
G
H
K
L
M
If there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever (which are) proportional then as one of the
leading (magnitudes is) to one of the following, so will all of the leading (magnitudes) be to all
of the following.
Let there be any number of magnitudes whatsoever, A, B, C, D, E, F, (which are) proportional,
(so that) as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D, and E to F. I say that as A is to B, so A, C, E (are) to B,
D, F.
For let the equal multiples G, H, K have been taken of A, C, E (respectively), and the other
random equal multiples L, M, N of B, D, F (respectively).
And since as A is to B, so C (is) to D, and E to F, and the equal multiples G, H, K have been
taken of A, C, E (respectively), and the other random equal multiples L, M, N of B, D, F
(respectively), thus if G exceeds L then H also exceeds M, and K (exceeds) N, and if (G is)
equal (to L then H is also) equal (to M, and K to N), and if (G is) less (than L then H is also)
less (than M, and K than N) [Def. 5.5]. And, hence, if G exceeds L then G, H, K also exceed L,
M, N, and if (G is) equal (to L then G, H, K are also) equal (to L, M, N) and if (G is) less (than
L then G, H, K are also) less (than L, M, N). And G and G, H, K are equal multiples of A and
A, C, E (respectively), inasmuch as if there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever (which
are) equal multiples, respectively, of some (other) magnitudes, of equal number (to them), then
as many times as one of the (rst) magnitudes is (divisible) by one (of the second), so many times
will all (of the rst magnitudes) also (be divisible) by all (of the second) [Prop. 5.1]. So, for the
same (reasons), L and L, M, N are also equal multiples of B and B, D, F (respectively). Thus,
as A is to B, so A, C, E (are) to B, D, F (respectively).
Thus, if there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever (which are) proportional then as one of
the leading (magnitudes is) to one of the following, so will all of the leading (magnitudes) be to
all of the following. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
83
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if :
:: :
:: :
etc. then :
:: ( + + + ) :
(
+ ).
`l9

v e o o uo c | o , c o
p c p o c, | e o p
c p o c.
o , c o o o p c p o o c o
. , o | e o o o p c p o o
c o .
| v c v pc , i , e c , v, i c, i -
, | o pc u u u u, o c u
u u u u, i, | c e pc , i
v , , e c , v, i c, i v , , e o
pc u u, o c u p u | o p c o u ,
c | o u , o c o u , c |
o u .
| c c e o o o , u o o o , | : e pc , i
v , , e c , v, i c, i v , , i v
u o u , u | o u , | i :, :, | i c, c.
u c o u u v | o u . o c u u u
c v pc , e , i , v c , e , v, i c, i
o v o o p c o o o .
v v e o o uo c | o , c
o p c p o c, | e o p
c p o c o c i.
`20
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 13
84
L
M
N
A
B
C
D
G
K
E
F
H
If a rst (magnitude) has the same ratio to a second that a third (has) to a fourth, and the
third (magnitude) has a greater ratio to the fourth than a fth (has) to a sixth, then the rst
(magnitude) will also have a greater ratio to the second than the fth (has) to the sixth.
For let a rst (magnitude) A have the same ratio to a second B that a third C (has) to a fourth
D, and let the third (magnitude) C have a greater ratio to the fourth D than a fth E (has) to a
sixth F. I say that the rst (magnitude) A will also have a greater ratio to the second B than the
fth E (has) to the sixth F.
For since there are some equal multiples of C and E, and other random equal multiples of D
and F, (for which) the multiple of C exceeds the (multiple) of D, and the multiple of E does not
exceed the multiple of F [Def. 5.7], let them have been taken. And let Gand H be equal multiples
of C and E (respectively), and K and L other random equal multiples of D and F (respectively),
such that G exceeds K, but H does not exceed L. And as many times as G is (divisible) by C, so
many times let M be (divisible) by A. And as many times as K (is divisible) by D, so many times
let N be (divisible) by B.
And since as A is to B, so C (is) to D, and the equal multiples M and G have been taken of A
and C (respectively), and the other random equal multiples N and K of B and D (respectively),
thus if M exceeds N then G exceeds K, and if (M is) equal (to N then G is also) equal (to K),
and if (M is) less (than N then G is also) less (than K) [Def. 5.5]. And G exceeds K. Thus,
M also exceeds N. And H does not exceeds L. And M and H are equal multiples of A and E
(respectively), and N and L other random equal multiples of B and F (respectively). Thus, A
has a greater ratio to B than E (has) to F [Def. 5.7].
Thus, if a rst (magnitude) has the same ratio to a second that a third (has) to a fourth, and
a third (magnitude) has a greater ratio to a fourth than a fth (has) to a sixth, then the rst
(magnitude) will also have a greater ratio to the second than the fth (has) to the sixth. (Which
84
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : > : then : > : .
`2l

v e o o uo c | o , o c e
u pi , | o u pi c, i :, :, i c,
c.
e v o o o uo c | o o
, pi c c o u , o | o u pi c.
| v o u pi c, v , o c, p] o , o v o o
p c o o o . e c o o o , u o o o | o
v o o p c o o o . o o c o uo p
c, ci c c c v o u e pi c o u .
p ip, o i : o ; , : c | o ; , v c o
u , c c | o u .
v v e o o uo c | o , o c e
u pi , | o u pi c, i :, :, i c,
c o c i.
`22
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 14
85
C A
B D
If a rst (magnitude) has the same ratio to a second that a third (has) to a fourth, and the rst
(magnitude) is greater than the third, then the second will also be greater than the fourth. And
if (the rst magnitude is) equal (to the third then the second will also be) equal (to the fourth).
And if (the rst magnitude is) less (than the third then the second will also be) less (than the
fourth).
For let a rst (magnitude) A have the same ratio to a second B that a third C (has) to a fourth
D. And let A be greater than C. I say that B is also greater than D.
For since A is greater than C, and B (is) another random [magnitude], A thus has a greater ratio
to B than C (has) to B [Prop. 5.8]. And as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D. Thus, C also has a greater
ratio to D than C (has) to B. And that (magnitude) to which the same (magnitude) has a greater
ratio is the lesser [Prop. 5.10]. Thus, D (is) less than B. Hence, B is greater than D.
So, similarly, we can show that even if A is equal to C then B will also be equal to D, and even if
A is less than C then B will also be less than D.
Thus, if a rst (magnitude) has the same ratio to a second that a third (has) to a fourth, and the
rst (magnitude) is greater than the third, then the second will also be greater than the fourth.
And if (the rst magnitude is) equal (to the third then the second will also be) equal (to the
fourth). And if (the rst magnitude is) less (than the third then the second will also be) less (than
the fourth). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
85
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : then >=< as >=< .
`2`

v p i e o uo c .
v i o u | u , o c| e o o
o , u o o o .
| v i c| o u | o u , o v c| c ;
p : ; , u | c ; : ; . o pc i v ; : v
, , , o c i v ; : v , , c : o e ,
, , ; e , , . | c| : c| v , , v, c c
| v , , : v, c v e o o o , u o o o
, | o o o . c v | e c e p o c e cp, u
v v p o v v cp c v e o o o , u o
o o . : c o pc ; , o c ; c v e o o o u o
o o .
v v p i e o uo c o
c i.
`24
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 15
86
E
A G H
D K L
F
C
B
Parts have the same ratio as similar multiples, taken in corresponding order.
For let AB and DE be equal multiples of C and F (respectively). I say that as C is to F, so AB
(is) to DE.
For since AB and DE are equal multiples of C and F (respectively), thus as many magnitudes as
there are in AB equal to C, so many (are there) also in DE equal to F. Let AB have been divided
into (magnitudes) AG, GH, HB, equal to C, and DE into (magnitudes) DK, KL, LE, equal to
F. So, the number of (magnitudes) AG, GH, HB will equal the number of (magnitudes) DK,
KL, LE. And since AG, GH, HB are equal to one another, and DK, KL, LE are also equal to
one another, thus as AG is to DK, so GH (is) to KL, and HB to LE [Prop. 5.7]. And, thus (for
proportional magnitudes), as one of the leading (magnitudes) will be to one of the following, so
all of the leading (magnitudes will be) to all of the following [Prop. 5.12]. Thus, as AG is to DK,
so AB (is) to DE. And AG is equal to C, and DK to F. Thus, as C is to F, so AB (is) to DE.
Thus, parts have the same ratio as similar multiples, taken in corresponding order. (Which is) the
86
In modern notation, this proposition reads that : :: m : m.
`2

v p v , | cv v c.
p v v , , , , e o o o , u o o o
, o | cv v] c, e o o o , u o o o .
i v e pc , i v , , e c , v, i c, i
v , .
| c| i c| o u | o u , v c p i e
o uo c , c v e o o o , u o o o .
e c o o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u o o
o . , c| v , e , i c| , c v e o o o ,
u o o o . e c o o o , u] o o o | e v o o
o , u o o o . cv c p v , o c e u
pi , | o u pi c, i :, :, v c, c. i
v u o u , u | o u , | i :, :, | i c, c.
c v pc , e , i , v c , e , v, i c, i
c v e o o o , u o o o .
v v p v , | cv v c o c i.
`26
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 16
87
H
A
B
E
F
C
D
G
If four magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional alternately.
Let A, B, C and D be four proportional magnitudes, (such that) as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D. I
say that they will also be [proportional] alternately, (so that) as A (is) to C, so B (is) to D.
For let the equal multiples E and F have been taken of A and B (respectively), and the other
random equal multiples G and H of C and D (respectively).
And since E and F are equal multiples of A and B (respectively), and parts have the same ratio
as similar multiples [Prop. 5.15], thus as A is to B, so E (is) to F. But as A (is) to B, so C (is)
to D. And, thus, as C (is) to D, so E (is) to F [Prop. 5.11]. Again, since G and H are equal
multiples of C and D (respectively), thus as C is to D, so G (is) to H [Prop. 5.15]. But as C
(is) to D, [so] E (is) to F. And, thus, as E (is) to F, so G (is) to H [Prop. 5.11]. And if four
magnitudes are proportional, and the rst is greater than the third then the second will also be
greater than the fourth, and if (the rst is) equal (to the third then the second will also be) equal
(to the fourth), and if (the rst is) less (than the third then the second will also be) less (than the
fourth) [Prop. 5.14]. Thus, if E exceeds G then F also exceeds H, and if (E is) equal (to G then
F is also) equal (to H), and if (E is) less (than G then F is also) less (than H). And E and F are
equal multiples of A and B (respectively), and G and H other random equal multiples of C and
D (respectively). Thus, as A is to C, so B (is) to D [Def. 5.5].
Thus, if four magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional alternately. (Which
87
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : then : :: : .
`2

v p p v , | v c.
p p v v , , , , e o o o , u o
o o , o | v c, e o o o , u o
o o .
i v e pc , , , i v , , , , e c
, v, i c, i v , .
| c| i c| o u | o u , i v c|
o u | o u . i c o u
| o u i v c| o u | o u .
, c| i c| o u | o u , i v c|
o u | o u . i c o u
| o u i v c| o u | o u . v ,
v e , i c| . , c| i c| o u
| o u , c c | o u i | o u ,
| c o u i c| | o u . | c c e o
o o , u o o o , | : e pc , i
v , , e c , i v , , i v u o u
, u | o u , | i :, :, | i c, c. u
o u , | u v u u v | o u . v i
ui o u ui | o u u v | o u ,
| u v u u | o u e i u o u
, u | o u . op ip, o i : o ; , :
c | o ; , i c, c. c v pc , e , i
, v c , e , v, i c, i c v e
o o o , u o o o .
v v p p v , | v c o c i.
`28
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 17
88
K
A E B F D
H
P N M
O G
L
C
If composed magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional (when) separarted.
Let AB, BE, CD, and DF be composed magnitudes (which are) proportional, (so that) as AB
(is) to BE, so CD (is) to DF. I say that they will also be proportional (when) separated, (so
that) as AE (is) to EB, so CF (is) to DF.
For let the equal multiples GH, HK, LM, and MN have been taken of AE, EB, CF, and FD
(respectively), and the other random equal multiples KO and NP of EB and FD (respectively).
And since GH and HK are equal multiples of AE and EB (respectively), GH and GK are thus
equal multiples of AE and AB (respectively) [Prop. 5.1]. But GH and LM are equal multiples of
AE and CF (respectively). Thus, GK and LM are equal multiples of AB and CF (respectively).
Again, since LM and MN are equal multiples of CF and FD (respectively), LM and LN are
thus equal multiples of CF and CD (respectively) [Prop. 5.1]. And LM and GK were equal
multiples of CF and AB (respectively). Thus, GK and LN are equal multiples of AB and CD
(respectively). Thus, GK, LN are equal multiples of AB, CD. Again, since HK and MN are
equal multiples of EB and FD (respectively), and KO and NP are also equal multiples of EB
and FD (respectively), then, added together, HO and MP are also equal multiples of EB and
FD (respectively) [Prop. 5.2]. And since as AB (is) to BE, so CD (is) to DF, and the equal
multiples GK, LN have been taken of AB, CD, and the equal multiples HO, MP of EB, FD,
thus if GK exceeds HO then LN also exceeds MP, and if (GK is) equal (to HO then LN is also)
equal (to MP), and if (GK is) less (than HO then LN is also) less (than MP) [Def. 5.5]. So let
GK exceed HO, and thus, HK being taken away from both, GH exceeds KO. But if GK was
exceeding HO then LN was also exceeding MP. Thus, LN also exceeds MP, and, MN being
taken away from both, LM also exceeds NP. Hence, if GH exceeds KO then LM also exceeds
NP. So, similarly, we can show that even if GH is equal to KO then LM will also be equal to
NP, and even if (GH is) less (than KO then LM will also be) less (than NP). And GH, LM are
equal multiples of AE, CF, and KO, NP other random equal multiples of EB, FD. Thus, as AE
is to EB, so CF (is) to FD [Def. 5.5].
Thus, if composed magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional (when) sepa-
rarted. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
88
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if + : :: + : then : :: : .
`29

v p p v , | v c.
p p v v , , , , e o o o , u o
o o , o | v c, e o o o , u o
o o .
i v p c| e o o o , u o o o , c e o o o
, u o o c u o pi.
o c o . | c c e o o o , u o o
o , p p v c e | v c. c v e
o o o , u o o o . u c | e o o o , u
o o o . | e v o o o , u o o o pi c o
e o u u pi v | o o u u .
vv | c o c| v u v c| e o o o , u o
o c u . op p, o uc o pi o uo v.
v v p p v , | v c o c i.
``0
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 18
89
C
A B
D G F
E
If separated magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional (when) composed.
Let AE, EB, CF, and FD be separated magnitudes (which are) proportional, (so that) as AE
(is) to EB, so CF (is) to FD. I say that they will also be proportional (when) composed, (so
that) as AB (is) to BE, so CD (is) to FD.
For if (it is) not (the case that) as AB is to BE, so CD (is) to FD, then it will surely be (the case
that) as AB (is) to BE, so CD is either to some (magnitude) less than FD, or (some magnitude)
greater (than FD).
Let it, rst of all, be to (some magnitude) less (than FD), (namely) DG. And since composed
magnitudes are proportional, (so that) as AB is to BE, so CD (is) to DG, they will thus also be
proportional (when) separated [Prop. 5.17]. Thus, as AE is to EB, so CG (is) to GD. But it was
also assumed that as AE (is) to EB, so CF (is) to FD. Thus, (it is) also (the case that) as CG
(is) to GD, so CF (is) to FD [Prop. 5.11]. And the rst (magnitude) CG (is) greater than the
third CF. Thus, the second (magnitude) GD (is) also greater than the fourth FD [Prop. 5.14].
But (it is) also less. The very thing is impossible. Thus, (it is) not (the case that) as AB is to BE,
so CD (is) to less than FD. Similarly, we can show that neither (is it the case) to greater (than
FD). Thus, (it is the case) to the same (as FD).
Thus, if separated magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional (when) com-
posed. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
89
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : then + : :: + : .
``l

v e o o o, u vc o v, | o o o o o
c e o o o.
v e o o o o o , u vc o o vc o
, o | o o o o o c e o o o o o .
| c e o o o , u o o o , | cv e o o
o , u o o o . | c| p p v c, |
v c, e o o o , u o o o | c, e o
o o , u o o o . e c o o o , u u o o
o o o . | o v o o o o c e o o o
o o .
v v e o o o, u vc o v, | o o o o o
c e o o o o c i].
[| c| c e o o o , u o o o , | cv e o
o o u o o o , p v p v c c c e
o o o , u o o o c v].
p
, o cv p p v , | v v
c o c i.
``2
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 19
90
D
A
C
E
F
B
If as the whole is to the whole so the (part) taken away is to the (part) taken away then the
remainder to the remainder will also be as the whole (is) to the whole.
For let the whole AB be to the whole CD as the (part) taken away AE (is) to the (part) taken
away CF. I say that the remainder EB to the remainder FD will also be as the whole AB (is) to
the whole CD.
For since as AB is to CD, so AE (is) to CF, (it is) also (the case), alternately, (that) as BA (is)
to AE, so DC (is) to CF [Prop. 5.16]. And since composed magnitudes are proportional then
they will also be proportional (when) separated, (so that) as BE (is) to EA, so DF (is) to CF
[Prop. 5.17]. Also, alternately, as BE (is) to DF, so EA (is) to FC [Prop. 5.16]. And it was as-
sumed that as AE (is) to CF, so the whole AB (is) to the whole CD. And, thus, as the remainder
EB (is) to the remainder FD, so the whole AB will be to the whole CD.
Thus, if as the whole is to the whole so the (part) taken away is to the (part) taken away then
the remainder to the remainder will also be as the whole (is) to the whole. [(Which is) the very
thing it was required to show.]
[And since it was shown (that) as AB (is) to CD, so EB (is) to FD, (it is) also (the case), alter-
nately, (that) as AB (is) to BE, so CD (is) to FD. Thus, composed magnitudes are proportional.
And it was shown (that) as BA (is) to AE, so DC (is) to CF. And (the latter) is converted (from
the former).]
Corollary
91
So (it is) clear, from this, that if composed magnitudes are proportional then they will also be
proportional (when) converted. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
90
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : then : :: : .
91
In modern notation, this corollary reads that if : :: : then : :: : .
```

v p | v ui : o , pp | c ; u; ,
: c o e u pi , | o u c pi c, i :,
:, v c, c.
p v , , , | v ui : o v , , , pp
c ; u; ;, e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o o o , u
o o o , : c pi c o u , o | o u pi c,
i :, :, v c, c.
| v pi c o u , v o , o c pi o o uo p
c o c, o v o o p c o o o . v e
pc o o o u] o o o , e c o o o , v u o
o o | o v o o p c o o o . e c o o
uo c o p c pi c. pi v o u . op
p, o i : o ; , : c | o ; , i c, c.
v v p | v ui : o , pp | c ; u;
, : c o e u pi , | o u c pi c, i
:, :, v c, c o c i.
``4
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 20
92
F
B
C
A D
E
If there are three magnitudes, and others of equal number to them, (being) also in the same ratio
taken two by two, and (if), via equality, the rst is greater than the third then the fourth will also
be greater than the sixth. And if (the rst is) equal (to the third then the fourth will also be) equal
(to the sixth). And if (the rst is) less (than the third then the fourth will also be) less (than the
sixth).
Let A, B, and C be three magnitudes, and D, E, F other (magnitudes) of equal number to them,
(being) in the same ratio taken two by two, (so that) as A (is) to B, so D (is) to E, and as B (is)
to C, so E (is) to F. And let A be greater than C, via equality. I say that D will also be greater
than F. And if (A is) equal (to C then D will also be) equal (to F). And if (A is) less (than C
then D will also be) less (than F).
For since A is greater than C, and B some other (magnitude), and the greater (magnitude) has
a greater ratio than the lesser to the same (magnitude) [Prop. 5.8], A thus has a greater ratio
to B than C (has) to B. But as A (is) to B, [so] D (is) to E. And, inversely, as C (is) to B,
so F (is) to E [Prop. 5.7 corr.]. Thus, D also has a greater ratio to E than F (has) to E. And
for (magnitudes) having a ratio to the same (magnitude), that having the greater ratio is greater
[Prop. 5.10]. Thus, D (is) greater than F. Similarly, we can show, that even if A is equal to C
then D will also be equal to F, and even if (A is) less (than C then D will also be) less (than F).
Thus, if there are three magnitudes, and others of equal number to them, (being) also in the same
ratio taken two by two, and (if), via equality, the rst is greater than the third, then the fourth
will also be greater than the sixth. And if (the rst is) equal (to the third then the fourth will also
be) equal (to the sixth). And (if the rst is) less (than the third then the fourth will also be) less
(than the sixth). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
92
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : :: : then >=< as >=< .
``

v p | v ui : o pp | c ; u; ;,
c p ue v, : c o e u pi , | o
u c pi c, i :, :, i c, c.
p v , , | v ui : o v , , , pp
| c ; u; ;, c c p ue v, e pc o o o , u
o o o , e c o o o , u o o o , : c o u pi
c , o | o u pi c, i :, :, i c, c.
| v pi c o u , v o , o v o o p c
o o o . v e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o o
o , v u o o o . | o v o o p c o
o o . o o c o uo p c, ci c c c v c|
o u pi v c| o u . op p, o i : o ; , :
c | o ; , i c, c.
v v p | v ui : o , pp | c ; u;
;, c p ue v, : c o e u pi , | o
u c pi c, i :, :, i c, c o c i.
``6
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 21
93
D
B
A
C
E
F
If there are three magnitudes, and others of equal number to them, (being) also in the same ratio
taken two by two, and (if) their proportion (is) perturbed, and (if), via equality, the rst is greater
than the third then the fourth will also be greater than the sixth. And if (the rst is) equal (to
the third then the fourth will also be) equal (to the sixth). And if (the rst is) less (than the third
then the fourth will also be) less (than the sixth).
Let A, B, and C be three magnitudes, and D, E, F other (magnitudes) of equal number to them,
(being) in the same ratio taken two by two. And let their proportion be perturbed, (so that) as
A (is) to B, so E (is) to F, and as B (is) to C, so D (is) to E. And let A be greater than C, via
equality. I say that D will also be greater than F. And if (A is) equal (to C then D will also be)
equal (to F). And if (A is) less (than C then D will also be) less (than F).
For since A is greater than C, and B some other (magnitude), A thus has a greater ratio to B
than C (has) to B [Prop. 5.8]. But as A (is) to B, so E (is) to F. And, inversely, as C (is) to B,
so E (is) to D [Prop. 5.7 corr.]. Thus, E also has a greater ratio to F than E (has) to D. And
that (magnitude) to which the same (magnitude) has a greater ratio is (the) lesser (magnitude)
[Prop. 5.10]. Thus, F is less than D. Thus, D is greater than F. Similarly, we can show even if A
is equal to C then D will also be equal to F, and even if (A is) less (than C then D will also be)
less (than F).
Thus, if there are three magnitudes, and others of equal number to them, (being) also in the same
ratio taken two by two, and (if) their proportion (is) perturbed, and (if), via equality, the rst is
greater than the third then the fourth will also be greater than the sixth. And if (the rst is) equal
(to the third then the fourth will also be) equal (to the sixth). And if (the rst is) less (than the
third then the fourth will also be) less (than the sixth). (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
93
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : :: : then >=< as >=< .
``

v ou p | v ui : o , pp | c ; u;
;, | : c ; u; ; c.
ou p v , , | v ui : o v , , ,
pp c ; u; ;, e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o
o o , u o o o , o | : c ; u; ; c.
i v e pc , i v , , e c , v, i c, i
v , , | c e , v, i c, i v , .
| c c e o o , u o o , | : e pc , i
v , , e c , v, i c, i v , , c v e
o o o , u o o o . | v uv | e o o o , u o
o o . c| u p c| v , , , | v ui : o v , , ,
pp | c ; u; ;, : v, i u o u , u |
o u , | i :, :, | i c, c. c v pc , e , i
, v c , e , v, i c, i . c v e o
o o , u o o o .
v v ou p | v ui : o , pp c ; u;
;, | : c ; u; ; c o c i.
``8
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 22
94
M
A
D
G
H
B
E
K
L
C
F
N
If there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever, and (some) other (magnitudes) of equal
number to them, (which are) also in the same ratio taken two by two, then they will also be in
the same ratio via equality.
Let there be any number of magnitudes whatsoever, A, B, C, and (some) other (magnitudes), D,
E, F, of equal number to them, (which are) in the same ratio taken two by two, (so that) as A
(is) to B, so D (is) to E, and as B (is) to C, so E (is) to F. I say that they will also be in the same
ratio via equality.
For let the equal multiples G and H have been taken of A and D (respectively), and the other
random equal multiples K and L of B and E (respectively), and the yet other random equal
multiples M and N of C and F (respectively).
And since as A is to B, so D (is) to E, and the equal multiples G and H have been taken of A and
D (respectively), and the other random equal multiples K and L of B and E (respectively), thus
as G is to K, so H (is) to L [Prop. 5.4]. And, so, for the same (reasons), as K (is) to M, so L (is)
to N. Therefore, since G, K, and M are three magnitudes, and H, L, and N other (magnitudes)
of equal number to them, (which are) also in the same ratio taken two by two, thus, via equality,
if G exceeds M then H also exceeds N, and if (G is) equal (to M then H is also) equal (to N),
and if (G is) less (than M then H is also) less (than N) [Prop. 5.20]. And G and H are equal
multiples of A and D (respectively), and M and N other random equal multiples of C and F
(respectively). Thus, as A is to C, so D (is) to F [Def. 5.5].
Thus, if there are any number of magnitudes whatsoever, and (some) other (magnitudes) of equal
number to them, (which are) also in the same ratio taken two by two, then they will also be in
the same ratio via equality. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
94
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : :: : and : :: : then : :: : .
``9

v p | v ui : o pp c ; u; ;,
c p ue v, | : c ; u; ; c.
p v , , | v ui : o pp c ; u;
; v , , , c c p ue v, e pc o o o , u o
o o , e c o o o , u o o o , o c| e o o o
, u o o o .
i e pc , , i v , , , e c , , v, i c,
i v , , .
| c| i c| v , e , , v c p | e
o uo c , c v e o o o , u o o o . v v uv
| e o o o , u o o o c e o o o , u o o
o | e v o o o , u o o o . | c c e o o o ,
u o o o , | cv e o o o , u o o o . | c| v
, e , i c| , v c p i i o uo c
, c v e o o o , u o o o . v e o o o , u
o o o | e v o o o , u o o o . , c| v , e
, i c , c v e o o o , u o o o . v e
o o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u o o o ,
| cv e o o o , o o o . c c | e o o o , u
o o o . c| u p c| v , , , | v u : o v
, , pp c ; u; ;, c ue p v,
: v, i u o u , u | o u , | i :, :, | i c,
c. c v pc , e , i , v c , e , . c v
e o o o , u o o o .
v v p | v ui : o pp c ; u; ;,
c p ue v, | : c ; u; ; c o c i.
`40
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 23
95
M
A
D
G
K
B
E
H
C
F
L
N
If there are three magnitudes, and others of equal number to them, (being) in the same ratio
taken two by two, and (if) their proportion is perturbed, then they will also be in the same ratio
via equality.
Let A, B, and C be three magnitudes, and D, E and F other (magnitudes) of equal number to
them, (being) in the same ratio taken two by two. And let their proportion be perturbed, (so
that) as A (is) to B, so E (is) to F, and as B (is) to C, so D (is) to E. I say that as A is to C, so
D (is) to F.
Let the equal multiples G, H, and K have been taken of A, B, and D (respectively), and the other
random equal multiples L, M, and N of C, E, and F (respectively).
And since Gand H are equal multiples of A and B (respectively), and parts have the same ratio as
similar multiples [Prop. 5.15], thus as A (is) to B, so G (is) to H. And, so, for the same (reasons),
as E (is) to F, so M (is) to N. And as A is to B, so E (is) to F. And, thus, as G (is) to H, so M
(is) to N [Prop. 5.11]. And since as B is to C, so D (is) to E, also, alternately, as B (is) to D,
so C (is) to E [Prop. 5.16]. And since H and K are equal multiples of B and D (respectively),
and parts have the same ratio as similar multiples [Prop. 5.15], thus as B is to D, so H (is) to
K. But, as B (is) to D, so C (is) to E. And, thus, as H (is) to K, so C (is) to E [Prop. 5.11].
Again, since L and M are equal multiples of C and E (respectively), thus as C is to E, so L (is)
to M [Prop. 5.15]. But, as C (is) to E, so H (is) to K. And, thus, as H (is) to K, so L (is) to M
[Prop. 5.11]. Also, alternately, as H (is) to L, so K (is) to M [Prop. 5.16]. And it was also shown
(that) as G (is) to H, so M (is) to N. Therefore, since G, H, and L are three magnitudes, and K,
M, and N other (magnitudes) of equal number to them, (being) in the same ratio taken two by
two, and their proportion is perturbed, thus, via equality, if G exceeds L then K also exceeds N,
and if (G is) equal (to L then K is also) equal (to N), and if (G is) less (than L then K is also)
less (than N) [Prop. 5.21]. And G and K are equal multiples of A and D (respectively), and L
and N of C and F (respectively). Thus, as A (is) to C, so D (is) to F [Def. 5.5].
Thus, if there are three magnitudes, and others of equal number to them, (being) in the same
ratio taken two by two, and (if) their proportion is perturbed, then they will also be in the same
ratio via equality. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
95
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : :: : then : :: : .
`4l

v e o o uo c | o , c c | p
o o uo | c o , | c e | p
o o uo c | | c o .
o , c c | p o o o o uo | c
o o o , o | c e | p o o
o o uo c , | | c o o o .
| c e o o o , u o o o , v v e o o
o , u o o o . c| u c e o o o , u o o o
, e c o o o , u o o o , : v c| e o o o
, u o o o . | c| p p v c, |
v c c v e o o o , u o o o . c c | e
o o o , u o o o : v c| e o o o , u o
o o .
v v e o o uo c | o , c c |
p o o uo | c o , | c e |
p o o uo c | | c o o c
|.
`42
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 24
96
E
C
D H
F
A G
B
If a rst (magnitude) has to a second the same ratio that third (has) to a fourth, and a fth
(magnitude) also has to the second the same ratio that a sixth (has) to the fourth, then the rst
(magnitude) and the fth, added together, will also have the same ratio to the second that the
third (magnitude) and sixth (added together, have) to the fourth.
For let a rst (magnitude) AB have the same ratio to a second C that a third DE (has) to a fourth
F. And let a fth (magnitude) BG also have the same ratio to the second C that a sixth EH (has)
to the fourth F. I say that the rst (magnitude) and the fth, added together, AG, will also have
the same ratio to the second C that the third (magnitude) and the sixth, (added together), DH,
(has) to the fourth F.
For since as BG is to C, so EH (is) to F, thus, inversely, as C (is) to BG, so F (is) to EH
[Prop. 5.7 corr.]. Therefore, since as AB is to C, so DE (is) to F, and as C (is) to BG, so F (is)
to EH, thus, via equality, as AB is to BG, so DE (is) to EH [Prop. 5.22]. And since separated
magnitudes are proportional then they will also be proportional (when) composed [Prop. 5.18].
Thus, as AG is to GB, so DH (is) to HE. And, also, as BG is to C, so EH (is) to F. Thus, via
equality, as AG is to C, so DH (is) to F [Prop. 5.22].
Thus, if a rst (magnitude) has to a second the same ratio that a third (has) to a fourth, and a
fth (magnitude) also has to the second the same ratio that a sixth (has) to the fourth, then the
rst (magnitude) and the fth, added together, will also have the same ratio to the second that
the third (magnitude) and the sixth (added together, have) to the fourth. (Which is) the very
96
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : and : :: : then + : :: + : .
`4`

v p v , o p ue] | o c e e p
c.
p v v , , , , e o o o , u o o
o , c c p pc ue o , c c o , o v , e ,
p c.
v ; pc : o , ; c : o .
| u] c e o o o , u o o o , : c o pc ; , o
c ; , c v e o o o , u o o o . | c c e
o o o o o , u vc o o vc o , | o
v o o o o c e o o o o o . pi c o u
pi v | o u . | c| : c| o pc ; , o c ; , v
v , : c| i , . | c|] cv v : , v o v c, cv
v] e , v o | p u ; pc v , , ; c
v , , v , p e , .
v v p v , o p ue | o c e e
p c. o c i.
`44
ELEMENTS BOOK 5
Proposition 25
97
F
G
E
H
D C
A B
If four magnitudes are proportional then the (sum of the) largest and the smallest [of them] is
greater than the (sum of the) remaining two (magnitudes).
Let AB, CD, E, and F be four proportional magnitudes, (such that) as AB (is) to CD, so E (is)
to F. And let AB be the greatest of them, and F the least. I say that AB and F is greater than
CD and E.
For let AG be made equal to E, and CH equal to F.
[In fact,] since as AB is to CD, so E (is) to F, and E (is) equal to AG, and F to CH, thus as
AB is to CD, so AG (is) to CH. And since the whole AB is to the whole CD as the (part) taken
away AG (is) to the (part) taken away CH, thus the remainder GB will also be to the remainder
HD as the whole AB (is) to the whole CD [Prop. 5.19]. And AB (is) greater than CD. Thus,
GB (is) also greater than HD. And since AG is equal to E, and CH to F, thus AG and F is equal
to CH and E. And [since] if [equal (magnitudes) are added to unequal (magnitudes) then the
wholes are unequal, thus if] AG and F are added to GB, and CH and E to HDGB and HD
being unequal, and GB greaterit is inferred that AB and F (is) greater than CD and E.
Thus, if four magnitudes are proportional then the (sum of the) largest and the smallest of them
is greater than the (sum of the) remaining two (magnitudes). (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
97
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if : :: : , and is the greatest and the least, then
+ > +.
`4

ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Similar gures

p p upp c, o : c v p | v |
v : v v.
| p ui p , o e o o o pi
pp, u o pi o o co.
c| p vo c| vp.
`48
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Denitions
1 Similar rectilinear gures are those (which) have (their) angles separately equal and the
(corresponding) sides about the equal angles proportional.
2 A straight-line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when as the whole is to
the greater segment so the greater (segment is) to the smaller.
3 The height of any gure is the (straight-line) drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the
base.
`49

v | v pp v uo o uo u o o v c e |
.
pc v , , pp c v , uo o uo u o
, o c| e o , u o o o
, | o pp o o pp.
v c c v p c| v , pi, | pc
: ou] | , , c : ou | , , |
c | , , , .
| c| : i| | , , v, : c| | v , ,
v. o v c| , c | o
u . v v uv o c| ,
c | o u | i : c|
, : c| | o ; ;, | i u
, u | o u , | i c, c.
o pe pc e , , c e ,
: i pc | u | o
, c | u v, i c, i
| o | , o, i u ,
u | o u , i :, :, | i c, c
c v e o , u o o o .
| c| u pc c o pp, u c
c o pp, v c p i e
o uo c , c v e o o o , u o
pp o o pp. c| u c, e pc
o , u o o o , e c o o
`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 1
98
F
H K L
E
G B C D
A
Triangles and parallelograms which are of the same height are to one another as their bases.
Let ABC and ACD be triangles, and EC and CF parallelograms, of the same height AC. I say
that as base BC is to base CD, so triangle ABC (is) to triangle ACD, and parallelogram EC to
parallelogram CF.
For let the (straight-line) BD have been produced in each direction to points H and L, and let
[any number] (of straight-lines) BG and GH be made equal to base BC, and any number (of
straight-lines) DK and KL equal to base CD. And let AG, AH, AK, and AL have been joined.
And since CB, BG, and GH are equal to one another, triangles AHG, AGB, and ABC are also
equal to one another [Prop. 1.38]. Thus, as many times as base HC is (divisible by) base BC,
so many times is triangle AHC also (divisible) by triangle ABC. So, for the same (reasons), as
many times as base LC is (divisible) by base CD, so many times is triangle ALC also (divisible)
by triangle ACD. And if base HC is equal to base CL then triangle AHC is also equal to triangle
ACL [Prop. 1.38]. And if base HC exceeds base CL then triangle AHC also exceeds triangle
ACL.
99
And if (HC is) less (than CL then AHC is also) less (than ACL). So, their being four
magnitudes, two bases, BC and CD, and two triangles, ABC and ACD, equal multiples have
been taken of base BC and triangle ABC(namely), base HC and triangle AHCand other
random equal multiples of base CD and triangle ADC(namely), base LC and triangle ALC.
And it has been shown that if base HC exceeds base CL then triangle AHC also exceeds triangle
ALC, and if (HC is) equal (to CL then AHC is also) equal (to ALC), and if (HC is) less (than
CL then AHC is also) less (than ALC). Thus, as base BC is to base CD, so triangle ABC (is) to
triangle ACD [Def. 5.5].
98
As is easily demonstrated, this proposition holds even when the triangles, or parallelograms, do not share a
common side, and/or are not right-angled.
99
This is a straight-forward generalization of Prop. 1.38.
`l

o , u o pp o o pp, | e
v o , u o pp o o -
pp.
v v | v pp v o o uo u o o v c e |
o c |.
`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 1
And since parallelogram EC is double triangle ABC, and parallelogram FC is double triangle
ACD [Prop. 1.34], and parts have the same ratio as similar multiples [Prop. 5.15], thus as trian-
gle ABC is to triangle ACD, so parallelogram EC (is) to parallelogram FC. In fact, since it was
shown that as base BC (is) to CD, so triangle ABC (is) to triangle ACD, and as triangle ABC
(is) to triangle ACD, so parallelogram EC (is) to parallelogram CF, thus, also, as base BC (is)
to base CD, so parallelogram EC (is) to parallelogram FC [Prop. 5.11].
Thus, triangles and parallelograms which are of the same height are to one another as their bases.
``

v v p e e v ui, v pi v u
| cv | u | v pe, c| v pv cp
ui v c u .
v u p; e e , o c| e
o , u o .
v | , .
v c| o ; ; c| v u c |
c i ui i , v o . v c : o o uo
o uo c c v e o o o ], u o
o o . e pc o o o , u
o uo v o uo u o vo u c| vp o
v i e | . v v uv e o o o , u
o | e v o , u o .
v | u | | , v p, e o
, u o , | c , o c .
e v ue , c c e o , u o
, v e pc o , u o o o , e c
o , u o o o , | e v o
o o , u o o o . c
v e , o o o uo c . : v c| o
; ; i c| u . v c : | c|
u o | c i ui c. v c|
.
`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 2
A
C B
D E
If some straight-line is drawn parallel to one of the sides of a triangle, then it will cut the (other)
sides of the triangle proportionally. And if (two of) the sides of a triangle are cut proportionally,
then the straight-line joining the cutting (points) will be parallel to the remaining side of the
triangle.
For let DE have been drawn parallel to one of the sides BC of triangle ABC. I say that as BD is
to DA, so CE (is) to EA.
For let BE and CD have been joined.
Thus, triangle BDE is equal to triangle CDE. For they are on the same base DE and between
the same parallels DE and BC [Prop. 1.38]. And ADE is some other triangle. And equal (mag-
nitudes) have the same ratio to the same (magnitude) [Prop. 5.7]. Thus, as triangle BDE is to
[triangle] ADE, so triangle CDE (is) to triangle ADE. But, as triangle BDE (is) to triangle
ADE, so (is) BD to DA. For, having the same height(namely), the (straight-line) drawn from
E perpendicular to ABthey are to one another as their bases [Prop. 6.1]. So, for the same
(reasons), as triangle CDE (is) to ADE, so CE (is) to EA. And, thus, as BD (is) to DA, so CE
(is) to EA [Prop. 5.11].
And so, let the sides AB and AC of triangle ABC have been cut, (so that) as BD (is) to DA, so
CE (is) to EA. And let DE have been joined. I say that DE is parallel to BC.
For, by the same construction, since as BD is to DA, so CE (is) to EA, but as BD (is) to DA, so
triangle BDE (is) to triangle ADE, and as CE (is) to EA, so triangle CDE (is) to triangle ADE
[Prop. 6.1], thus, also, as triangle BDE (is) to triangle ADE, so triangle CDE (is) to triangle
ADE [Prop. 5.11]. Thus, triangles BDE and CDE each have the same ratio to ADE. Thus, tri-
angle BDE is equal to triangle CDE [Prop. 5.9]. And they are on the same base DE. And equal
triangles, which are also on the same base, are also between the same parallels [Prop. 1.39].
Thus, DE is parallel to BC.
`

v v v p e e v ui, v pi v u
| cv | u | v pe, c| v pv cp
ui v c u o c i.
`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 2
Thus, if some straight-line is drawn parallel to one of the sides of a triangle, then it will cut
the (other) sides of the triangle proportionally. And if (two of) the sides of a triangle are cut
proportionally, then the straight-line joining the cutting (points) will be parallel to the remaining
side of the triangle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`

v p, c p ui p | , v
pp o uo c i i u i | cv v
pp o uo c i i u i, vo
c| p cp ui pi u .
o , | p uo uo u , o
c| e o , u o .
v v u , | i p u v
o .
| c| i v , ui c , v uo : c|
uo . v uo uo u : | uo v uo
c :. , c| i v , ui c , co
uo : c| co uo . c c | uo uo : |
uo v uo c : e | v ; c :.
| c| u v p e e , v v c|
e o , u o . : c e v o
, u o .
v c e o , u o , | c ,
o p uo uo u.
e v ue , c c e o , u o
, vv | e o , u c| o v u
v p | e v o , u o . :
v e | uo uo c :. v pc uo
co uo c] :, c uo cv uo c : | uo
v uo c :. v uo p uo u.
`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 3
B D C
A
E
If an angle of a triangle is cut in half, and the straight-line cutting the angle also cuts the base,
then the segments of the base will have the same ratio as the remaining sides of the triangle. And
if the segments of the base have the same ratio as the remaining sides of the triangle, then the
straight-line joining the vertex to the cutting (point) will cut the angle of the triangle in half.
Let ABC be a triangle. And let the angle BAC have been cut in half by the straight-line AD. I
say that as BD is to CD, so BA (is) to AC.
For let CE have been drawn through (point) C parallel to DA. And, BA being drawn through,
let it meet (CE) at (point) E.
100
And since the straight-line AC falls across the parallel (straight-lines) AD and EC, angle ACE
is thus equal to CAD [Prop. 1.29]. But, (angle) CAD is assumed (to be) equal to BAD. Thus,
(angle) BAD is also equal to ACE. Again, since the straight-line BAE falls across the paral-
lel (straight-lines) AD and EC, the external angle BAD is equal to the internal (angle) AEC
[Prop. 1.29]. And (angle) ACE was also shown (to be) equal to BAD. Thus, angle ACE is also
equal to AEC. And, hence, side AE is equal to side AC [Prop. 1.6]. And since AD has been
drawn parallel to one of the sides EC of triangle BCE, thus, proportionally, as BD is to DC, so
BA (is) to AE [Prop. 6.2]. And AE (is) equal to AC. Thus, as BD (is) to DC, so BA (is) to AC.
And so, let BD be to DC, as BA (is) to AC. And let AD have been joined. I say that angle BAC
has been cut in half by the straight-line AD.
For, by the same construction, since as BD is to DC, so BA (is) to AC, then also as BD (is) to
DC, so BA is to AE. For AD has been drawn parallel to one (of the sides) EC of triangle BCE
[Prop. 6.2]. Thus, also, as BA (is) to AC, so BA (is) to AE [Prop. 5.11]. Thus, AC (is) equal to
AE [Prop. 5.9]. And, hence, angle AEC is equal to ACE [Prop. 1.5]. But, AEC [is] equal to the
external (angle) BAD, and ACE is equal to the alternate (angle) CAD [Prop. 1.29]. Thus, (ang-
100
The fact that the two straight-lines meet follows because the sum of ACE and CAE is less than two right-angles,
as can easily be demonstrated. See Post. 5.
`9

v v p, c p ui p | ,
v pp o uo c i i u i | cv v
pp o uo c i i u i, vo
c| p cp ui p u o c i.
`60
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 3
-le) BAD is also equal to CAD. Thus, angle BAC has been cut in half by the straight-line AD.
Thus, if an angle of a triangle is cut in half, and the straight-line cutting the angle also cuts the
base, then the segments of the base will have the same ratio as the remaining sides of the triangle.
And if the segments of the base have the same ratio as the remaining sides of the triangle, then
the straight-line joining the vertex to the cutting (point) will cut the angle of the triangle in half.
`6l

e i v i | | | | v : | op |
uo v : u.
i v , : c pc uo uo ,
c uo uo | c uo uo , o e ,
v i | | | | v : | op | uo v :
u.
v c u . | c| | uo , oe c
i, : c uo uo , | v uo , oe c i |
, v cp pu. c | p v o .
| c| : c| uo uo , c . , c|
: c| uo uo , c . pp v
c| o : v pc , c . | c| u v
p , c v e o , u o . : c
e v o , u o , | cv e o
, u o . , c| c , c v e
o , u o . : c e v o ,
u o , | cv e o , u o . c|
u c e pc o , u o , e c o ,
u o , : v e o , u o .
e v i v i | | | | v : | op
| uo v : u o c i.
`62
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 4
C B E
F
D
A
For equiangular triangles, the sides about the equal angles are proportional, and those (sides)
subtending equal angles correspond.
Let ABC and DCE be equiangular triangles, having angle ABC equal to DCE, and (angle) BAC
to CDE, and, further, (angle) ACB to CED. I say that, for triangles ABC and DCE, the sides
about the equal angles are proportional, and those (sides) subtending equal angles correspond.
Let BC be placed straight-on to CE. And since angles ABC and ACB are less than two right-
angles [Prop 1.17], and ACB (is) equal to DEC, thus ABC and DEC are less than two right-
angles. Thus, BA and ED, being produced, will meet [C.N. 5]. Let them have been produced,
and let them meet at (point) F.
And since angle DCE is equal to ABC, BF is parallel to CD [Prop. 1.28]. Again, since (angle)
ACB is equal to DEC, AC is parallel to FE [Prop. 1.28]. Thus, FACD is a parallelogram. Thus,
FA is equal to DC, and AC to FD [Prop. 1.34]. And since AC has been drawn parallel to one
(of the sides) FE of triangle FBE, thus as BA is to AF, so BC (is) to CE [Prop. 6.2]. And AF
(is) equal to CD. Thus, as BA (is) to CD, so BC (is) to CE, and, alternately, as AB (is) to BC,
so DC (is) to CE [Prop. 5.16]. Again, since CD is parallel to BF, thus as BC (is) to CE, so FD
(is) to DE [Prop. 6.2]. And FD (is) equal to AC. Thus, as BC is to CE, so AC (is) to DE, and,
alternately, as BC (is) to CA, so CE (is) to ED [Prop. 6.2]. Therefore, since it was shown that
as AB (is) to BC, so DC (is) to CE, and as BC (is) to CA, so CE (is) to ED, thus, via equality,
as BA (is) to AC, so CD (is) to DE [Prop. 5.22].
Thus, for equiangular triangles, the sides about the equal angles are proportional, and those
(sides) subtending equal angles correspond. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`6`

v v v v c, i c v | : c v
, u i | op | u.
v , v v v c, e pc o ,
u o , e c o , u o , | c e
o , u o . , o i c o
; ; | : c v , u i | op | u, pc
uo uo , c uo uo | c uo uo .
v o u; | i o u p i , pc u
; : uo , c u : uo v o ; o
; c :.
: v c| o ; ;]. e v ,
v i | | | | v : | op | uo v :
u c v e o , u] o . v e o
, u u o e v o , u o
. c v e , o o uo c : v c|
. v v uv | c :. c| u : c| , c
, | , | i , : i | c] :
v uo ; o c :, | o ; ;
:, | | | i i :, u i | : | u. : v
c| | pc uo uo , c uo uo . | c| pc uo
uo c :, v uo uo , | uo v uo
c :. v v uv | uo uo c :, | c o ;
o ; i v c| o ; ;.
v v v v v c, i c v | : c v
, u i | op | u o c i.
`64
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 5
E
B
C
A D
F
G
If two triangles have proportional sides then the triangles will be equiangular, and will have the
angles which corresponding sides subtend equal.
Let ABC and DEF be two triangles having proportional sides, (so that) as AB (is) to BC, so DE
(is) to EF, and as BC (is) to CA, so EF (is) to FD, and, further, as BA (is) to AC, so ED (is)
to DF. I say that triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF, and (that the triangles) will have
the angles which corresponding sides subtend equal. (That is), (angle) ABC (equal) to DEF,
BCA to EFD, and, further, BAC to EDF.
For let (angle) FEG, equal to angle ABC, and (angle) EFG, equal to ACB, have been con-
structed at points E and F (respectively) on the straight-line EF [Prop. 1.23]. Thus, the remain-
ing (angle) at A is equal to the remaining (angle) at G [Prop. 1.32].
Thus, triangle ABC is equiangular to [triangle] EGF. Thus, for triangles ABC and EGF, the
sides about the equal angles are proportional, and (those) sides subtending equal angles corre-
spond [Prop. 6.4]. Thus, as AB is to BC, [so] GE (is) to EF. But, as AB (is) to BC, so, it was
assumed, (is) DE to EF. Thus, as DE (is) to EF, so GE (is) to EF [Prop. 5.11]. Thus, DE
and GE each have the same ratio to EF. Thus, DE is equal to GE [Prop. 5.9]. So, for the same
(reasons), DF is also equal to GF. Therefore, since DE is equal to EG, and EF (is) common,
the two (sides) DE, EF are equal to the two (sides) GE, EF (respectively). And base DF [is]
equal to base FG. Thus, angle DEF is equal to angle GEF [Prop. 1.8], and triangle DEF (is)
equal to triangle GEF, and the remaining angles (are) equal to the remaining angles which the
equal sides subtend [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, angle DFE is also equal to GFE, and (angle) EDF to
EGF. And since (angle) FED is equal to GEF, and (angle) GEF to ABC, angle ABC is thus
also equal to DEF. So, for the same (reasons), (angle) ACB is also equal to DFE, and, further,
the (angle) at A to the (angle) at D. Thus, triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF.
Thus, if two triangles have proportional sides then the triangles will be equiangular, and will have
the angles which corresponding sides subtend equal. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
`6

v p p; ; : c, | c v : v v
v, i c v | : c v , u i | op |
u.
v , p uo p; ; uo :
c, | c v : v v v, e o , u
o , o i c o ; ; | : c
uo uo , c uo uo .
v o u; | i o u p i , o; pc e
uo , : uo , c uo : uo v o ;
o ; : c.
v c| o ; ;. v v c| e o
, u o . u c | e o , u o
| e v o , u o . : v |
| , | i , : i | uo ;
uo c] : v c :, | o ;
; : c, | | | i i : c, u i : |
u. : v c| pc uo u , c u uo . v
u u c : | uo v uo c :. u c
| u uo : | v o ; o ; : c
i v c| o ; ;.
v v p p; ; : c, | c v : v v
v, i c v | : c v , u i | op |
u o c i.
`66
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 6
G
A
B C
E F
D
If two triangles have one angle equal to one angle, and the sides about the equal angles propor-
tional, then the triangles will be equiangular, and will have the angles which corresponding sides
subtend equal.
Let ABC and DEF be two triangles having one angle, BAC, equal to one angle, EDF (respec-
tively), and the sides about the equal angles proportional, (so that) as BA (is) to AC, so ED (is)
to DF. I say that triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF, and will have angle ABC equal
to DEF, and (angle) ACB to DFE.
For let (angle) FDG, equal to each of BAC and EDF, and (angle) DFG, equal to ACB, have
been constructed at the points D and F (respectively) on the straight-line AF [Prop. 1.23]. Thus,
the remaining angle at B is equal to the remaining angle at G [Prop. 1.32].
Thus, triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DGF. Thus, proportionally, as BA (is) to AC,
so GD (is) to DF [Prop. 6.4]. And it was also assumed that as BA (is) to AC, so ED (is) to
DF. And, thus, as ED (is) to DF, so GD (is) to DF [Prop. 5.11]. Thus, ED (is) equal to DG
[Prop. 5.9]. And DF (is) common. So, the two (sides) ED, DF are equal to the two (sides)
GD, DF (respectively). And angle EDF [is] equal to angle GDF. Thus, base EF is equal to
base GF, and triangle DEF is equal to triangle GDF, and the remaining angles will be equal
to the remaining angles which the equal sides subtend [Prop. 1.4]. Thus, (angle) DFG is equal
to DFE, and (angle) DGF to DEF. But, (angle) DFG is equal to ACB. Thus, (angle) ACB
is also equal to DFE. And (angle) BAC was also assumed (to be) equal to EDF. Thus, the
remaining (angle) at B is equal to the remaining (angle) at E [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle ABC
is equiangular to triangle DEF.
Thus, if two triangles have one angle equal to one angle, and the sides about the equal angles
proportional, then the triangles will be equiangular, and will have the angles which corresponding
sides subtend equal. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`6

v p p; ; : c, | c v v v v,
e c e c vp c p c o, i c v
| : c v , | i v i | .
v , p p; ; : c uo uo
, | c v v uo , v v v, e o
, u o , e c e e o i , c vp
c o , o i c o ; ;, | : c
uo uo , | o ; o ; :.
i v v c uo uo , p ue p c. c p uo
. | o u; | ; o u p; ; uo ; :
uo .
| c| : c| pc , c uo uo , v uo
uo c :. i v c| o ; ;. c
v e o , u o . e c o , u]
u o v o c e , o uo c
: v . e | o ; ; uo c :. c c
o u o ; c v c| o | uo e c u
uo p c| o. | c : u o ; | o ;
v p c| o. u c c o o c| v. u v v
c uo uo : v. c c | o ; : o ; |
v o ; o ; : c. i v c| o
; ;.
`68
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 7
D
B
G
C
E
F
A
If two triangles have one angle equal to one angle, and the sides about other angles proportional,
and the remaining angles either both less than or both not less than right-angles, then the trian-
gles will be equiangular, and will have the angles about which the sides are proportional equal.
Let ABC and DEF be two triangles having one angle, BAC, equal to one angle, EDF (respec-
tively), and the sides about (some) other angles, ABC and DEF (respectively), proportional, (so
that) as AB (is) to BC, so DE (is) to EF, and the remaining (angles) at C and F, rst of all, both
less than right-angles. I say that triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF, and (that) angle
ABC will be equal to DEF, and (that) the remaining (angle) at C (will be) manifestly equal to
the remaining (angle) at F.
For if angle ABC is not equal to (angle) DEF then one of them is greater. Let ABC be greater.
And let (angle) ABG, equal to (angle) DEF, have been constructed at the point B on the straight-
line AB [Prop. 1.23].
And since angle A is equal to (angle) D, and (angle) ABG to DEF, the remaining (angle) AGB
is thus equal to the remaining (angle) DFE [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle ABG is equiangular
to triangle DEF. Thus, as AB is to BG, so DE (is) to EF [Prop. 6.4]. And as DE (is) to
EF, [so] it was assumed (is) AB to BC. Thus, AB has the same ratio to each of BC and BG
[Prop. 5.11]. Thus, BC (is) equal to BG [Prop. 5.9]. And, hence, the angle at C is equal to
angle BGC [Prop. 1.5]. And the angle at C was assumed (to be) less than a right-angle. Thus,
(angle) BGC is also less than a right-angle. Hence, the adjacent angle to it, AGB, is greater than
a right-angle [Prop. 1.13]. And (AGB) was shown to be equal to the (angle) at F. Thus, the
(angle) at F is also greater than a right-angle. But it was assumed (to be) less than a right-angle.
The very thing is absurd. Thus, angle ABC is not unequal to (angle) DEF. Thus, (it is) equal.
And the (angle) at A is also equal to the (angle) at D. And thus the remaining (angle) at C is
equal to the remaining (angle) at F [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle
DEF.
`69

v u c e o i , p c o , o |
u c| i o ; ;.
e v ue op p, o : c| e |
o ; uo : c. u c c o o ; u c v
o uc uo . u | oe u i c
o c| v. u v v c uo uo : v. c
c | o ; o ; : v o ; o ; : c.
i v c| o ; ;.
v v p p; ; : c, | c v v v
v, e c e c vp c p c o, i c v
| : c v , | i v i | o c i.
`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 7
But, again, let each of the (angles) at C and F be assumed (to be) not less than a right-angle. I
say, again, that triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF in this case also.
For, similarly, by the same construction, we can show that BC is equal to BG. Hence, also, the
angle at C is equal to (angle) BGC. And the (angle) at C (is) not less than a right-angle. Thus,
BGC (is) not less than a right-angle either. So, for triangle BGC, the (sum of) two angles is not
less than two right-angles. The very thing is impossible [Prop. 1.17]. Thus, again, angle ABC
is not unequal to DEF. Thus, (it is) equal. And the (angle) at A is also equal to the (angle) at
D. Thus, the remaining (angle) at C is equal to the remaining (angle) at F [Prop. 1.32]. Thus,
triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle DEF.
Thus, if two triangles have one angle equal to one angle, and the sides about other angles pro-
portional, and the remaining angles both less than or both not less than right-angles, then the
triangles will be equiangular, and will have the angles about which the sides (are) proportional
equal. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`l

v c o; ; v o c| v, v o
; op c ; o; | v.
o o o c u , | vo u
c| , o op c c e , o; ;
| c v.
| v : c| uo u o v c | e
u | u o ; , v uo u c :
i v c| o ; ;. c v e u
o u o u o u , u
u u o ; u o u
: u u , | c o u o
; e . o v ; ; i
c | v | v : v v c. op vp c|] o
; ;. op p, o | ; ; op c o
c v e , ] op c o; ; .
, o | v c| op v , .
| v o uo o uo c :, vv p | uo o ;
c :, | v o ; uo c : i v c| o
; ;. c v e u u uo
o u u o ; : uo , u
u u u o ; o u
uo u : o ; , | c o u
v o op v c| o ; ;.
`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 8
B C D
A
If, in a right-angled triangle, a (straight-line) is drawn from the right-angle perpendicular to the
base then the triangles around the perpendicular are similar to the whole (triangle) and to one
another.
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle having the angle BAC a right-angle, and let AD have been
drawn from A, perpendicular to BC [Prop. 1.12]. I say that triangles ABD and ADC are each
similar to the whole (triangle) ABC and, further, to one another.
For since (angle) BAC is equal to ADBfor each (are) right-anglesand the (angle) at B (is)
common to the two triangles ABC and ABD, the remaining (angle) ACB is thus equal to the
remaining (angle) BAD [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle ABD. Thus,
as BC, subtending the right-angle in triangle ABC, is to BA, subtending the right-angle in trian-
gle ABD, so the same AB, subtending the angle at C in triangle ABC, (is) to BD, subtending the
equal (angle) BAD in triangle ABD, and, further, (so is) AC to AD, (both) subtending the angle
at B common to the two triangles [Prop. 6.4]. Thus, triangle ABC is equiangular to triangle
ABD, and has the sides about the equal angles proportional. Thus, triangle ABC [is] similar to
triangle ABD [Def. 6.1]. So, similarly, we can show that triangle ADC is also similar to triangle
ABC. Thus, [triangles] ABD and ADC are each similar to the whole (triangle) ABC.
So I say that triangles ABD and ADC are also similar to one another.
For since the right-angle BDA is equal to the right-angle ADC, and, indeed, (angle) BAD was
also shown (to be) equal to the (angle) at C, thus the remaining (angle) at B is also equal to
the remaining (angle) DAC [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle ABD is equiangular to triangle ADC.
Thus, as BD, subtending (angle) BAD in triangle ABD, is to DA, subtending the (angle) at C
in triangle ADB, (which is) equal to (angle) BAD, so (is) the same AD, subtending the angle
at B in triangle ABD, to DC, subtending (angle) DAC in triangle ADC, (which is) equal to the
(angle) at B, and, further, (so is) BA to AC, (each) subtending right-angles [Prop. 6.4]. Thus,
triangle ABD is similar to triangle ADC [Def. 6.1].
``

v v c o; ; vo o c| v, v o
; op c ; o; | v o c i].
p
, o cv c o; ; vo o c|
v, vi e pp p v c o c i.
`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 8
Thus, if, in a right-angled triangle, a (straight-line) is drawn from the right-angle perpendicular
to the base then the triangles around the perpendicular are similar to the whole (triangle) and to
one another. [(Which is) the very thing it was required to show.]
Corollary
So (it is) clear, from this, that if, in a right-angled triangle, a (straight-line) is drawn from the
right-angle perpendicular to the base then the (straight-line so) drawn is in mean proportion to
the pieces of the base.
101
101
In other words, the perpendicular is the geometric mean of the pieces.
`

u o c p vi.
i ui i o c p vi.
o . |] vo u ui pv
u | i o pi c| o , | : |
, . | c , | v u u .
| u u v p e e , v v c|
e o , u o . c v |
v .
v u o cc p v o o c
.
`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 9
C
A F
E
D
B
To cut off a prescribed part from a given straight-line.
Let AB be the given straight-line. So it is required to cut off a prescribed part from AB.
So let a third (part) have been prescribed. [And] let some straight-line AC have been drawn from
(point) A, encompassing a random angle with AB. And let a random point D have been taken
on AC. And let DE and EC be made equal to AD [Prop. 1.3]. And let BC have been joined.
And let DF have been drawn through D parallel to it [Prop. 1.31].
Therefore, since FD has been drawn parallel to one of the sides, BC, of triangle ABC, then,
proportionally, as CD is to DA, so BF (is) to FA [Prop. 6.2]. And CD (is) double DA. Thus,
BF (is) also double FA. Thus, BA (is) triple AF.
Thus, the prescribed third part, AF, has been cut off from the given straight-line, AB. (Which is)
`

i ui vp pp op pi.
pc i ui vp , c pp v v , pi, |
e u , | c , | v e ,
| , , v c u .
p v c| c e , : v pc , c
. | c| u v p e e ui , v
v c| e o , u o . : c pc , c
. c v e o , u o . , c|
u v p e e , v v c| e o
, u o . c c | e o , u o
c v e pc o , u o , e c o
, u o .
v i ui vp u; pp op p
o c
`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 10
H
A
E
C
K
G F B
D
To cut a given uncut straight-line similarly to a given cut (straight-line).
Let AB be the given uncut straight-line, and AC a (straight-line) cut at points D and E, and let
(AC) be laid down so as to encompass a random angle (with AB). And let CB have been joined.
And let DF and EG have been drawn through (points) D and E (respectively), parallel to BC,
and let DHK have been drawn through (point) D, parallel to AB [Prop. 1.31].
Thus, FH and HB are each parallelograms. Thus, DH (is) equal to FG, and HK to GB
[Prop. 1.34]. And since the straight-line HE has been drawn parallel to one of the sides, KC, of
triangle DKC, thus, proportionally, as CE is to ED, so KH (is) to HD [Prop. 6.2]. And KH (is)
equal to BG, and HD to GF. Thus, as CE is to ED, so BG (is) to GF. Again, since FD has been
drawn parallel to one of the sides, GE, of triangle AGE, thus, proportionally, as ED is to DA,
so GF (is) to FA [Prop. 6.2]. And it was also shown that as CE (is) to ED, so BG (is) to GF.
Thus, as CE is to ED, so BG (is) to GF, and as ED (is) to DA, so GF (is) to FA.
Thus, the given uncut straight-line, AB, has been cut similarly to the given cut straight-line, AC.
`9

e ue v i.
| i ui] | , | u.
i e , v i. c v c| v , pi, |
: , | c , | v u u .
| u u v p e e , v c e
o , u o . : c . c v e o
, u o .
v e ue e , v ui o c
.
`80
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 11
C
B
E
D
A
To nd a third (straight-line) proportional to two given straight-lines.
Let BA and AC be the [two] given [straight-lines], and let them be laid down encompassing a
random angle. So it is required to nd a third (straight-line) proportional to BA and AC. For let
(BA and AC) have been produced to points D and E (respectively), and let BD be made equal
to AC [Prop. 1.3]. And let BC have been joined. And let DE have been drawn through (point)
D parallel to it [Prop. 1.31].
Therefore, since BC has been drawn parallel to one of the sides DE of triangle ADE, propor-
tionally, as AB is to BD, so AC (is) to CE [Prop. 6.2]. And BD (is) equal to AC. Thus, as AB is
to AC, so AC (is) to CE.
Thus, a third (straight-line), CE, has been found (which is) proportional to the two given straight-
lines, AB and AC. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
`8l

e e ue v i.
| i i ui | , , i e , , v
i.
ui | , u] uo |
pc : , c : , | c : | c
u v u .
| u u v p , c v e o
, u o . : c pc , c , c c
v e o , u o .
e v e ue e , , v o c
.
`82
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 12
D
A
C
B
E
G
H F
To nd a fourth (straight-line) proportional to three given straight-lines.
Let A, B, and C be the three given straight-lines. So it is required to nd a fourth (straight-line)
proportional to A, B, and C.
Let the two straight-lines DE and DF be set out encompassing the [random] angle EDF. And
let DG be made equal to A, and GE to B, and, further, DH to C [Prop. 1.3]. And GH being
joined, let EF have been drawn through (point) E parallel to it [Prop. 1.31].
Therefore, since GH has been drawn parallel to one of the sides EF of triangle DEF, thus as
DG is to GE, so DH (is) to HF [Prop. 6.2]. And DG (is) equal to A, and GE to B, and DH to
C. Thus, as A is to B, so C (is) to HF.
Thus, a fourth (straight-line), HF, has been found (which is) proportional to the three given
straight-lines, A, B, and C. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
`8`

e ue p v i.
| i ui | , i e , p v i.
c u, | c| p o , | vo u
p u; o ov , | c | , .
| c p; c| uo , o c. | c| c o; ; ;
vo o c| , v e
pp e , p v c.
v e ue e , p v o c .
`84
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 13
C A B
D
To nd the (straight-line) in mean proportion to two given straight-lines.
102
Let AB and BC be the two given straight-lines. So it is required to nd the (straight-line) in
mean proportion to AB and BC.
Let (AB and BC) be laid down straight-on (with respect to one another), and let the semi-circle
ADC have been drawn on AC [Prop. 1.10]. And let BD have been drawn from (point) B, at
right-angles to AC [Prop. 1.11]. And let AD and DC have been joined.
And since ADC is an angle in a semi-circle, it is a right-angle [Prop. 3.31]. And since, in the
right-angled triangle ADC, the (straight-line) DB has been drawn from the right-angle perpen-
dicular to the base, DB is thus the mean proportional to the pieces of the base, AB and BC
[Prop. 6.8 corr.].
Thus, DB has been found (which is) in mean proportion to the two given straight-lines, AB and
BC. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
102
In other words, to nd the geometric mean of two given straight-lines.
`8

e : | : pp v | | | | v :
| e i pp v | | | | v :
, : c| ci.
: | i pp v , : c v o ; ,
| c u | , c u v i| | | , . , o e ,
v | | | | v : , , o c| e o
, u o .
p v o pp. c| u : c| o pp
; pp;, v o , c v e o o o , u o
o o . v e pc o o o , u o , e c o o o
, u o | e v o , u o . e
v , pp v | | | | v : .
v c e o , u o , o : c| o
pp ; pp;.
| c e o , u o , v e pc o
, u o pp o o pp, e c o
, u o pp o o pp, | e v o
o o , u o o o : v c| o pp ;
pp;.
e v : | i pp v | | | | v
: | e i pp v | | | | v :
, : c| ci o c i.
`86
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 14
D A
F
B
G
E C
For equal and equiangular parallelograms, the sides about the equal angles are reciprocally pro-
portional. And those equiangular parallelograms for which the sides about the equal angles are
reciprocally proportional are equal.
Let AB and BC be equal and equiangular parallelograms having the angles at B equal. And let
DB and BE be laid down straight-on (with respect to one another) [Prop. 1.14]. Thus, FB and
BG are also straight-on (with respect to one another). I say that the sides of AB and BC about
the equal angles are reciprocally proportional, that is to say, that as DB is to BE, so GB (is) to
BF.
For let the parallelogram FE have been lled in. Therefore, since parallelogram AB is equal to
parallelogram BC, and FE (is) some other (parallelogram), thus as (parallelogram) AB is to
FE, so (parallelogram) BC (is) to FE [Prop. 5.7]. But, as (parallelogram) AB (is) to FE, so
DB (is) to BE, and as (parallelogram) BC (is) to FE, so GB (is) to BF [Prop. 6.1]. Thus, also,
as DB (is) to BE, so GB (is) to BF. Thus, for parallelograms AB and BC, the sides about the
equal angles are reciprocally proportional.
And so, let DB be to BE, as GB (is) to BF. I say that parallelogramAB is equal to parallelogram
BC.
For since as DB is to BE, so GB (is) to BF, but as DB (is) to BE, so parallelogram AB (is) to
parallelogram FE [Prop. 6.1], and as GB (is) to BF, so parallelogram BC (is) to parallelogram
FE [Prop. 6.1], thus, also, as (parallelogram) AB (is) to FE, so (parallelogram) BC (is) to FE
[Prop. 5.11]. Thus, parallelogram AB is equal to parallelogram BC [Prop. 5.9].
Thus, for equal and equiangular parallelograms, the sides about the equal angles are reciprocally
proportional. And those equiangular parallelograms for which the sides about the equal angles
are reciprocally proportional are equal. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`8

e : | p p; : c v | | | | v
: | e p p; : c v | | | |
v : , : c| ci.
: v , p p; : c uo uo ,
o e , v | | | | v : , , o
c| e o , u o .
v e c u | c u v c| | . |
c .
| u : c| o ; ;, v o , c v e o
o o , u o o o . v
e pc o o o , u o , e c o o o , u
o . | e v o , u o . e ,
v v | | | | v : .
v v | | e , , | c e o
, u o , o : c| o ; ;.
v , c c e o , u o ,
v e pc o , u o o o , e c
o , u o o o , e v o o
o , u o o o . c v e ,
o o o uo c . : v c| o ] ; ;.
e v : | p p; : c v | | | |
v : | e p p; : c v | | |
| v : , ci : c| o c i.
`88
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 15
A
E
C
D
B
For equal triangles also having one angle equal to one (angle), the sides about the equal angles
are reciprocally proportional. And those triangles having one angle equal to one angle for which
the sides about the equal angles (are) reciprocally proportional are equal.
Let ABC and ADE be equal triangles having one angle equal to one (angle), (namely) BAC
(equal) to DAE. I say that, for triangles ABC and ADE, the sides about the equal angles are
reciprocally proportional, that is to say, that as CA is to AD, so EA (is) to AB.
For let CA be laid down so as to be straight-on (with respect) to AD. Thus, EA is also straight-on
(with respect) to AB [Prop. 1.14]. And let BD have been joined.
Therefore, since triangle ABC is equal to triangle ADE, and BAD (is) some other (triangle),
thus as triangle CAB is to triangle BAD, so triangle EAD (is) to triangle BAD [Prop. 5.7]. But,
as (triangle) CAB (is) to BAD, so CA (is) to AD, and as (triangle) EAD (is) to BAD, so EA
(is) to AB [Prop. 6.1]. And thus, as CA (is) to AD, so EA (is) to AB. Thus, for triangles ABC
and ADE, the sides about the equal angles (are) reciprocally proportional.
And so, let the sides of triangles ABC and ADE be reciprocally proportional, and let CA be to
AD, as EA (is) to AB. I say that triangle ABC is equal to triangle ADE.
For, BD again being joined, since as CA is to AD, so EA (is) to AB, but as CA (is) to AD, so
triangle ABC (is) to triangle BAD, and as EA (is) to AB, so triangle EAD (is) to triangle BAD
[Prop. 6.1], thus as triangle ABC (is) to triangle BAD, so triangle EAD (is) to triangle BAD.
Thus, (triangles) ABC and EAD each have the same ratio to BAD. Thus, [triangle] ABC is
equal to triangle EAD [Prop. 5.9].
Thus, for equal triangles also having one angle equal to one (angle), the sides about the equal
angles (are) reciprocally proportional. And those triangles having one angle equal to one angle
for which the sides about the equal angles (are) reciprocally proportional are equal. (Which is)
`89

v ui v e, o uo e v p o : c|
; uo e p p; o; i o uo e v p o
: ; uo e p p; o;, | ui v c.
ui v | , , , , e o , u
o , o o uo e , p o : c| ; uo e ,
p; o;.
v] vo e , p i , u o ov | , , |
pc : , c : . | p v , -
pp.
| c c e o , u o , : c pc ,
c , c v e o , u o . e ,
v pp v | | | | v : . e c i
pp v | | | v : , : c| ci :
v c| o pp ; pp;. c o pc o uo
e , : v o c o uo e , : v o v uo
e , p o : c| ; uo e , p; o;.
v o uo e , p o : c ; uo e , -
p; o;. , o | ui v c, e o ,
u o .
e v ue , c| o uo e , : c| ; uo e , ,
c o pc uo e , o : c o c uo e , o :
v o v : c| ; . c i. e c : | i
pp v | | | | v : . c v e
`90
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 16
D
B
G
A
E F
C
H
If four straight-lines are proportional, then the rectangle contained by the (two) outermost is
equal to the rectangle contained by the middle (two). And if the rectangle contained by the
(two) outermost is equal to the rectangle contained by the middle (two), then the four straight-
lines will be proportional.
Let AB, CD, E, and F be four proportional straight-lines, (such that) as AB (is) to CD, so E (is)
to F. I say that the rectangle contained by AB and F is equal to the rectangle contained by CD
and E.
[For] let AGand CH have been drawn from points A and C at right-angles to the straight-lines AB
and CD (respectively) [Prop. 1.11]. And let AG be made equal to F, and CH to E [Prop. 1.3].
And let the parallelograms BG and DH have been completed.
And since as AB is to CD, so E (is) to F, and E (is) equal CH, and F to AG, thus as AB is
to CD, so CH (is) to AG. Thus, for the parallelograms BG and DH, the sides about the equal
angles are reciprocally proportional. And those equiangular parallelograms for which the sides
about the equal angles are reciprocally proportional are equal [Prop. 6.14]. Thus, parallelogram
BG is equal to parallelogram DH. And BG is the (rectangle contained) by AB and F. For AG
(is) equal to F. And DH (is) the (rectangle contained) by CD and E. For E (is) equal to CH.
Thus, the rectangle contained by AB and F is equal to the rectangle contained by CD and E.
And so, let the rectangle contained by AB and F be equal to the rectangle contained by CD and
E. I say that the four straight-lines will be proportional, (so that) as AB (is) to CD, so E (is) to
F.
`9l

o , u o . : c pc , c c v e
o , u o .
v v ui v e, o uo e v p o
: c| ; uo e p p; o; i o uo e v p
o : ; uo e p p; o;, | ui v
c o c i.
`92
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 16
For, by the same construction, since the (rectangle contained) by AB and F is equal to the (rect-
angle contained) by CD and E, and BG is the (rectangle contained) by AB and F. For AG is
equal to F. And DH (is) the (rectangle contained) by CD and E. For CH (is) equal to E. BG is
thus equal to DH. And they are equiangular. And for equal and equiangular parallelograms, the
sides about the equal angles are reciprocally proportional [Prop. 6.14]. Thus, as AB is to CD, so
CH (is) to AG. And CH (is) equal to E, and AG to F. Thus, as AB is to CD, so E (is) to F.
Thus, if four straight-lines are proportional, then the rectangle contained by the (two) outer-
most is equal to the rectangle contained by the middle (two). And if the rectangle contained
by the (two) outermost is equal to the rectangle contained by the middle (two), then the four
straight-lines will be proportional. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`9`

v i ui v e, o uo e v p o : c| ;
vo p ; i o uo e v p o : ; vo
p ;, | i ui v c.
i ui v | , , , e o , u o ,
o o uo e , p o : c| ; vo ;.
: .
| c c e o , u o , : c , c v e
o , o . cv c ui v e, o uo e v
p o] : c| ; uo e p p; o;. o v uo
e , : c| ; uo e , . vv o uo e , o vo c : v
o v uo e , p o : c| ; vo ;.
v o uo e , : c ; vo , o c| e o , u
o .
e v ue , c| o uo e , : c| ; vo , vv o vo
o uo e , c : v o v uo e , : c| ; uo e
, . cv c o uo e v : ; uo e p, | ui v i.
c v e o , u o . : c e v o
, u o .
v v i ui v e, o uo e v p o : c|
; vo p ; i o uo e v p o : ; vo
p ;, | i ui v c o c i.
`94
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 17
D
A
B
C
If three straight-lines are proportional, then the rectangle contained by the (two) outermost is
equal to the square on the middle (one). And if the rectangle contained by the (two) outermost
is equal to the square on the middle (one), then the three straight-lines will be proportional.
Let A, B and C be three proportional straight-lines, (such that) as A (is) to B, so B (is) to C. I
say that the rectangle contained by A and C is equal to the square on B.
Let D be made equal to B [Prop. 1.3].
And since as A is to B, so B (is) to D, and B (is) equal to D, thus as A is to B, (so) D (is) to
C. And if four straight-lines are proportional, then the [rectangle] contained by the (two) outer-
most is equal to the rectangle contained by the middle (two) [Prop. 6.16]. Thus, the (rectangle
contained) by A and C is equal to the (rectangle contained) by B and D. But, the (rectangle
contained) by B and D is the (square) on B. For B (is) equal to D. Thus, the rectangle contained
by A and C is equal to the square on B.
And so, let the (rectangle contained) by A and C be equal to the (square) on B. I say that as A is
to B, so B (is) to C.
For, by the same construction, since the (rectangle contained) by A and C is equal to the (square)
on B. But, the (square) on B is the (rectangle contained) by B and D. For B (is) equal to D. The
(rectangle contained) by A and C is thus equal to the (rectangle contained) by B and D. And
if the (rectangle contained) by the (two) outermost is equal to the (rectangle contained) by the
middle (two), then the four straight-lines are proportional [Prop. 6.16]. Thus, as A is to B, so D
(is) to C. And B (is) equal to D. Thus, as A (is) to B, so B (is) to C.
Thus, if three straight-lines are proportional, then the rectangle contained by the (two) outermost
is equal to the square on the middle (one). And if the rectangle contained by the (two) outermost
is equal to the square on the middle (one), then the three straight-lines will be proportional.
`9

o u ; upp; op | op p upp
v.
pc i ui , o c c upp o i vo
u ; upp; op | op p upp v.
, | o u; | i o u p i ,
pc o ; ; : uo , c uo : uo . v uo
uo c : i v c| o ; ;. v
v c| e o , u o , | o .
o u; | i o u p i , pc uo ;
: uo , c uo : uo . v o ; o ;
c : i v c| o ; ; v v c| e
o , u o | o . c c | e
o , u o | o | e v o
, u o | o | c o . | c|
: c| pc uo uo , c uo uo , o v uo
o uo c :. v v uv | uo uo c :. c
c | pc o ; o ; :, c o ; o ; . i v c|
o ; | v | v : ue v v c op v c| o
upp ; upp;.
o v u ; upp; ; op | op
p upp v o o c .
`96
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 18
G
C
E
D
H
A B
F
To describe a rectilinear gure similar, and similarly laid down, to a given rectilinear gure on a
given straight-line.
Let AB be the given straight-line, and CE the given rectilinear gure. So it is required to describe
a rectilinear gure similar, and similarly laid down, to the rectilinear gure CE on the straight-
line AB.
Let DF have been joined, and let GAB, equal to the angle at C, and ABG, equal to (angle) CDF,
have been constructed at the points A and B (respectively) on the straight-line AB [Prop. 1.23].
Thus, the remaining (angle) CFD is equal to AGB [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle FCD is equian-
gular to triangle GAB. Thus, proportionally, as FD is to GB, so FC (is) to GA, and CD to AB
[Prop. 6.4]. Again, let BGH, equal to angle DFE, and GBH equal to (angle) FDE, have been
constructed at the points G and B (respectively) on the straight-line BG [Prop. 1.23]. Thus, the
remaining (angle) at E is equal to the remaining (angle) at H [Prop. 1.32]. Thus, triangle FDE
is equiangular to triangle GHB. Thus, proportionally, as FD is to GB, so FE (is) to GH, and ED
to HB [Prop. 6.4]. And it was also shown (that) as FD (is) to GB, so FC (is) to GA, and CD to
AB. Thus, also, as FC (is) to AG, so CD (is) to AB, and FE to GH, and, further, ED to HB.
And since angle CFD is equal to AGB, and DFE to BGH, thus the whole (angle) CFE is equal
to the whole (angle) AGH. So, for the same (reasons), (angle) CDE is also equal to ABH. And
the (angle) at C is also equal to the (angle) at A, and the (angle) at E to the (angle) at H. Thus,
(gure) AH is equiangular to CE. And they have the sides about their equal angles proportional.
Thus, the rectilinear gure AH is similar to the rectilinear gure CE [Def. 6.1].
Thus, the rectilinear gure AH, similar, and similarly laid down, to the given rectilinear gure
CE has been constructed on the given straight-line AB. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to do.
`9

v op o v c ; c| e op e.
op v , : c o ; o ; , e c
o , u o , e op | ,
o o o o c o .
i v e , v , e | e o , u
o | c .
| u c e o , u o , cv v c| e
o , u o . v e o , u c
o . | e v o , u o e , v
v | | | | v : . e c p p; : c
v | | | | v : , : c| ci. : v c| o
; ;. | c c e o , u o ,
cv c i ui v e, o c o
, v o c o . e c
o , u o o o | o v
o o c o . : c o ;
;. | o v o o c
o .
v v op o v c ; c| e op e. o
c i.]
p
, o, cv i ui v e, c e o
, u o vo | o o vo o op | op
vp. o c i.
`98
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 19
E G C
A
D
F B
Similar triangles are to one another in the squared
103
ratio of (their) corresponding sides.
Let ABC and DEF be similar triangles having the angle at B equal to the (angle) at E, and AB
to BC, as DE (is) to EF, such that BC corresponds to EF. I say that triangle ABC has a squared
ratio to triangle DEF with respect to (that side) BC (has) to EF.
For let a third (straight-line), BG, have been taken (which is) proportional to BC and EF, so
that as BC (is) to EF, so EF (is) to BG [Prop. 6.11]. And let AG have been joined.
Therefore, since as AB is to BC, so DE (is) to EF, thus, alternately, as AB is to DE, so BC (is)
to EF [Prop. 5.16]. But, as BC (is) to EF, so EF is to BG. And, thus, as AB (is) to DE, so EF
(is) to BG. Thus, for triangles ABG and DEF, the sides about the equal angles are reciprocally
proportional. And those triangles having one (angle) equal to one (angle) for which the sides
about the equal angles are reciprocally proportional are equal [Prop. 6.15]. Thus, triangle ABG
is equal to triangle DEF. And since as BC (is) to EF, so EF (is) to BG, and if three straight-
lines are proportional then the rst has a squared ratio to the third with respect to the second
[Def. 5.9], BC thus has a squared ratio to BG with respect to (that) CB (has) to EF. And as
CB (is) to BG, so triangle ABC (is) to triangle ABG [Prop. 6.1]. Thus, triangle ABC also has a
squared ratio to (triangle) ABG with respect to (that side) BC (has) to EF. And triangle ABG
(is) equal to triangle DEF. Thus, triangle ABC also has a squared ratio to triangle DEF with
respect to (that side) BC (has) to EF.
Thus, similar triangles are to one another in the squared ratio of (their) corresponding sides.
[(Which is) the very thing it was required to show].
Corollary
So it is clear, from this, that if three straight-lines are proportional, then as the rst is to the third,
so the gure (described) on the rst (is) to the similar, and similarly described, (gure) on the
second. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
103
Literally, double.
`99

v op : op i | i : o | op i
o, | o o o c op v
o op .
op v , , op c c , o
v , : op i | i : o |
op i o, | o o o
c o .
| , , , .
| c| op c o ; ;, : c| uo
uo . c e o , u o . c| u
c v , p p; ; : c, | c v : v v
v, i v c| o ; ; e | op : v
c| uo uo . c c | o uo o uo : v
op e v uo uo c :. | c|
v op e , c| e o , u o ,
vv p | v op e c| e o , u o
, : v c| e o , u o , | | v :
v uo , | | v i i v c| o ;
; e | op c o ; . v v uv | o
op c ; ;. v v op v ,
: op | i : o .
, o | op i o, e v | v , | p
pc | v , , , cp c ue v , , , | o o
o o c op v o
op , o .
400
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 20
L
B
A
M
E
C
F
N
H
D
K
G
Similar polygons can be divided into equal numbers of similar triangles corresponding (in pro-
portion) to the wholes, and one polygon has to the (other) polygon a squared ratio with respect
to (that) a corresponding side (has) to a corresponding side.
Let ABCDE and FGHKL be similar polygons, and let AB correspond to FG. I say that polygons
ABCDE and FGHKL can be divided into equal numbers of similar triangles corresponding (in
proportion) to the wholes, and (that) polygon ABCDE has a squared ratio to polygon FGHKL
with respect to that AB (has) to FG.
Let BE, EC, GL, and LH have been joined.
And since polygon ABCDE is similar to polygon FGHKL, angle BAE is equal to angle GFL,
and as BA is to AE, so GF (is) to FL [Def. 6.1]. Therefore, since ABE and FGL are two tri-
angles having one angle equal to one angle and the sides about the equal angles proportional,
triangle ABE is thus equiangular to triangle FGL [Prop. 6.6]. Hence, (they are) also similar
[Prop. 6.4, Def. 6.1]. Thus, angle ABE is equal to (angle) FGL. And the whole (angle) ABC is
equal to the whole (angle) FGH on account of the similarity of the polygons. Thus, the remain-
ing angle EBC is equal to LGH. And since, on account of the similarity of triangles ABE and
FGL, as EB is to BA, so LG (is) to GF, but also, on account of the similarity of the polygons, as
AB is to BC, so FG (is) to GH, thus, via equality, as EB is to BC, so LG (is) to GH [Prop. 5.22],
the sides about the equal angles, EBC and LGH, are also proportional. Thus, triangle EBC is
equiangular to triangle LGH [Prop. 6.6]. Hence, triangle EBC is also similar to triangle LGH
[Prop. 6.4, Def. 6.1]. So, for the same (reasons), triangle ECD is also similar to triangle LHK.
Thus, the similar polygons ABCDE and FGHKL have been divided into equal numbers of sim-
ilar triangles.
I also say that (the triangles) correspond (in proportion) to the wholes. That is to say, the triangles
are proportional, ABE, EBC, and ECD are the leading (magnitudes), and their (associated)
following (magnitudes are) FGL, LGH, and LHK (respectively). (I) also (say) that polygon
ABCDE has a squared ratio to polygon FGHKL with respect to (that) a corresponding side
(has) to a corresponding sidethat is to say, (side) AB to FG.
40l

v | , . | c| v op e : c| uo
uo , c e o , u o , i c
o ; ; : v c| pc uo uo , c
uo uo . | c| : c| uo uo , c c | uo
uo :, | v uo uo : c i
v c| o ; ;. op ip, o | o
i c ; ;. v v c, e pc o , u
o , e c o , u o e | :, e o
, u o . v e o , u o ] o o
, | o o o o v i e | . | e v c e
p o c e cp, u v v p o v v cp e
v o o o , u o o o . e o o
o , u o | e v o , u o o
o . v v uv | e o , u o o
o . c e o , u o | e v o
o o , u o o o , |
cv e o o o , u o o o
. op ip ce e , , o | e o o
o , u o o o . | c c e o
o o . u o o o , | c o o o
, | e v c e p o c e cp, u v v p o
v v cp c v e o o o , u o
o o . vv o o o
c op v o op v v
op c ; c| e op e. | o v
o o c op v o
op .
v v op : op i | i : o | op
i o, | o o o c op
v o op . o c i].
p
c | c| e op] , o c ; i| e
op e. c c | c| e e | v op upp
p o v c ; i| e op e. o c i.
402
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 20
For let AC and FH have been joined. And since angle ABC is equal to FGH, and as AB is to
BC, so FG (is) to GH, on account of the similarity of the polygons, triangle ABC is equiangular
to triangle FGH [Prop. 6.6]. Thus, angle BAC is equal to GFH, and (angle) BCA to GHF. And
since angle BAM is equal to GFN, and (angle) ABM is also equal to FGN (see earlier), the
remaining (angle) AMB is thus also equal to the remaining (angle) FNG [Prop. 1.32]. Thus,
triangle ABM is equiangular to triangle FGN. So, similarly, we can show that triangle BMC
is equiangular to triangle GNH. Thus, proportionally, as AM is to MB, so FN (is) to NG, and
as BM (is) to MC, so GN (is) to NH [Prop. 6.4]. Hence, also, via equality, as AM (is) to MC,
so FN (is) to NH [Prop. 5.22]. But, as AM (is) to MC, so [triangle] ABM is to MBC, and
AME to EMC. For they are to one another as their bases [Prop. 6.1]. And as one of the leading
(magnitudes) is to one of the following (magnitudes), so is the sum of the leading (magnitudes)
to the sum of the following (magnitudes) [Prop. 5.12]. Thus, as triangle AMB (is) to BMC, so
(triangle) ABE (is) to CBE. But, as (triangle) AMB (is) to BMC, so AM (is) to MC. Thus,
also, as AM (is) to MC, so triangle ABE (is) to triangle EBC. And so, for the same (reasons),
as FN (is) to NH, so triangle FGL (is) to triangle GLH. And as AM is to MC, so FN (is) to
NH. Thus, also, as triangle ABE (is) to triangle BEC, so triangle FGL (is) to triangle GLH,
and, alternately, as triangle ABE (is) to triangle FGL, so triangle BEC (is) to triangle GLH
[Prop. 5.16]. So, similarly, we can also show, by joining BD and GK, that as triangle BEC (is)
to triangle LGH, so triangle ECD (is) to triangle LHK. And since as triangle ABE is to triangle
FGL, so (triangle) EBC (is) to LGH, and, further, (triangle) ECD to LHK, and also as one of
the leading (magnitudes is) to one of the following, so the sum of the leading (magnitudes is)
to the sum of the following [Prop. 5.12], thus as triangle ABE is to triangle FGL, so polygon
ABCDE (is) to polygon FGHKL. But, triangle ABE has a squared ratio to triangle FGL with
respect to (that) the corresponding side AB (has) to the corresponding side FG. For, similar
triangles are in the squared ratio of corresponding sides [Prop. 6.14]. Thus, polygon ABCDE
also has a squared ratio to polygon DEFGH with respect to (that) the corresponding side AB
(has) to the corresponding side FG.
Thus, similar polygons can be divided into equal numbers of similar triangles corresponding (in
proportion) to the wholes, and one polygon has to the (other) polygon a squared ratio with
respect to (that) a corresponding side (has) to a corresponding side. [(Which is) the very thing it
was required to show].
Corollary
And, in the same manner, it can also be shown for [similar] quadrilaterals that they are in the
squared ratio of (their) corresponding sides. And it was also shown for triangles. Hence, in
general, similar rectilinear gures are to one another in the squared ratio of (their) corresponding
sides. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
40`

v ; u; upp; op | v c| op.
v c e , upp ; op , o | o ; c
op.
| v op c o ; , i c u; | v | v : v
v c. , c| op c o ; , i c u; | v | v
: v v c. c v e , ; i c | v
| v : v v c e | o ; i c | v |
v : v v c]. op v c| o ; o c i.
404
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 21
A
B
C
(Rectilinear gures) similar to the same rectilinear gure are also similar to one another.
Let each of the rectilinear gures A and B be similar to (the rectilinear gure) C. I say that A is
also similar to B.
For since A is similar to C, (A) is equiangular to (C), and has the sides about the equal angles
proportional [Def. 6.1]. Again, since B is similar to C, (B) is equiangular to (C), and has the
sides about the equal angles proportional [Def. 6.1]. Thus, A and B are each equiangular to C,
and have the sides about the equal angles proportional [hence, A is also equiangular to B, and
has the sides about the equal angles proportional]. Thus, A is similar to B [Def. 6.1]. (Which is)
40

v ui v e, | v v ue upp op | op
vpp v c i v v ue upp op | op v-
pp v , | uv | ui v c.
ui v | , , , , e o , u
o , | v vo pc e , op | op p
upp v , , vo c e , op | op p upp v
, , o c| e o o o , u o o o .
i v e pc , v , e c , v . |
c c e pc o , u o , e c o ,
u o , : v c| e o , u o .
v e pc o , u |] o o o , e c o ,
u o o o | e v o o o , u o o o .
v c e o o o , u o o o , o c| | e
o , u o . i v p c, e o , u
o , c e o , u o , | v
vo o; e , op | op p upp o .
| u c e o , u o , | v vo pc
e , op | op p v , , vo c e , op |
op p v , , c v e o o o , u o o o .
u c | e o o o , u o o o | e v o
o o , u o o o . o v o c e , o uo
c : v c| o ; . c c u; | op | op p : v
406
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 22
H
A B C D
E
G
K
L
M
N
Q R
O P
S
F
If four straight-lines are proportional, then similar, and similarly described, rectilinear gures
(drawn) on them will also be proportional. And if similar, and similarly described, rectilinear
gures (drawn) on them are proportional, then the straight-lines themselves will also be propor-
tional.
Let AB, CD, EF, and GH be four proportional straight-lines, (such that) as AB (is) to CD, so
EF (is) to GH. And let the similar, and similarly laid out, rectilinear gures KAB and LCD have
been described on AB and CD (respectively), and the similar, and similarly laid out, rectilinear
gures MF and NH on EF and GH (respectively). I say that as KAB is to LCD, so MF (is) to
NH.
For let a third (straight-line) O have been taken (which is) proportional to AB and CD, and a
third (straight-line) P proportional to EF and GH [Prop. 6.11]. And since as AB is to CD, so
EF (is) to GH, and as CD (is) to O, so GH (is) to P, thus, via equality, as AB is to O, so EF (is)
to P [Prop. 5.22]. But, as AB (is) to O, so [also] KAB (is) to LCD, and as EF (is) to P, so MF
(is) to NH [Prop. 5.19 corr.]. And, thus, as KAB (is) to LCD, so MF (is) to NH.
And so let KAB be to LCD, as MF (is) to NH. I say also that as AB is to CD, so EF (is) to GH.
For if as AB is to CD, so EF (is) not to GH, let AB be to CD, as EF (is) to QR [Prop. 6.12].
And let the rectilinear gure SR, similar, and similarly laid down, to either of MF or NH, have
been described on QR [Props. 6.18, 6.21].
Therefore, since as AB is to CD, so EF (is) to QR, and the similar, and similarly laid out, (rec-
tilinear gures) KAB and LCD have been described on AB and CD (respectively), and the
similar, and similarly laid out, (rectilinear gures) MF and SR on EF and QR (resespectively),
thus as KAB is to LCD, so MF (is) to SR (see above). And it was also assumed that as KAB
(is) to LCD, so MF (is) to NH. Thus, also, as MF (is) to SR, so MF (is) to NH. Thus, MF has
40

. | c c e o , u o , : c
, c v e o , u o .
v v ui v e, | v v ue upp op | op
vpp v c i v v ue upp op | op v-
pp v , | uv | ui v c o c i.
408
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 22
the same ratio to each of NH and SR. Thus, NH is equal to SR [Prop. 5.9]. And it is also similar,
and similarly laid out, to it. Thus, GH (is) equal to QR. And since AB is to CD, as EF (is) to
QR, and QR (is) equal to GH, thus as AB is to CD, so EF (is) to GH.
Thus, if four straight-lines are proportional, then similar, and similarly described, rectilinear g-
ures (drawn) on them will also be proportional. And if similar, and similarly described, rectilinear
gures (drawn) on them are proportional, then the straight-lines themselves will also be propor-
tional. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
409

v i pp o v c o p c e e.
i pp v , : c uo uo
, o o pp o o pp c o
p c e e.
v e c u | c ui v c| | . |
p o pp, | c ui , | e
pc o , u o , e c o , u o
.
| v o | o | u i i e
e, o | o . v o o
c u o | u o e | o
c o p c e e. | c c e o , u
o pp o o , v e o , u o
, | e v o , u o o o . , c c e
o , u o pp o o , v e o ,
u o , | e v o , u o pp
o o pp. c| u c, e pc o , u o
pp o o pp, e c o , u o
pp o o pp, : v c| e o ,
u o o o pp. c o c o p
c e e | o v o o c o p c e e.
v v i pp o v c o p c e e
o c i.
4l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 23
F
A
B
K
L
M
C G
E
D H
Equiangular parallelograms have to one another the ratio compounded
104
out of (the ratios of)
their sides.
Let AC and CF be equiangular parallelograms having angle BCD equal to ECG. I say that par-
allelogram AC has to parallelogram CF the ratio compounded out of (the ratios of) their sides.
Let BC be laid down so as to be straight-on to CG. Thus, DC is also straight-on to CE [Prop. 1.14].
And let the parallelogram DG have been completed. And let some straight-line K have been laid
down. And let it be that as BC (is) to CG, so K (is) to L, and as DC (is) to CE, so L (is) to M
[Prop. 6.12].
Thus, the ratios of K to L and of L to M are the same as the ratios of the sides, (namely), BC to
CG and DC to CE (respectively). But, the ratio of K to M is compounded out of the ratio of K
to L and (the ratio) of L to M. Hence, K also has to M the ratio compounded out of (the ratios
of) the sides (of the parallelograms). And since as BC is to CG, so parallelogram AC (is) to CH
[Prop. 6.1], but as BC (is) to CG, so K (is) to L, thus, also, as K (is) to L, so (parallelogram)
AC (is) to CH. Again, since as DC (is) to CE, so parallelogram CH (is) to CF [Prop. 6.1],
but as DC (is) to CE, so L (is) to M, thus, also, as L (is) to M, so parallelogram CH (is) to
parallelogram CF. Therefore, since it was shown that as K (is) to L, so parallelogram AC (is)
to parallelogram CH, and as L (is) to M, so parallelogram CH (is) to parallelogram CF, thus,
via equality, as K is to M, so (parallelogram) AC (is) to parallelogram CF [Prop. 5.22]. And
K has to M the ratio compounded out of (the ratios of) the sides (of the parallelograms). Thus,
(parallelogram) AC also has to (parallelogram) CF the ratio compounded out of (the ratio of)
their sides.
Thus, equiangular parallelograms have to one another the ratio compounded out of (the ratio of)
their sides. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
104
In modern notation, if two ratios are compounded then they are multiplied together.
4ll

o pp v | p pp op c ; o;
| v.
pp o , p c uu , | c -
pp c v , , o c e , pp op
c o; ; | v.
| v u v p e e , v c e
o , u o . , c| u v p
, v c e o , u o . v e
o , u c | o | e v o , u
o , | v e o , u o , | cv
e o , u o . e v , pp
v i | | | | uo | c| c
, : c| pc uo uo | e e
, uo i v c| o ; ;. v
v uv | o i c ; ;, | o o -
pp ; pp; i c. v v c| e o
, u o , e c o , u o , e c
o , u o , | c e o , u o
. | c| c e pc o , u o , e c
o , u o , : v c| e o , u
o . e v , pp v i | | | | v
: op v c| o pp ; pp;. v v
uv o pp | ; pp; op c c
v e , pp ; pp;] op c. v c ;
u; upp; op | v c| op | o v pp ;
pp; op c.
4l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 24
E A B
G
F
H
D K C
For every parallelogram, the parallelograms about the diagonal are similar to the whole, and to
one another.
Let ABCD be a parallelogram, and AC its diagonal. And let EGand HK be parallelograms about
AC. I say that the parallelograms EG and HK are each similar to the whole (parallelogram)
ABCD, and to one another.
For since EF has been drawn parallel to one of the sides BC of triangle ABC, proportionally, as
BE is to EA, so CF (is) to FA [Prop. 6.2]. Again, since FG has been drawn parallel to one (of
the sides) CD of triangle ACD, proportionally, as CF is to FA, so DG(is) to GA [Prop. 6.2]. But,
as CF (is) to FA, so it was also shown (is) BE to EA. And thus as BE (is) to EA, so DG (is) to
GA. And, thus, compounding, as BA (is) to AE, so DA (is) to AG [Prop. 5.18]. And, alternately,
as BA (is) to AD, so EA (is) to AG [Prop. 5.16]. Thus, for parallelograms ABCD and EG, the
sides about the common angle BAD are proportional. And since GF is parallel to DC, angle
AFG is equal to DCA [Prop. 1.29]. And angle DAC (is) common to the two triangles ADC
and AGF. Thus, triangle ADC is equiangular to triangle AGF [Prop. 1.32]. So, for the same
(reasons), triangle ACB is equiangular to triangle AFE, and the whole parallelogram ABCD is
equiangular to parallelogram EG. Thus, proportionally, as AD (is) to DC, so AG (is) to GF, and
as DC (is) to CA, so GF (is) to FA, and as AC (is) to CB, so AF (is) to FE, and, further, as CB
(is) to BA, so FE (is) to EA [Prop. 6.4]. And since it was shown that as DC is to CA, so GF (is)
to FA, and as AC (is) to CB, so AF (is) to FE, thus, via equality, as DC is to CB, so GF (is) to
FE [Prop. 5.22]. Thus, for parallelograms ABCD and EG, the sides about the equal angles are
proportional. Thus, parallelogram ABCD is similar to parallelogram EG [Def. 6.1]. So, for the
same (reasons), parallelogram ABCD is also similar to parallelogram KH. Thus, parallelograms
EG and HK are each similar to [parallelogram] ABCD. And (rectilinear gures) similar to the
same rectilinear gure are also similar to one another [Prop. 6.21]. Thus, parallelogram EG is
also similar to parallelogram HK.
4l`

o v pp v | p pp op c ;
o; | v o c i.
4l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 24
Thus, for every parallelogram, the parallelograms about the diagonal are similar to the whole and
to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
4l

; upp; op | v; ; : o uo .
o pc c upp, ; i op , o , ; c i :, o
i ; pc op, ; c : o uo .
v v pc ; ; : pp o , v
c ; : pp o c ; uo , c : uo
. c u v c| pc , c . | i e , p
v , | v vo ; op | op p o
.
| c c e o , u o , cv c i ui
v e, c e o , u o vo | o o vo
o op | op vp, c v e o , u
o o o . vv | e o , u o
pp o o pp. | e v o o o
, u o pp o o pp cv
v e o o o pp, u o o o
pp. : c o ; pp; : v | o
; pp;. vv o pp ; c :
| o v ; c :. c c o | ; op.
; v upp; ; op | v; ; ; : o uo
o o c .
4l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 25
F
A
B
C
K
G H
E
D
L M
To construct a single (rectilinear gure) similar to a given rectilinear gure and equal to a differ-
ent given rectilinear gure.
Let ABC be the given rectilinear gure to which it is required to construct a similar (rectilinear
gure), and D the (rectilinear gure) to which (the constructed gure) is required (to be) equal.
So it is required to construct a single (rectilinear gure) similar to ABC and equal to D.
For let the parallelogram BE, equal to triangle ABC, have been applied to (the straight-line) BC
[Prop. 1.44], and the parallelogram CM, equal to D, (have been applied) to (the straight-line)
CE, in the angle FCE, which is equal to CBL [Prop. 1.45]. Thus, BC is straight-on to CF,
and LE to EM [Prop. 1.14]. And let the mean proportion GH have been taken of BC and CF
[Prop. 6.13]. And let KGH, similar, and similarly laid out, to ABC have been described on GH
[Prop. 6.18].
And since as BC is to GH, so GH (is) to CF, and if three straight-lines are proportional then
as the rst is to the third, so the gure (described) on the rst (is) to the similar, and similarly
described, (gure) on the second [Prop. 6.19 corr.], thus as BC is to CF, so triangle ABC (is)
to triangle KGH. But, also, as BC (is) to CF, so parallelogram BE (is) to parallelogram EF
[Prop. 6.1]. And, thus, as triangle ABC (is) to triangle KGH, so parallelogram BE (is) to par-
allelogram EF. Thus, alternately, as triangle ABC (is) to parallelogram BE, so triangle KGH
(is) to parallelogram EF [Prop. 5.16]. And triangle ABC (is) equal to parallelogram BE. Thus,
triangle KGH (is) also equal to parallelogram EF. But, parallelogram EF is equal to D. Thus,
KGH is also equal to D. And KGH is also similar to ABC.
Thus, a single (rectilinear gure) KGH has been constructed (which is) similar to the given recti-
linear gure ABC and equal to a different given (rectilinear gure) D. (Which is) the very thing
it was required to do.
4l

v vo pp pp v op ; o; | op
p c u;, | u p c ; o;.
o v pp u pp v o op ;
| op p c u; uo , o | u
p c o ; .
, v i , c ue] p , | ci c| o
, | v u o; e , .
| u | u p c o ; , c v e o ,
u o . c c | v op e , | e o
, u o | e v o , u o
. v o c e , o uo c . : v c|
c p o c| v. u v u c | u p
o ; | u v c| p o pp ;
pp;.
v v vo pp pp v op ; o; | op
p c u;, | u p c ; o; o c i.
4l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 26
K
A G D
B
H
F
C
E
If from a parallelogram a(nother) parallelogram is subtracted (which is) similar, and similarly
laid out, to the whole, having a common angle with it, then (the subtracted parallelogram) is
about the same diagonal as the whole.
For, from parallelogram ABCD, let (parallelogram) AF have been subtracted (which is) similar,
and similarly laid out, to ABCD, having the common angle DAB with it. I say that ABCD is
about the same diagonal as AF.
For (if) not, then, if possible, let AHC be [ABCDs] diagonal. And producing GF, let it have
been drawn through to (point) H. And let HK have been drawn through (point) H, parallel to
either of AD or BC [Prop. 1.31].
Therefore, since ABCD is about the same diagonal as KG, thus as DA is to AB, so GA (is) to
AK [Prop. 6.24]. And, on account of the similarity of ABCD and EG, also, as DA (is) to AB,
so GA (is) to AE. Thus, also, as GA (is) to AK, so GA (is) to AE. Thus, GA has the same ratio
to each of AK and AE. Thus, AE is equal to AK [Prop. 5.9], the lesser to the greater. The very
thing is impossible. Thus, ABCD is not not about the same diagonal as AF. Thus, parallelogram
ABCD is about the same diagonal as parallelogram AF.
Thus, if from a parallelogram a(nother) parallelogram is subtracted (which is) similar, and simi-
larly laid out, to the whole, having a common angle with it, then (the subtracted parallelogram)
is about the same diagonal as the whole. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
4l9

e v u ui p pp | c
: pp op | op p ; vo p v-
p; p c o vo p p pp] op o
; cpp.
ui | p v o , | v ui o
pp ci : pp; ; v vo p
, , o e v p -
pp | c : pp] op | op p ;
p c o . v v ui o pp
ci : pp; ; op; | op p; ; , o pi
c o u .
| v op c o pp ; pp;, | u
i p. ue p , | o p.
| u : c| o ; , o c o , o v o o; ; c
:. vv o ; c :, c| | . | o v ; c
:. o o o v o ; p c : e o
pp, o , u pp pi c.
v e v u ui p pp | c
: pp op | op p ; vo p vp;
p c o vo p o c i.
420
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 27
F
A C K
G
D
L
N
M
B
H
E
For all parallelograms applied to the same straight-line, and falling short by a parallelogrammic
gure similar, and similarly laid out, to the (parallelogram) described on half (the straight-line),
the greatest is the [parallelogram] applied to half (the straight-line), which (is) similar to (that
parallelogram) by which it falls short.
Let AB be the straight-line, and let it have been cut in half at (point) C [Prop. 1.10]. And let
the parallelogram AD have been applied to the straight-line AB, falling short by the parallelo-
grammic gure DB, (which is) applied to half of ABthat is to say, CB. I say that of all the
parallelograms applied to AB, and falling short by a [parallelogrammic] gure similar, and simi-
larly laid out, to DB, the greatest is AD. For let the parallelogram AF have been applied to the
straight-line AB, falling short by the parallelogrammic gure FB, (which is) similar, and simi-
larly laid out, to DB. I say that AD is greater than AF.
For since parallelogram DB is similar to parallelogram FB, they are about the same diagonal
[Prop. 6.26]. Let their (common) diagonal DB have been drawn, and let the (rest of the) gure
have been described.
Therefore, since (complement) CF is equal to (complement) FE [Prop. 1.43], and (parallelo-
gram) FB is common, the whole (parallelogram) CH is thus equal to the whole (parallelogram)
KE. But, (parallelogram) CH is equal to CG, since AC (is) also (equal) to CB [Prop. 6.1]. Thus,
(parallelogram) GC is also equal to EK. Let (parallelogram) CF have been added to both. Thus,
the whole (parallelogram) AF is equal to the gnomon LMN. Hence, parallelogram DBthat is
to say, ADis greater than parallelogram AF.
Thus, for all parallelograms applied to the same straight-line, and falling short by a parallel-
ogrammic gure similar, and similarly laid out, to the (parallelogram) described on half (the
straight-line), the greatest is the [parallelogram] applied to half (the straight-line). (Which is)
42l

v i ui ; upp; : pp i
ci : pp; op; ; i c o p upp ; i
: i] p pi | u vo p vp op ; cpp
u vo p | ; i op c].
pc i ui , o c c upp, ; i : v
i, o p pi o] u vo p vp op ;
cpp, ; c i op c, o i v i ui
; upp; ; : pp i ci : -
pp; op; o ; .
p v o pi, | v vo ; op |
op p o , | p o pp.
i pc u : c| o ; , o i : o c v v
i ui ; upp; ; : pp o
ci : pp; ; op; o ; . i c u, pi c o u .
: c o ; pi v | o u . ; pi c o u ,
u :, ; c op | op p o uo o . vv o
; c] op | o v ; c op. c u op pc
, c . | c| : c| o i , , pi v c| o u
p v c| | pc , c . pc : ,
c : , | p o pp : v | op
c o ] ; vv o ; op c]. | o v ; op c
422
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 28
105
O
A B E
F G H
K
Q
P
R
S
T
U
X
V
D
N
M L
C
To apply a parallelogram, equal to a given rectilinear gure, to a given straight-line, (the applied
parallelogram) falling short by a parallelogrammic gure similar to a given (parallelogram). It
is necessary for the given rectilinear gure [to which it is required to apply an equal (parallelo-
gram)] not to be greater than the (parallelogram) described on half (of the straight-line, which
is) similar to the decit.
Let AB be the given straight-line, and C the given rectilinear gure to which the (parallelogram)
applied to AB is required (to be) equal, [being] not greater than the (parallelogram) described
on half of AB (which is) similar to the decit, and D the (parallelogram) to which the decit is
required (to be) similar. So it is required to apply a parallelogram, equal to the given rectilinear
gure C, to the straight-line AB, falling short by a parallelogrammic gure which is similar to D.
Let AB have been cut in half at point E [Prop. 1.10], and let (parallelogram) EBFG, (which is)
similar, and similarly laid out, to (parallelogram) D, have been applied to EB [Prop. 6.18]. And
let parallelogram AG have been completed.
Therefore, if AG is equal to C then the thing prescribed has happened. For a parallelogram AG,
equal to the given rectilinear gure C, has been applied to the given straight-line AB, falling short
by a parallelogrammic gure GB which is similar to D. And if not, let HE be greater than C.
And HE (is) equal to GB [Prop. 6.1]. Thus, GB (is) also greater than C. So, let (parallelogram)
KLMN have been constructed (so as to be) both similar, and similarly laid out, to D, and equal
105
This proposition is a geometric solution of the quadratic equation x
2
x + = 0. Here, x is the ratio of a side
of the decit to the corresponding side of gure D, is the ratio of the length of AB to the length of that side of
gure D which corresponds to the side of the decit running along AB, and is the ratio of the areas of gures C
and D. The constraint corresponds to the condition <
2
/4 for the equation to have real roots. Only the smaller
root of the equation is found. The larger root can be found by a similar method.
42`

| u v p c o ; . c ue p , | -
o p.
| u : c| o i , , e o ; c :, o v o
p ; ; : c. | c| : c| o ; , o o
o v o o; ; : c. vv o ; c :, c| | v
; c : | o v ; c :. o o o
v o o; ; p c :. v o p ; c : | o
v ; c :.
v i v ui ; upp; ; : pp
o ci : pp; ; op; o ; c o
; op c] o c .
424
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 28
to the excess by which GB is greater than C [Prop. 6.25]. But, GB [is] similar to D. Thus, KM
is also similar to GB [Prop. 6.21]. Therefore, let KL correspond to GE, and LM to GF. And
since (parallelogram) GB is equal to (gure) C and (parallelogram) KM, GB is thus greater
than KM. Thus, GE is also greater than KL, and GF than LM. Let GO be made equal to
KL, and GP to LM [Prop. 1.3]. And let the parallelogram OGPQ have been completed. Thus,
[GQ] is equal and similar to KM [but, KM is similar to GB]. Thus, GQ is also similar to GB
[Prop. 6.21]. Thus, GQ and GB are about the same diagonal [Prop. 6.26]. Let GQB be their
(common) diagonal, and let the (remainder of the) gure have been described.
Therefore, since BG is equal to C and KM, of which GQ is equal to KM, the remaining gnomon
UXV is thus equal to the remainder C. And since (the complement) PR is equal to (the com-
plement) OS [Prop. 1.43], let (parallelogram) QB have been added to both. Thus, the whole
(parallelogram) PB is equal to the whole (parallelogram) OB. But, OB is equal to TE, since
side AE is equal to side EB [Prop. 6.1]. Thus, TE is also equal to PB. Let (parallelogram) OS
have been added to both. Thus, the whole (parallelogram) TS is equal to the gnomon UXV .
But, gnomon UXV was shown (to be) equal to C. Therefore, (parallelogram) TS is also equal to
(gure) C.
Thus, the parallelogram ST, equal to the given rectilinear gure C, has been applied to the given
straight-line AB, falling short by the parallelogrammic gure QB, which is similar to D [inasmuch
as QB is similar to GQ [Prop. 6.24] ]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
42

v i ui ; upp; : pp i
u : pp; op; ; .
pc i ui , o c c upp, ; i : v
i, o , ; c i op u, o i v ui ;
upp; : pp i u : pp; op;
; .
p v o , | v vo ; op | op
p pp o , | p pc i , :, ; c op
| op p o uo o . op c c pc , c
. | c| pi c o u , p v c| | pc , c
. c | , , | pc : c , c :
, | p o o v ; : c | op. vv o
; c op | o v ; op c | u v p c
o ; . ue p , | o p.
| : c| o i , , vv o ; : c, | o v i ,
: c. o v o o v o p ; c :. | c|
: c| , : c| | o ; , ; . o o
o v o : c| ; p. vv o p ; : c |
o v ; : c.
v i v ui ; upp; ; : pp
o u : pp; ; op; o ; , c| |
; c op o o c .
426
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 29
106
A
B
C
F H K M L
P
U
X
D
V
G N
E
O Q
To apply a parallelogram, equal to a given rectilinear gure, to a given straight-line, (the applied
parallelogram) overshooting by a parallelogrammic gure similar to a given (parallelogram).
Let AB be the given straight-line, and C the given rectilinear gure to which the (parallelogram)
applied to AB is required (to be) equal, and D the (parallelogram) to which the excess is required
(to be) similar. So it is required to apply a parallelogram, equal to the given rectilinear gure C,
to the given straight-line AB, overshooting by a parallelogrammic gure similar to D.
Let AB have been cut in half at (point) E [Prop. 1.10], and let the parallelogram BF, (which
is) similar, and similarly laid out, to D, have been applied to EB [Prop. 6.18]. And let (parallel-
ogram) GH have been constructed (so as to be) both similar, and similarly laid out, to D, and
equal to the sum of BF and C [Prop. 6.25]. And let KH correspond to FL, and KG to FE. And
since (parallelogram) GH is greater than (parallelogram) FB, KH is thus also greater than FL,
and KG than FE. Let FL and FE have been produced, and let FLM be (made) equal to KH,
and FEN to KG [Prop. 1.3]. And let (parallelogram) MN have been completed. Thus, MN is
equal and similar to GH. But, GH is similar to EL. Thus, MN is also similar to EL [Prop. 6.21].
EL is thus about the same diagonal as MN [Prop. 6.26]. Let their (common) diagonal FO have
been drawn, and let the (remainder of the) gure have been described.
106
This proposition is a geometric solution of the quadratic equation x
2
+x = 0. Here, x is the ratio of a side
of the excess to the corresponding side of gure D, is the ratio of the length of AB to the length of that side of
gure D which corresponds to the side of the excess running along AB, and is the ratio of the areas of gures C
and D. Only the positive root of the equation is found.
42

428
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 29
And since (parallelogram) GH is equal to (parallelogram) EL and (gure) C, but GH is equal
to (parallelogram) MN, MN is thus also equal to EL and C. Let EL have been subtracted from
both. Thus, the remaining gnomon UXV is equal to (gure) C. And since AE is equal to EB,
(parallelogram) AN is also equal to (parallelogram) NB [Prop. 6.1], that is to say, (parallelo-
gram) LP [Prop. 1.43]. Let (parallelogram) EO have been added to both. Thus, the whole
(parallelogram) AO is equal to the gnomon UXV . But, the gnomon UXV is equal to (gure) C.
Thus, (parallelogram) AO is also equal to (gure) C.
Thus, the parallelogram AO, equal to the given rectilinear gure C, has been applied to the given
straight-line AB, overshooting by the parallelogrammic gure QP which is similar to D, since
EL is also similar to PQ [Prop. 6.24]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
429

i ui p v | p pi.
i ui p i ui v | p
pi.
vo o , | v ; :
pp o u : ; op; ; .
c o v c | o . | c| : c| o ;
, o v o o v o ; ; c :. c c u; |
i e , v v | | | | v : c v e
o , u o . : c pc , c . c
v e o , u o . p c p v
| .
v ui v | p p v o , | o pi u pp c
o o c .
4`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 30
107
E
F H
B
C
A
D
To cut a given nite straight-line in extreme and mean ratio.
Let AB be the given nite straight-line. So it is required to cut the straight-line AB in extreme
and mean ratio.
Let the square BC have been described on AB [Prop. 1.46], and let the parallelogram CD,
equal to BC, have been applied to AC, overshooting by the gure AD (which is) similar to
BC [Prop. 6.29].
And BC is a square. Thus, AD is also a square. And since BC is equal to CD, let (rectangle) CE
have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remaining (rectangle) BF is equal to the remaining
(square) AD. And it is also equiangular to it. Thus, the sides of BF and AD about the equal
angles are reciprocally proportional [Prop. 6.14]. Thus, as FE is to ED, so AE (is) to EB. And
FE (is) equal to AB, and ED to AE. Thus, as BA is to AE, so AE (is) to EB. And AB (is)
larger than AE. Thus, AE (is) also larger than EB [Prop. 5.14].
Thus, the straight-line AB has been cut in extreme and mean ratio at E, and AE is its larger
piece. (Which is) the very thing it was required to do.
107
This method of cutting a straight-line is sometimes called the Golden Sectionsee Prop. 2.11.
4`l

i o o vo o u i | :
c| i vo e o e e : i op | op
vp.
o o o c uo , o o vo
| : c| i vo e , : i op | op vp.
.
| u c o; ; ; vo o ; o c|
, v , o ; op c ; o; ; |
v. | c| op c o ; , c v e o , u
o . | c| i ui v i, c e o , u
o vo | o o vo o op | op vp. e
v o , u o vo | o o vo o op | op
vp. v v uv | e o , u o vo | o
o vo . e | e o v , , u o vo | o v vo
e , v op | op vp. : c i , : v | o
vo | i vo e , : i op | op vp,
v i o o vo o u i |
: c| i vo e o e e : i op | op
vp o c i.
4`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 31
D
A
C B
In right-angled triangles, the gure (drawn) on the side subtending the right-angle is equal to the
(sum of the) similar, and similarly described, gures on the sides surrounding the right-angle.
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle having the angle BAC a right-angle. I say that the gure
(drawn) on BC is equal to the (sum of the) similar, and similarly described, gures on BA and
AC.
Let the perpendicular AD have been drawn [Prop. 1.12].
Therefore, since, in the right-angled triangle ABC, the (straight-line) AD has been drawn from
the right-angle at A perpendicular to the base BC, the triangles ABD and ADC about the per-
pendicular are similar to the whole (triangle) ABC, and to one another [Prop. 6.8]. And since
ABC is similar to ABD, thus as BC is to BA, so AB (is) to BD [Def. 6.1]. And since three
straight-lines are proportional, as the rst is to the third, so the gure (drawn) on the rst is to
the similar, and similarly described, (gure) on the second [Prop. 6.19 corr.]. Thus, as CB (is) to
BD, so the gure (drawn) on CB (is) to the similar, and similarly described, (gure) on BA. And
so, for the same (reasons), as BC (is) to CD, so the gure (drawn) on BC (is) to the (gure) on
CA. Hence, also, as BC (is) to BD and DC, so the gure (drawn) on BC (is) to the (sum of the)
similar, and similarly described, (gures) on BA and AC [Prop. 5.24]. And BC is equal to BD
and DC. Thus, the gure (drawn) on BC (is) also equal to the (sum of the) similar, and similarly
described, gures on BA and AC [Prop. 5.9].
Thus, in right-angled triangles, the gure (drawn) on the side subtending the right-angle is equal
to the (sum of the) similar, and similarly described, gures on the sides surrounding the right-
angle. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
4``

v v p v v i | i v
c e v op ue v | |, | | e
| c u c.
v , v v v , i | i i ,
v c, e pc o , u o ,
c pc , c , o c u c| .
| v c , | i uv cp ui , | cv
| uo , : v i. v v uv | uo uo :
c. e | uo uo c :. | c| c v ,
p o ; p; ; o ; : c, | c v : v
v v, e o , u o , i v c|
o ; ; : v uo uo . c c |
uo uo : o v uo | i uo , : c.
uo | v uo , i uo , , : i. v |
uo , , | oi : i | | uo , v | oi :
i. o u; | ; o u p; ; ui | , p c|
v uv p p v c v uo , | oi : u c
u v c| .
v v v p v v i | i v
c e v op ue v | |, | | e
| c u c o c i.
4`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 32
C B E
A
D
If two triangles, having two sides proportional to two sides, are placed together at a single angle
such that the corresponding sides are also parallel, then the remaining sides of the triangles will
be straight-on (with respect to one another).
Let ABC and DCE be two triangles having the two sides BA and AC proportional to the two
sides DC and DEso that as AB (is) to AC, so DC (is) to DEand (having side) AB parallel
to DC, and AC to DE. I say that (side) BC is straight-on to CE.
For since AB is parallel to DC, and the straight-line AC has fallen across them, the alternate
angles BAC and ACD are equal to one another [Prop. 1.29]. So, for the same (reasons), CDE
is also equal to ACD. And, hence, BAC is equal to CDE. And since ABC and DCE are
two triangles having the one angle at A equal to the one angle at D, and the sides about the
equal angles proportional, (so that) as BA (is) to AC, so CD (is) to DE, triangle ABC is thus
equiangular to triangle DCE [Prop. 6.6]. Thus, angle ABC is equal to DCE. And (angle) ACD
was also shown (to be) equal to BAC. Thus, the whole (angle) ACE is equal to the two (angles)
ABC and BAC. Let ACB have been added to both. Thus, ACE and ACB are equal to BAC,
ACB, and CBA. But, BAC, ABC, and ACB are equal to two right-angles [Prop. 1.32]. Thus,
ACE and ACB are also equal to two right-angles. Thus, the two straight-lines BC and CE, not
lying in the same direction, make the adjacent angles ACE and ACB equal to two right-angles
at the point C on some straight-line AC. Thus, BC is straight-on to CE [Prop. 1.14].
Thus, if two triangles, having two sides proportional to two sides, are placed together at a single
angle such that the corresponding sides are also parallel, then the remaining sides of the triangles
will be straight-on (with respect to one another). (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
4`

i : | o uo c i , c e ,
c o i c o i e i.
: | , , | o pc i ue i ,
c | uo , , o c i | uo , , o c| e
o , u uo o uo |
uo o uo .
v pc ; : v o c ou | , , c
; : ou | , , | c | , , , .
| u : i| | , , v, : i| | | uo , ,
v o v c| , c|
| uo uo . v v uv | o c|
, c| | uo uo . i v : c|
;, : c| | uo uo , | i p c|
, p c| | uo uo , |
i c, c. o pe, pc e e , , c
e e uo , , : pc | uo i
| uo , c | uo
| uo . | , o i u
, u | uo u , | i
:, :, | i c, c. c v, e o , u uo
o uo . v e uo o uo , u uo
o uo . v c c. | e v o
, u uo o uo | uo o
uo .
4`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 33
K
A
C
D
F
G
H
M
N
E
B
L
In equal circles, angles have the same ratio as the (ratio of the) circumferences on which they
stand, whether they are standing at the centers (of the circles) or at the circumferences.
Let ABC and DEF be equal circles, and let BGC and EHF be angles at their centers, G and H
(respectively), and BAC and EDF (angles) at their circumferences. I say that as circumference
BC is to circumference EF, so angle BGC (is) to EHF, and (angle) BAC to EDF.
For let any number whatsoever of consecutive (circumferences), CK and KL, be made equal to
circumference BC, and any number whatsoever, FM and MN, to circumference EF. And let
GK, GL, HM, and HN have been joined.
Therefore, since circumferences BC, CK, and KL are equal to one another, angles BGC, CGK,
and KGL are also equal to one another [Prop. 3.27]. Thus, as many times as circumference BL
is (divisible) by BC, so many times is angle BGL also (divisible) by BGC. And so, for the same
(reasons), as many times as circumference NE is (divisible) by EF, so many times is angle NHE
also (divisible) by EHF. Thus, if circumference BL is equal to circumference EN then angle
BGL is also equal to EHN [Prop. 3.27], and if circumference BL is greater than circumference
EN then angle BGL is also greater than EHN,
108
and if (BL is) less (than EN then BGL is
also) less (than EHN). So there are four magnitudes, two circumferences BC and EF, and two
angles BGC and EHF. And equal multiples have been taken of circumference BC and angle
BGC, (namely) circumference BL and angle BGL, and of circumference EF and angle EHF,
(namely) circumference EN and angle EHN. And it has been shown that if circumference BL
exceeds circumference EN then angle BGL also exceeds angle EHN, and if (BL is) equal (to
EN then BGL is also) equal (to EHN), and if (BL is) less (than EN then BGL is also) less (than
EHN). Thus, as circumference BC (is) to EF, so angle BGC (is) to EHF [Def. 5.5]. But as
angle BGC (is) to EHF, so (angle) BAC (is) to EDF [Prop. 5.15]. For the former (are) double
the latter (respectively) [Prop. 3.20]. Thus, also, as circumference BC (is) to circumference EF,
so angle BGC (is) to EHF, and BAC to EDF.
108
This is a straight-forward generalization of Prop. 3.27,
4`

v i : | o uo c i , c e ,
c o i c o i e i o c i.
4`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 6
Proposition 33
Thus, in equal circles, angles have the same ratio as the (ratio of the) circumferences on which
they stand, whether they are standing at the centers (of the circles) or at the circumferences.
4`9

ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Elementary number theory
109
109
The propositions contained in Books 79 are generally attributed to the school of Pythagoras.

c, c e o c .
po c o c p p .
c| vpo vpu o c u p, o p o p.
, o p p.
c o p u c, o p uo u c.
vp c o p.
o c o p p o] p v vpu.
v vp c o uo v vpu pp v v vp.
c c o uo v vpu pp v o vp.
c o vp c o uo u vpu pp v -
o vp.
e vp c o p p pp.
e o v vp i | p p pp ; p;.
vp c o vp; pp.
c o v vp i | vp; pp ; p;.
po vpo , o, o i| c u; p,
o p, | .
442
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Denitions
1 A unit is (that) according to which each existing (thing) is said (to be) one.
2 And a number (is) a multitude composed of units.
110
3 A number is part of a(nother) number, the lesser of the greater, when it measures the
greater.
111
4 But (the lesser is) parts (of the greater) when it does not measure it.
112
5 And the greater (number is) a multiple of the lesser when it is measured by the lesser.
6 An even number is one (which can be) divided in half.
7 And an odd number is one (which can)not (be) divided in half, or which differs from an
even number by a unit.
8 An even-times-even number is one (which is) measured by an even number according to an
even number.
113
9 And an even-times-odd number is one (which is) measured by an even number according
to an odd number.
114
10 And an odd-times-odd number is one (which is) measured by an odd number according to
an odd number.
115
11 A prime
116
number is one (which is) measured by a unit alone.
12 Numbers prime to one another are those (which are) measured by a unit alone as a common
measure.
13 A composite number is one (which is) measured by some number.
14 And numbers composite to one another are those (which are) measured by some number
as a common measure.
15 A number is said to multiply a(nother) number when the (number being) multiplied is
added (to itself) as many times as there are units in the former (number), and (thereby)
some (other number) is produced.
110
In other words, a number is a positive integer greater than unity.
111
In other words, a number a is part of another number b if their exists some number n such that na = b.
112
In other words, a number a is parts of another number b (where a < b) if their exist distinct numbers, m and n,
such that na = mb.
113
In other words. an even-times-even number is the product of two even numbers.
114
In other words, an even-times-odd number is the product of an even and an odd number.
115
In other words, an odd-times-odd number is the product of two odd numbers.
116
Literally, rst.
44`

c vp| v e , o p c
i, | c uu | v vp.
c i vp| v e , o p
c, | c uu | v vp.
vp c o i : o] uo : vpe p.
c o i : i o] uo e : vpe p.
p| v i, o o e u | o u i
o uo p v uv p e.
p c | | vp i | c v .
vp c o i cu p : e.
444
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
16 And when two numbers multiplying one another make some (other number) then the (num-
ber so) created is called plane, and its sides (are) the numbers which multiply one another.
17 And when three numbers multiplying one another make some (other number) then the
(number so) created is (called) solid, and its sides (are) the numbers which multiply one
another.
18 A square number is an equal times an equal, or (a plane number) contained by two equal
numbers.
19 And a cube (number) is an equal times an equal times an equal, or (a solid number) con-
tained by three equal numbers.
20 Numbers are proportional when the rst is the same multiple, or the same part, or the same
parts, of the second that the third (is) of the fourth.
21 Similar plane and solid numbers are those having proportional sides.
22 A perfect number is that which is equal to its own parts.
117
117
In other words, a perfect number is equal to the sum of its own factors.
44

vpe v cp, vp c v| u c vo u p, cv
o p p p o o cu, c u p, | c v vp|
e o v c.
v v] vpe e , vp v| u c vo u p
o p p p o o cu, c u p , o | ,
e o v i, o , pv p pi.
i v p i | , e o v, p u vp. p, |
c o | o pc o pe cu c o , o c o
pe cu c o , o c o pe | p .
| u o o pi, o c o pi, | o v o pi pi c
| o o | o v o p. o c o pi | o v
o pi pi c | o o | o v o p. o c o
pi | o v o pi pi c | o o | v
p p vpo e o c| v. u v , vp p
vp | , v e o v i o c i.
446
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 1
E
G
A
H
F
B D
C
Two unequal numbers (being) laid down, and the lesser being continually subtracted, in turn,
from the greater, if the remainder never measures the (number) preceding it, until a unit remains,
then the original numbers will be prime to one another.
For two [unequal] numbers, AB and CD, the lesser being continually subtracted, in turn, from
the greater, let the remainder never measure the (number) preceding it, until a unit remains. I
say that AB and CD are prime to one anotherthat is to say, that a unit alone measures (both)
AB and CD.
For if AB and CD are not prime to one another then some number will measure them. Let (some
number) measure them, and let it be E. And let CD measuring BF leave FA less than itself, and
let AF measuring DG leave GC less than itself, and let GC measuring FH leave a unit, HA.
In fact, since E measures CD, and CD measures BF, E thus also measures BF.
118
And (E) also
measures the whole of BA. Thus, (E) will also measure the remainder AF.
119
And AF measures
DG. Thus, E also measures DG. And (E) also measures the whole of DC. Thus, (E) will also
measure the remainder CG. And CG measures FH. Thus, E also measures FH. And (E) also
measures the whole of FA. Thus, (E) will also measure the remaining unit AH, (despite) being a
number. The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number does not measure (both) the numbers
AB and CD. Thus, AB and CD are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
118
Here, use is made of the unstated common notion that if a measures b, and b measures c, then a also measures
c, where all symbols denote numbers.
119
Here, use is made of the unstated common notion that if a measures b, and a measures part of b, then a also
measures the remainder of b, where all symbols denote numbers.
44

vpe p o v o p ue o p ui.
| vp| p e o v | , . i e ,
o p o p ui.
i pc u o o pi, pi c | c, o v e , o p
c. | , o | p u| v p u o p.
i c u pi o o , e , vp v| u c vo u
p vp, o p o o cu. pv pc v u
i c p, c | , e o v o u u. v
vpo, o p o o cu. | o pc o pe cu c
o , o c o pe cu c o , o c o p.
c| u o o pi, o c o pi, | o v o p. pi
c | c | o v o p. o c o pi | o v o
pi pi c | o | o v o p pi c | o o v
, pi. o v e , o p c. , o | p. i
v p c o e , p o p, p , vp
vpo p e u . p, | c o . | c| o o pi, o c o
pi, | o v o pi pi c | o o | o v o
p. o c o pi | o v o p pi c | o o
| o v o p o p o c o c| v u v
, vp vp p p e u o v e , p
c o p. o c i].
p
, o cv vpo vp p, | o p ue o
p p o c i.
448
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 2
B
G
F
A
E C
D
To nd the greatest common measure of two given numbers (which are) not prime to one another.
Let AB and CD be the two given numbers (which are) not prime to one another. So it is required
to nd the greatest common measure of AB and CD.
In fact, if CD measures AB, CD is thus a common measure of CD and AB, (since CD) also
measures itself. And (it is) manifest that (it is) also the greatest (common measure). For nothing
greater than CD can measure CD.
But if CD does not measure AB then some number will remain fromAB and CD, the lesser being
continually subtracted, in turn, from the greater, which will measure the (number) preceding it.
For a unit will not be left. But if not, AB and CD will be prime to one another [Prop. 7.1].
The very opposite thing was assumed. Thus, some number will remain which will measure the
(number) preceding it. And let CD measuring BE leave EAless than itself, and let EAmeasuring
DF leave FC less than itself, and let CF measure AE. Therefore, since CF measures AE, and
AE measures DF, CF will thus also measure DF. And it also measures itself. Thus, it will also
measure the whole of CD. And CD measures BE. Thus, CF also measures BE. And it also
measures EA. Thus, it will also measure the whole of BA. And it also measures CD. Thus, CF
measures (both) AB and CD. Thus, CF is a common measure of AB and CD. So I say that (it
is) also the greatest (common measure). For if CF is not the greatest common measure of AB
and CD then some number which is greater than CF will measure the numbers AB and CD. Let
it (so) measure (AB and CD), and let it be G. And since G measures CD, and CD measures BE,
G thus also measures BE. And it also measures the whole of BA. Thus, it will also measure the
remainder AE. And AE measures DF. Thus, G will also measure DF. And it also measures the
whole of DC. Thus, it will also measure the remainder CF, the greater (measuring) the lesser.
The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number which is greater than CF cannot measure the
numbers AB and CD. Thus, CF is the greatest common measure of AB and CD. [(Which is)
the very thing it was required to show].
Corollary
So it is manifest, from this, that if a number measures two numbers then it will also measure their
greatest common measure. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
449

e vpe p o v o p ue o p ui.
| i vp| p e o v | , , i e , ,
o p o p ui.
i v e , o p o p o o o pi u
pi. p pi | , o v , , pi o v
e , , o p c. , o | p. i v p c o e ,
, p o p, p , , vp vpo p e u .
p, | c o . c| u o , , pi, | , v p | o
e , v p o p p. o c e , p o p c|
o o v o pi o p o c o c| v. u v , ,
vp vp p p e u o v e , , p c o
p.
p o o e, o | , u i e o v. c|
v | , , u i e o v, p u vp. o , ,
pe | , p, | o e , p o p o p
pi c | o , v vp vp p | , v u i
e o v. i u ue o p o p o . | c| o o
pi, o c , pi, | o v , pi pi c | o o v
, , pi. o v e , , c p. , o | p. i
v p c o e , , o p o p, p , , vp
vpo p e u . p, | c o . | c| o , , pi, |
, pi | o e , v p o p p. o c e , p
o p c| o o v o pi pi c | o o v , pi
| o e , v p o p p. o c e , p o p
c| o o v o pi o p o c o c| v. u v
40
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 3
F A B C D E
To nd the greatest common measure of three given numbers (which are) not prime to one an-
other.
Let A, B, and C be the three given numbers (which are) not prime to one another. So it is re-
quired to nd the greatest common measure of A, B, and C.
For let the greatest common measure, D, of the two (numbers) A and B have been taken
[Prop. 7.2]. So D either measures, or does not measure, C. First of all, let it measure (C).
And it also measures A and B. Thus, D measures A, B, and C. Thus, D is a common measure
of A, B, and C. So I say that (it is) also the greatest (common measure). For if D is not the
greatest common measure of A, B, and C then some number greater than D will measure the
numbers A, B, and C. Let it (so) measure (A, B, and C), and let it be E. Therefore, since E
measures A, B, and C, it will thus also measure A and B. Thus, it will also measure the greatest
common measure of A and B [Prop. 7.2 corr.]. And D is the greatest common measure of A and
B. Thus, E measures D, the greater (measuring) the lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus,
some number which is greater than D cannot measure the numbers A, B, and C. Thus, D is the
greatest common measure of A, B, and C.
So let D not measure C. I say, rst of all, that C and D are not prime to one another. For since A,
B, C are not prime to one another, some number will measure them. So the (number) measuring
A, B, and C will also measure A and B, and it will also measure the greatest common measure,
D, of A and B [Prop. 7.2 corr.]. And it also measures C. Thus, some number will measure the
numbers D and C. Thus, D and C are not prime to one another. Therefore, let their greatest
common measure, E, have been taken [Prop. 7.2]. And since E measures D, and D measures A
and B, E thus also measures A and B. And it also measures C. Thus, E measures A, B, and C.
Thus, E is a common measure of A, B, and C. So I say that (it is) also the greatest (common
measure). For if E is not the greatest common measure of A, B, and C then some number greater
than E will measure the numbers A, B, and C. Let it (so) measure (A, B, and C), and let it be
F. And since F measures A, B, and C, it also measures A and B. Thus, it will also measure the
4l

, , vp vp p p e u o v e , , p c
o p o c i.
42
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 3
greatest common measure of A and B [Prop. 7.2 corr.]. And D is the greatest common measure
of A and B. Thus, F measures D. And it also measures C. Thus, F measures D and C. Thus,
it will also measure the greatest common measure of D and C [Prop. 7.2 corr.]. And E is the
greatest common measure of D and C. Thus, F measures E, the greater (measuring) the lesser.
The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number which is greater than E does not measure the
numbers A, B, and C. Thus, E is the greatest common measure of A, B, and C. (Which is) the
4`

vpo o vpu o c u p p c| p.
vp| | , , | c c o , o o u p
c| p.
| , v e o v i| u. c | , e
o v. u i v c u; p c c pv e c ;
p u e p c| o u .
c | , e o v o o pi u pi. i
pc u o o pi, p c| o u . i c u, i e , p
o p o , | o i ; : , , . | c| o
o pi, p c| o u : c o c; e , , | c v
e , , u p c e p c| o u .
v vpo o vpu o c u p p c| p o
c i.
44
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 4
D
C
F
E
B
A
Any number is either part or parts of any (other) number, the lesser of the greater.
Let A and BC be two numbers, and let BC be the lesser. I say that BC is either part or parts of
A.
For A and BC are either prime to one another, or not. Let A and BC, rst of all, be prime to one
another. So separating BC into its constituent units, each of the units in BC will be some part of
A. Hence, BC is parts of A.
So let A and BC be not prime to one another. So BC either measures, or does not measure, A.
Therefore, if BC measures A then BC is part of A. And if not, let the greatest common measure,
D, of A and BC have been taken [Prop. 7.2], and let BC have been divided into BE, EF, and
FC, equal to D. And since D measures A, D is a part of A. And D is equal to each of BE, EF,
and FC. Thus, BE, EF, and FC are also each part of A. Hence, BC is parts of A.
Thus, any number is either part or parts of any (other) number, the lesser of the greater. (Which
4

v vpo vpu p , | c c o uo p , | p p-
o uo p c, o o | u c.
po v o vpu] u p c, | c o c u o uo
p, o o u , o | p o , p u , o
uo p c, o o u .
| , o p c| o u , o uo p c| | o u , o v i|
c ; vp| : ; , u i | c ; vp| : ; . o pc
i ; : , , o c i ; : , c
: o e , ; e , . | c| : c| o pc ; , o
c ; , | | , v i , :. v v uv | | , i ,
. o v i|] c ; vp| : ; , u i | c i , : i
, . o v c| o u , c| | p o ,
p u , . o v p c| o u , o uo p c| | p
o , p u , o c i.
46
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 5
120
D
C
G
B
F
H
E
A
If a number is part of a number, and another (number) is the same part of another, then the sum
(of the leading numbers) will also be the same part of the sum (of the following numbers) that
one (number) is of another.
For let a number A be part of a [number] BC, and another (number) D (be) the same part of
another (number) EF that A (is) of BC. I say that the sum A, D is also the same part of the sum
BC, EF that A (is) of BC.
For since which(ever) part A is of BC, D is the same part of EF, thus as many numbers as are in
BC equal to A, so many numbers are also in EF equal to D. Let BC have been divided into BG
and GC, equal to A, and EF into EH and HF, equal to D. So the multitude of (divisions) BG,
GC will be equal to the multitude of (divisions) EH, HF. And since BG is equal to A, and EH
to D, thus BG, EH (is) also equal to A, D. So, for the same (reasons), GC, HF (is) also (equal)
to A, D. Thus, as many numbers as [are] in BC equal to A, so many are also in BC, EF equal
to A, D. Thus, as many times as BC is (divisible) by A, so many times is the sum BC, EF also
(divisible) by the sum A, D. Thus, which(ever) part A is of BC, the sum A, D is also the same
part of the sum BC, EF. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
120
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a = (1/n) b and c = (1/n) d then (a +c) = (1/n) (b +d), where
all symbols denote numbers.
4

v vpo vpu p , | c c v uv p , | p p-
v uv p c, o o | u c.
po v o vpu u p c, | c o c u v uv p,
v o u , o | p o , p u , v uv
p c, v o u .
| , i p c| o u , v uv p | o u , o v c| c ;
p u , u c | c ; p u . o pc i v u
p v , , o c i v u p v , c : o e ,
; e , . | c, o p c| o u , o uo p c| | o
u , o v p c| o u , o uo p c| | p o ,
p u , . v v uv | o p c| o u , o uo p c|
| p o , p u , . i v p c| o u , v uv
p c| | p o , p u , o c i.
48
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 6
121
E
G
A
C
D
H
F
B
If a number is parts of a number, and another (number) is the same parts of another, then the
sum (of the leading numbers) will also be the same parts of the sum (of the following numbers)
that one (number) is of another.
For let a number AB be parts of a number C, and another (number) DE (be) same parts of
another (number) F that AB (is) of C. I say that the sum AB, DE is also the same parts of the
sum C, F that AB (is) of C.
For since which(ever) parts AB is of C, DE (is) also the same parts of F, thus as many parts of
C as are in AB, so many parts of F are also in DE. Let AB have been divided into the parts of
C, AG and GB, and DE into the parts of F, DH and HE. So the multitude of (divisions) AG,
GB will be equal to the multitude of (divisions) DH, HE. And since which(ever) part AG is of
C, DH is also the same part of F, thus which(ever) part AG is of C, the sum AG, DH is also the
same part of the sum C, F [Prop. 7.5]. And so, for the same (reasons), which(ever) part GB is of
C, the sum GB, HE is also the same part of the sum C, F. Thus, which(ever) parts AB is of C,
the sumAB, DE is also the same parts of the sumC, F. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
121
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a = (m/n) b and c = (m/n) d then (a + c) = (m/n) (b + d),
where all symbols denote numbers.
49

v vpo vpu p , o v| v, | o o u u o
uo p c, o o o u o.
po v o vpu u p c, o v| o v u
, o | o o u u o uo p c, o o o o u
.
` v p c| o u , o uo p c | o u . | c, o p
c| o u , o uo p c| | o u , o v p c| o u , o
uo p c| | o u . o c p c| o u , o uo p u
| o u o v p c| | o u , o uo p c| | u :
v c| o ; . o v o o v o ; ; c :.
| c, o p c| o u , o uo p c|] | o u , : c o
; , o v p c| o u , o uo p c| | o u . vv o p
c| o u , o uo p c| | o u | o v o u u
o uo p c, o o o o u o c i.
460
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 7
122
E A
G C D F
B
If a number is that part of a number that a (part) taken away (is) of a (part) taken away, then the
remainder will also be the same part of the remainder that the whole (is) of the whole.
For let a number AB be that part of a number CD that a (part) taken away AE (is) of a part
taken away CF. I say that the remainder EB is also the same part of the remainder FD that the
whole AB (is) of the whole CD.
For which(ever) part AE is of CF, let EB also be the same part of CG. And since which(ever)
part AE is of CF, EB is also the same part of CG, thus which(ever) part AE is of CF, AB is
also the same part of GF [Prop. 7.5]. And which(ever) part AE is of CF, AB is also assumed (to
be) the same part of CD. Thus, also, which(ever) part AB is of GF, (AB) is also the same part
of CD. Thus, GF is equal to CD. Let CF have been subtracted from both. Thus, the remainder
GC is equal to the remainder FD. And since which(ever) part AE is of CF, EB [is] also the
same part of GC, and GC (is) equal to FD, thus which(ever) part AE is of CF, EB is also the
same part of FD. But, which(ever) part AE is of CF, AB is also the same part of CD. Thus, the
remainder EB is also the same part of the remainder FD that the whole AB (is) of the whole
CD. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
122
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a = (1/n) b and c = (1/n) d then (a c) = (1/n) (b d), where
all symbols denote numbers.
46l

v vpo vpu p , v v| v, | o o u u v uv
p c, v o o u o.
po v o vpu u p c, v v| o v u
, o | o o u u v uv p c, v o o o u .
v ; : o , i v p c| o u , v uv p c| | o
u . o pc i v u p v , , o c i v u
p v , c : o e , ; e , . | c, o
p c| o u , o uo p c| | o u , p c o u ,
p v | o u . ; : o . o v p c| o u ,
o uo p c| | o u | o v o u u o uo p
c, o o o o u . c, o p c| o u , o uo p
c| | o u , p c o u , p v | o u . ;
: o . o v p c| o u , o uo p c| | o u |
o v o u u o uo p c, o o o o u . c
c | o o u u o uo p e, o o o o u |
p v o , u v uv p c, v o o o u .
: c p pc o , ; , o c ; | o v o u
u v uv p c, v o o o u o c i.
462
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 8
123
C
A E
F
G K M N
L B
H
D
If a number is those parts of a number that a (part) taken away (is) of a (part) taken away, then
the remainder will also be the same parts of the remainder that the whole (is) of the whole.
For let a number AB be those parts of a number CD that a (part) taken away AE (is) of a (part)
taken away CF. I say that the remainder EB is also the same parts of the remainder FD that the
whole AB (is) of the whole CD.
For let GH be laid down equal to AB. Thus, which(ever) parts GH is of CD, AE is also the same
parts of CF. Let GH have been divided into the parts of CD, GK and KH, and AE into the part
of CF, AL and LE. So the multitude of (divisions) GK, KH will be equal to the multitude of
(divisions) AL, LE. And since which(ever) part GK is of CD, AL is also the same part of CF,
and CD (is) greater than CF, GK (is) thus also greater than AL. Let GM be made equal to AL.
Thus, which(ever) part GK is of CD, GM is also the same part of CF. Thus, the remainder MK
is also the same part of the remainder FD that the whole GK (is) of the whole CD [Prop. 7.5].
Again, since which(ever) part KH is of CD, EL is also the same part of CF, and CD (is) greater
than CF, HK (is) thus also greater than EL. Let KN be made equal to EL. Thus, which(ever)
part KH (is) of CD, KN is also the same part of CF. Thus, the remainder NH is also the
same part of the remainder FD that the whole KH (is) of the whole CD [Prop. 7.5]. And the
remainder MK was also shown to be the same part of the remainder FD that the whole GK (is)
of the whole CD. Thus, the sum MK, NH is the same parts of DF that the whole HG (is) of the
whole CD. And the sum MK, NH (is) equal to EB, and HG to BA. Thus, the remainder EB
is also the same parts of the remainder FD that the whole AB (is) of the whole CD. (Which is)
123
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a = (m/n) b and c = (m/n) d then (a c) = (m/n) (b d),
46`

v vpo vpu p , | c c o uo p , | c, o p
c| p o e u , o uo p c v uv p | o u
.
po v o vpu u p c, | c o c u o uo p,
o o u , o | c, o p c| o u p, o uo p c|
| o u p.
| v o p c| o u , o uo p c| | o u , o v i| c ;
vp| : ; , u i | c ; : ; . o pc i ;
: , , o c i ; : , c : o
e , ; e , .
| c| : i| | , vp| v, i| c | | , vp| : v,
c : o e , ; e , , o v p c| o u
p, o uo p c| | o u v uv p e | o p c| o
u p, o uo p c| | p o p u v
uv p. : c o pc ; , o c ; o v p c| o u p, o
uo p c| | o u v uv p o c i.
464
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 9
124
F
A
C
G
B
D
E
H
If a number is part of a number, and another (number) is the same part of another, also, alter-
nately, which(ever) part, or parts, the rst (number) is of the third, the second (number) will also
be the same part, or the same parts, of the fourth.
For let a number A be part of a number BC, and another (number) D (be) the same part of
another EF that A (is) of BC. I say that, also, alternately, which(ever) part, or parts, A is of D,
BC is also the same part, or parts, of EF.
For since which(ever) part A is of BC, D is also the same part of EF, thus as many numbers as
are in BC equal to A, so many are also in EF equal to D. Let BC have been divided into BG
and GC, equal to A, and EF into EH and HF, equal to D. So the multitude of (divisions) BG,
GC will be equal to the multitude of (divisions) EH, HF.
And since the numbers BG and GC are equal to one another, and the numbers EH and HF are
also equal to one another, and the multitude of (divisions) BG, GC is equal to the multitude of
(divisions) EH, HC, thus which(ever) part, or parts, BG is of EH, GC is also the same part, or
the same parts, of HF. And hence, which(ever) part, or parts, BG is of EH, the sum BC is also
the same part, or the same parts, of the sum EF [Props. 7.5, 7.6]. And BG (is) equal to A, and
EH to D. Thus, which(ever) part, or parts, A is of D, BC is also the same part, or the same parts,
of EF. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
124
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a = (1/n) b and c = (1/n) d then if a = (k/l) c then b = (k/l) d,
46

v vpo vpu p , | c c v uv p , | c, i p c| o
e u p, v uv p c | o u o uo p.
po v o vpu u p c, | c o c u v uv p
, o | c, i p c| o u p, v uv p c| | o u
o uo p.
| , i p c| o u , v uv p c| | o u , o v c| c ;
p u , u | c ; p u . o pc i v u p
v , , o c i v u p v , c : o e ,
; e , . | c, o p c| o u , o uo p c| | o
u , | c, o p c| o u p, o uo p c| | o u
v uv p. v v uv , o p c| o u p, o uo p c|
| o u v uv p e o p c| o u p, o uo p
c| | o u v uv p | o v p c| o u p, o uo
p c| | o u v uv p v o p c| o u p, o
uo p c | o u v uv p, |] i v] p c| o u
p, v uv p c| | o u o uo p o c i.
466
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 10
125
A
B
G
C
E
H
D
F
If a number is parts of a number, and another (number) is the same parts of another, also, alter-
nately, which(ever) parts, or part, the rst (number) is of the third, the second will also be the
same parts, or the same part, of the fourth.
For let a number AB be parts of a number C, and another (number) DE (be) the same parts of
another F. I say that, also, alternately, which(ever) parts, or part, AB is of DE, C is also the
same parts, or the same part, of F.
For since which(ever) parts AB is of C, DE is also the same parts of F, thus as many parts of C
as are in AB, so many parts of F (are) also in DE. Let AB have been divided into the parts of C,
AG and GB, and DE into the parts of F, DH and HE. So the multitude of (divisions) AG, GB
will be equal to the multitude of (divisions) DH, HE. And since which(ever) part AG is of C,
DH is also the same part of F, also, alternately, which(ever) part, or parts, AG is of DH, C is also
the same part, or the same parts, of F [Prop. 7.9]. And so, for the same (reasons), which(ever)
part, or parts, GB is of HE, C is also the same part, or the same parts, of F [Prop. 7.9]. And so
[which(ever) part, or parts, AG is of DH, GB is also the same part, or the same parts, of HE.
And thus, which(ever) part, or parts, AG is of DH, AB is also the same part, or the same parts,
of DE [Props. 7.5, 7.6]. But, which(ever) part, or parts, AG is of DH, C was also shown (to be)
the same part, or the same parts, of F. And, thus] which(ever) parts, or part, AB is of DE, C is
also the same parts, or the same part, of F. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
125
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a = (m/n) b and c = (m/n) d then if a = (k/l) c then b =
(k/l) d, where all symbols denote numbers.
46

e o o o, u v| o v, | o o o o o
c, e o o o.
e o o o o o , u v| o o v o
, o | o o o o o c, e o o o o o .
c e o o o , u o o o , o v p c| o u
p, o uo p c| | o u v uv p. | o v o u
u o uo p c| p, v o u . c v e o o o ,
u o o o o c i.
468
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 11
126
A
F
E
C
B D
If as the whole (of a number) is to the whole (of another), so a (part) taken away (is) to a (part)
taken away, then the remainder will also be to the remainder as the whole (is) to the whole.
Let the whole AB be to the whole CD as the (part) taken away AE (is) to the (part) taken away
CF. I say that the remainder EB is to the remainder FD as the whole AB (is) to the whole CD.
(For) since as AB is to CD, so AE (is) to CF, thus which(ever) part, or parts, AB is of CD, AE
is also the same part, or the same parts, of CF [Def. 7.20]. Thus, the remainder EB is also the
same part, or parts, of the remainder FD that AB (is) of CD [Props. 7.7, 7.8]. Thus, as EB is to
FD, so AB (is) to CD [Def. 7.20]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
126
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a : b :: c : d then a : b :: a c : b d, where all symbols denote
numbers.
469

v e ou vp| v, c e | e p o c e cp,
u v | p o v cp.
ou vp| v | , , , , e o o o , u o o
o , o c| e o o o , u | , o , .
| c e o o o , u o o o , o v p c| o u
p, o uo p c| | o u p. | p v o , p
u , o uo p c| v uv p, v o u . c v e o o o ,
u | , o , o c i.
40
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 12
127
D A B C
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers are proportional then as one of the leading (numbers is)
to one of the following so all of the leading (numbers) will be to all of the following.
Let any multitude whatsoever of numbers, A, B, C, D, be proportional, (such that) as A (is) to
B, so C (is) to D. I say that as A is to B, so A, C (is) to B, D.
For since as A is to B, so C (is) to D, thus which(ever) part, or parts, A is of B, C is also the same
part, or parts, of D [Def. 7.20]. Thus, the sumA, C is also the same part, or the same parts, of the
sum B, D that A (is) of B [Props. 7.5, 7.6]. Thus, as A is to B, so A, C (is) to B, D [Def. 7.20].
127
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a : b :: c : d then a : b :: a +c : b +d, where all symbols denote
numbers.
4l

v vp| v e, | cv v c.
vp| v | , , , , e o o o , u o o o
, o | cv v c, e o o o , u o o o .
| c e o o o , u o o o , o v p c| o u
p, o uo p c| | o u v uv p. cv v, o p c| o u
p, o uo p c| | o u v uv p. c v e o o o ,
u o o o o c i.
42
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 13
128
D A B C
If four numbers are proportional then they will also be proportional alternately.
Let the four numbers A, B, C, and D be proportional, (such that) as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D. I
say that they will also be proportional alternately, (such that) as A (is) to C, so B (is) to D.
For since as A is to B, so C (is) to D, thus which(ever) part, or parts, A is of B, C is also the same
part, or the same parts, of D [Def. 7.20]. Thus, alterately, which(ever) part, or parts, A is of C,
B is also the same part, or the same parts, of D [Props. 7.9, 7.10]. Thus, as A is to C, so B (is)
to D [Def. 7.20]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
128
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a : b :: c : d then a : c :: b : d, where all symbols denote
numbers.
4`

v e ou vp| | v ui : o pp | c ;
u; ;, | : c ; u; ; c.
ou vp| | , , | v ui : o pp
c ; u; ; | , , , e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o o
o , u o o o , o | : c| e o o o , u o o
o .
| c e o o o , u o o o , cv v c| e o o
o , u o o o . , c c e o o o , u o o o ,
cv v c| e o o o , u o o o . e c o o o , u o
o o | e v o o o , u o o o cv v c| e o
o o , u o o o o c i.
44
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 14
129
F
A D
B
C
E
If there are any multitude of numbers whatsoever, and (some) other (numbers) of equal multitude
to them, (which are) also in the same ratio taken two by two, then they will also be in the same
ratio via equality.
Let there be any multitude of numbers whatsoever, A, B, C, and (some) other (numbers), D, E,
F, of equal multitude to them, (which are) in the same ratio taken two by two, (such that) as A
(is) to B, so D (is) to E, and as B (is) to C, so E (is) to F. I say that also, via equality, as A is to
C, so D (is) to F.
For since as A is to B, so D (is) to E, thus, alternately, as A is to D, so B (is) to E [Prop. 7.13].
Again, since as B is to C, so E (is) to F, thus, alternately, as B is to E, so C (is) to F [Prop. 7.13].
And as B (is) to E, so A (is) to D. Thus, also, as A (is) to D, so C (is) to F. Thus, alternately, as
A is to C, so D (is) to F [Prop. 7.13]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
129
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a : b :: d : e and b : c :: e : f then a : c :: d : f, where all symbols
denote numbers.
4

v pv vp p, i c c vpo v v vpo p, |
cv i pv o vpo p | o o .
v v vp o p, i c c vpo o v v
vpo o p , o | cv i pv o vpo pi |
o o .
| v i pv o vpo pi | o o , o v i| c ;
p, u i | c ; vp| : ; . o pc i v c c;
p v , , , o c i ; : , , . c : o
e , , ; e , , . | c| : i| | , ,
p v, i| c | | , , vp| : v, c : o
e , , p ; e , , vpe, c v e pv
o o vp, u pv o o vpo | pv o o
vp. c v | e | e p o c e cp, u v |
p o v cp c v e pv o o vp,
u o o o . : c pv p, o c vpo ; vp;.
c v e pv o o vp, u o o o . i v pv
o vpo pi | o o o c i.
46
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 15
130
F
H
D
A
B
E
G C
K L
If a unit measures some number, and another number measures some other number as many
times, then, also, alternately, the unit will measure the third number as many times as the second
(number measures) the fourth.
For let a unit A measure some number BC, and let another number D measure some other
number EF the same amount of times. I say that, also, alternately, the unit A also measures the
number D as many times as BC (measures) EF.
For since the unit A measures the number BC as many times as D (measures) EF, thus as many
units as are in BC, so many numbers are also in EF equal to D. Let BC have been divided into
its constituent units, BG, GH, and HC, and EF into the (divisions) EK, KL, and LF, equal to
D. So the multitude of (units) BG, GH, HC will be equal to the multitude of (divisions) EK,
KL, LF. And since the units BG, GH, and HC are equal to one another, and the numbers EK,
KL, and LF are also equal to one another, and the multitude of the (units) BG, GH, HC is equal
to the multitude of the numbers EK, KL, LF, thus as the unit BG (is) to the number EK, so the
unit GH will be to the number KL, and the unit HC to the number LF. And thus, as one of the
leading (numbers is) to one of the following, so all of the leading will be to all of the following
[Prop. 7.12]. Thus, as the unit BG (is) to the number EK, so BC (is) to EF. And the unit BG
(is) equal to the unit A, and the number EK to the number D. Thus, as the unit A is to the
number D, so BC (is) to EF. Thus, the unit A measures the number D as many times as BC
(measures) EF [Def. 7.20]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
130
This proposition is a special case of Prop. 7.9.
4

v vp| v e , | p c ue :
v c.
vp| | , , | o pc o o , o c o
o , o : c| o ; .
| v o o o , o v o pi v v c ;
p. pi c | pv o vpo v v c u; p i v
pv o vpo pi | o o . cv v i pv o vpo
pi | o o . , c| o o o , o v o
pi v v c ; p. pi c | pv o v v c u; p
i v pv o vpo pi | o o . i c pv o vpo
cp | o o i v o c e , pi. : v c| o ;
o c i.
48
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 16
131
E
A
B
C
D
If two numbers multiplying one another make some (numbers) then the (numbers) generated
from them will be equal to one another.
Let A and B be two numbers. And let A make C (by) multiplying B, and let B make D (by)
multiplying A. I say that C is equal to D.
For since A has made C (by) multiplying B, B thus measures C according to the units in A
[Def. 7.15]. And the unit E also measures the number A according to the units in it. Thus, the
unit E measures the number A as many times as B (measures) C. Thus, alternately, the unit
E measures the number B as many times as A (measures) C [Prop. 7.15]. Again, since B has
made D (by) multiplying A, A thus measures D according to the units in B [Def. 7.15]. And the
unit E also measures B according to the units in it. Thus, the unit E measures the number B as
many times as A (measures) D. And the unit E was measuring the number B as many times as
A (measures) C. Thus, A measures each of C and D an equal number of times. Thus, C is equal
to D. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
131
In modern notation, this proposition states that a b = b a, where all symbols denote numbers.
49

v vpo vp , | p c ue o uo c
i i.
po v o vp , , , o c|
e o o o , u o o o .
| v o o o , o v o pi v v c ;
p. pi c | pv o vpo v v c u; p i v
pv o vpo pi | o o . c v e pv o o vp,
u o o o . v v uv | e pv o o vp, u o o
o | e v o o o , u o o o . cv v c| e o o o
, u o o o o c i.
480
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 17
132
E
A
B
D
F
C
If a number multiplying two numbers makes some (numbers) then the (numbers) generated from
them will have the same ratio as the multiplied (numbers).
For let the number A make (the numbers) D and E (by) multiplying the two numbers B and C
(respectively). I say that as B is to C, so D (is) to E.
For since A has made D (by) multiplying B, B thus measures D according to the units in A
[Def. 7.15]. And the unit F also measures the number A according to the units in it. Thus, the
unit F measures the number A as many times as B (measures) D. Thus, as the unit F is to the
number A, so B (is) to D [Def. 7.20]. And so, for the same (reasons), as the unit F (is) to the
number A, so C (is) to E. And thus, as B (is) to D, so C (is) to E. Thus, alternately, as B is to C,
so D (is) to E [Prop. 7.13]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
132
In modern notation, this proposition states that if d = a b and e = a c then d : e :: b : c, where all symbols denote
numbers.
48l

v vp| vp e , | p c ue o
uo c i .
v vp| | , vp o , ,
o c| e o o o , u o o o .
| v o o o , | o v o
o . v v uv | o o o . vpo o
vp , , . c v e o o o
, u o o o o c i.
482
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 18
133
E
B
A
C
D
If two numbers multiplying some number make some (other numbers) then the (numbers) gen-
erated from them will have the same ratio as the multiplying (numbers).
For let the two numbers A and B make (the numbers) D and E (respectively, by) multiplying the
number C. I say that as A is to B, so D (is) to E.
For since Ahas made D(by) multiplying C, C has thus also made D(by) multiplying A[Prop. 7.16].
So, for the same (reasons), C has also made E (by) multiplying B. So the number C has made
the two numbers D and E (by) multiplying A and B (respectively). Thus, as A is to B, so D (is)
to E [Prop. 7.17]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
133
In modern notation, this propositions states that if a c = d and b c = e then a : b :: d : e, where all symbols denote
numbers.
48`

v vp| v e, o c | p vpo : c
; c | p; vp; | cv o c | p
vpo : ; c | , | vp| v c.
vp| v | , , , , e o o o , u o o o
, | o pc o o , o c o o
, o : c| o ; .
v o o . c| u o o o
, o c o , vpo o vp
, , . c v e o o o , u o o
o . v e o o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u
o o o . , c| o o o , vv p |
o o o , vp| | , vp o
, . c v e o o o , u o o
o . vv p | e o o o , u o o o | e v o o o
, u o o o . o v o c e , o uo c : v
c| o ; .
: o ; , o c| e o o o , u o o o .
e v ue , c| i c| o ; , c v e o o o ,
u o o o . v e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o o
o , u o o o . | e v o o o , u o o o o c
i.
484
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 19
134
G A B C D E F
If four number are proportional then the number created from (multiplying) the rst and fourth
will be equal to the number created from (multiplying) the second and third. And if the number
created from (multiplying) the rst and fourth is equal to the (number created) from (multiply-
ing) the second and third then the four numbers will be proportional.
Let A, B, C, and D be four proportional numbers, (such that) as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D. And
let A make E (by) multiplying D, and let B make F (by) multiplying C. I say that E is equal to
F.
For let A make G (by) multiplying C. Therefore, since A has made G (by) multiplying C, and has
made E (by) multiplying D, the number A has made G and E by multiplying the two numbers C
and D (respectively). Thus, as C is to D, so G (is) to E [Prop. 7.17]. But, as C (is) to D, so A (is)
to B. Thus, also, as A (is) to B, so G (is) to E. Again, since A has made G (by) multiplying C,
but, in fact, B has also made F (by) multiplying C, the two numbers A and B have made G and
F (respectively, by) multiplying some number C. Thus, as A is to B, so G (is) to F [Prop. 7.18].
But, also, as A (is) to B, so G (is) to E. And thus, as G (is) to E, so G (is) to F. Thus, G has the
same ratio to each of E and F. Thus, E is equal to F [Prop. 5.9].
So, again, let E be equal to F. I say that as A is to B, so C (is) to D.
For, with the same construction, since E is equal to F, thus as G is to E, so G (is) to F [Prop. 5.7].
But, as G (is) to E, so C (is) to D [Prop. 7.17]. And as G (is) to F, so A (is) to B [Prop. 7.18].
And, thus, as A (is) to B, so C (is) to D. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
134
In modern notation, this proposition reads that if a : b :: c : d then a d = b c, and vice versa, where all symbols
denote numbers.
48

| c vp| e o uo c ui pu o uo
c i o p o p | o c o c.
v c vp| e o uo c i , | , , o
i o o pi | o o .
v u u c p. i v , c | o v u v uv p
c, v o u . o v c| c ; p u , u c | c ; p
u . o pc i v u p v , , o c i v u p v ,
c : o e , ; e , . | c| : i| | ,
vp| v, i| c | | , vp| : v, c : o
e , ; e , , c v e o o o , u o o o
. c v | e | e p o c e cp, u v | p
o v cp. c v e o o o , u o o o |
, v i , c ; u; ; i| c o ue o c| v
u v | , c e o uo c ui. u v p c|
o u p v. | o u o uo p c, o o u i v
o o pi | o o o c i.
486
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 20
F
A B
C
G
D
E
H
The least numbers of those (numbers) having the same ratio measure those (numbers) having
the same ratio as them an equal number of times, the greater (measuring) the greater, and the
lesser the lesser.
For let CD and EF be the least numbers having the same ratio as A and B (respectively). I say
that CD measures A the same number of times as EF (measures) B.
For CD is not parts of A. For, if possible, let it be (parts of A). Thus, EF is also the same parts of
B that CD (is) of A [Def. 7.20, Prop. 7.13]. Thus, as many parts of A as are in CD, so many parts
of B are also in EF. Let CD have been divided into the parts of A, CG and GD, and EF into the
parts of B, EH and HF. So the multitude of (divisions) CG, GD will be equal to the multitude
of (divisions) EH, HF. And since the numbers CG and GD are equal to one another, and the
numbers EH and HF are also equal to one another, and the multitude of (divisions) CG, GD is
equal to the multitude of (divisions) EH, HF, thus as CG is to EH, so GD (is) to HF. Thus, as
one of the leading (numbers is) to one of the following, so will all of the leading (numbers) be
to all of the following [Prop. 7.12]. Thus, as CG is to EH, so CD (is) to EF. Thus, CG and EH
are in the same ratio as CD and EF, being less than them. The very thing is impossible. For CD
and EF were assumed (to be) the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them. Thus,
CD is not parts of A. Thus, (it is) a part (of A) [Prop. 7.4]. And EF is the same part of B that
CD (is) of A [Def. 7.20, Prop 7.13]. Thus, CD measures A the same number of times that EF
(measures) B. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
48

| e o v vp| c i e o uo c ui.
e o v vp| | , , o | , c i e o
uo c ui.
i v p, c e , c vp| c ; u; ; o i , . c
| , .
| u | c vp| e o uo c pu o uo
c i o p o p | o c o c, o p
o p | o cp o cp, i v o o pi | o o .
o o o pi, u p c c ; . | o v o pi
v v c ; p. | c| o o pi v v c ; p, o v
o pi v v c ; p. v v uv o | o pi v v c ;
p. o v , pi o o v o c| v.
u v c e , c vp| c ; u; ; o i , . | ,
v c i e o uo c ui o c i.
488
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 21
E A B C D
Numbers prime to one another are the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them.
Let A and B be numbers prime to one another. I say that A and B are the least of those (numbers)
having the same ratio as them.
For if not, then there will be some numbers, less than A and B, which are in the same ratio as A
and B. Let them be C and D.
Therefore, since the least numbers of those (numbers) having the same ratio measure those
(numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number of times, the greater (measuring)
the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading (measuring) the leading, and
the following the followingC thus measures A the same number of times that D (measures) B
[Prop. 7.20]. So as many times as C measures A, so many units let there be in E. Thus, D also
measures B according to the units in E. And since C measures A according to the units in E,
E thus also measures A according to the units in C [Prop. 7.16]. So, for the same (reasons), E
also measures B according to the units in D [Prop. 7.16]. Thus, E measures A and B, which are
prime to one another. The very thing is impossible. Thus, there cannot be any numbers, less than
A and B, which are in the same ratio as A and B. Thus, A and B are the least of those (numbers)
having the same ratio as them. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
489

| c vp| e o uo c ui e o v i.
c vp| e o uo c ui | , , o | ,
e o v i.
i v p i e o v, p u vp. p, | c o .
| o pc o o pi, u p c c ; , o c o o
pi, u p c c ; .
| o o pi v v c ; p, o v o o
. v v uv | o o o . vpo o
vp u , , c v e o o o ,
u o o o | , v i , c ; u; ; i| c o ue
o c| v. u v , vp vp p. | , v e
o v i o c i.
490
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 22
E
A
B
C
D
The least numbers of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them are prime to one another.
Let A and B be the least numbers of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them. I say that A
and B are prime to one another.
For if they are not prime to one another then some number will measure them. Let it (so measure
them), and let it be C. And as many times as C measures A, so many units let there be in D. And
as many times as C measures B, so many units let there be in E.
Since C measures Aaccording to the units in D, C has thus made A(by) multiplying D[Def. 7.15].
So, for the same (reasons), C has also made B (by) multiplying E. So the number C has made A
and B (by) multiplying the two numbers D and E (respectively). Thus, as D is to E, so A (is) to
B [Prop. 7.17]. Thus, D and E are in the same ratio as A and B, being less than them. The very
thing is impossible. Thus, some number does not measure the numbers A and B. Thus, A and B
are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
49l

v vp| e o v e, o o c ue pe vpo o o
o e c.
vp| e o v | , , o c p vpo o
, o | | , e o v i.
i v p i | , e o v, p ] , vp. p, |
c o . c| o o pi, o c o pi, | o v o pi. pi c
| o o v , pi o o v o c| v. u
v , vp vp p. | , v e o v i o
c i.
492
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 23
.
A B C D
If two numbers are prime to one another then a number measuring one of them will be prime to
the remaining (one).
Let A and B be two numbers (which are) prime to one another, and let some number C measure
A. I say that C and B are also prime to one another.
For if C and B are not prime to one another then [some] number will measure C and B. Let
it (so) measure (them), and let it be D. Since D measures C, and C measures A, D thus also
measures A. And (D) also measures B. Thus, D measures A and B, which are prime to one
another. The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number does not measure the numbers C and
B. Thus, C and B are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
49`

v vp| vpo e e, | o c ue p o o uo
e c.
v vp| | , vpo o e c, | o o -
o , o | , e o v i.
i v p i | , e o v, p ] , vp. p, |
c o . | c| | , e o v i, o c pi vpo o , | ,
v e o v i. o o o pi, u p c c
; | o v o pi v v c ; p. o v o
o . vv p | o o o : v c| o
c e , ; c e , . cv c o uo e v : ; uo e p, |
vp| v i c v e o o o , u o o o . | c ,
e, | c e | c, | c c vp| e o uo c
ui pu o uo c i o p o p | o c
o c, o p o p | o cp o cp o v
o pi. pi c | o o v , pi o o v
o c| v. u v , vp vp p. | , v e
o v i o c i.
494
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 24
F A B C D E
If two numbers are prime to some number then the number created from (multiplying) the former
(two numbers) will also be prime to the latter (number).
For let A and B be two numbers (which are both) prime to some number C. And let A make D
(by) multiplying B. I say that C and D are prime to one another.
For if C and D are not prime to one another then [some] number will measure C and D. Let
it (so) measure them, and let it be E. And since C and A are prime to one another, and some
number E measures C, A and E are thus prime to one another [Prop. 7.23]. So as many times as
E measures D, so many units let there be in F. Thus, F also measures D according to the units
in E [Prop. 7.16]. Thus, E has made D (by) multiplying F [Def. 7.15]. But, in fact, A has also
made D (by) multiplying B. Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) E and F is equal
to the (number created) from (multiplying) A and B. And if the (rectangle contained) by the
(two) outermost is equal to the (rectangle contained) by the middle (two) then the four numbers
are proportional [Prop. 6.15]. Thus, as E is to A, so B (is) to F. And A and E (are) prime (to
one another). And (numbers) prime (to one another) are also the least (of those numbers having
the same ratio) [Prop. 7.21]. And the least numbers of those (numbers) having the same ratio
measure those (numbers) having the same ratio as them an equal number of times, the greater
(measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading (measuring) the
leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, E measures B. And it also measures
C. Thus, E measures B and C, which are prime to one another. The very thing is impossible.
Thus, some number cannot measure the numbers C and D. Thus, C and D are prime to one
49

v vp| e o v e, o c u co ue p o o o
e c.
vp| e o v | , , | o co o
, o | , e o v i.
v ; : o . c| | , e o v i, : c o ; ,
| , v e o v i c v e , o o e c |
o c e , v p o o e c. o c c e , p vp
c o . | , v e o v i o c i.
496
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 25
D A B C
If two numbers are prime to one another then the number created from (squaring) one of them
will be prime to the remaining number.
Let Aand B be two numbers (which are) prime to one another. And let Amake C (by) multiplying
itself. I say that B and C are prime to one another.
For let D be made equal to A. Since A and B are prime to one another, and A (is) equal to D,
D and B are thus also prime to one another. Thus, D and A are each prime to B. Thus, the
(number) created from (multilying) D and A will also be prime to B [Prop. 7.24]. And C is the
number created from (multiplying) D and A. Thus, C and B are prime to one another. (Which
49

v vp| o vp vp o c e e, | | c ue
p e o v c.
v vp| | , o vp , vp o c e
c, | o pc o o , o c o o
, o | , e o v i.
| v c e , o o e c, | o c e , v p o
o e c. o c c e , p c o | , v e o v
i. v v uv | | , e o v i. c v e , o
o e c. | o c e , v p o o e c. o c c e
, p c o . | , v e o v i o c i.
498
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 26
F
A C
B D
E
If two numbers are both prime to each of two numbers then the (numbers) created from (multi-
plying) them will also be prime to one another.
For let two numbers, A and B, both be prime to each of two numbers, C and D. And let A make
E (by) multiplying B, and let C make F (by) multiplying D. I say that E and F are prime to one
another.
For since A and B are each prime to C, the (number) created from (multiplying) A and B will
thus also be prime to C [Prop. 7.24]. And E is the (number) created from (multiplying) A and B.
Thus, E and C are prime to one another. So, for the same (reasons), E and D are also prime to
one another. Thus, C and D are each prime to E. Thus, the (number) created from (multiplying)
C and D will also be prime to E [Prop. 7.24]. And F is the (number) created from (multiplying)
C and D. Thus, E and F are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
499

v vp| e o v e, | c co
, | p c ue e o v c, i | c v p
e , vi e o v c | v| |
v u p].
vp| e o v | , , | o co pc
o , o c o , o c co pc o
, o c o , o : , | | , e
o v i.
| v | , e o v i, | o co o ,
| , v e o v i. c| u | , e o v i, | o
co o , | , v e o v i. , c|
| , e o v i, | o co o , | ,
v e o v i. c| u vp| | , o vp ,
vp o c e i, | o c e , v p o o c e ,
e c. c o pc c e , o , o c c e , o . | , v e
o v i o c i.
00
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 27
135
F A B C D E
If two numbers are prime to one another and each makes some (number by) multiplying itself
then the numbers created from them will be prime to one another, and if the original (numbers)
make some (more numbers by) multiplying the created (numbers) then these will also be prime
to one another [and this always happens with the extremes].
Let A and B be two numbers prime to one another, and let A make C (by) multiplying itself, and
let it make D (by) multiplying C. And let B make E (by) multiplying itself, and let it make F by
multiplying E. I say that C and E, and D and F, are prime to one another.
For since A and B are prime to one another, and A has made C (by) multiplying itself, C and B
are thus prime to one another [Prop. 7.25]. Therefore, since C and B are prime to one another,
and B has made E (by) multiplying itself, C and E are thus prime to one another [Prop. 7.25].
Again, since A and B are prime to one another, and B has made E (by) multiplying itself, A and
E are thus prime to one another [Prop. 7.25]. Therefore, since the two numbers A and C are
both prime to each of the two numbers B and E, the (number) created from (multiplying) A and
C is thus prime to the (number created) from (multiplying) B and E [Prop. 7.26]. And D is the
(number created) from (multiplying) A and C, and F the (number created) from (multiplying)
B and E. Thus, D and F are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
135
In modern notation, this proposition states that if a is prime to b, then a
2
is also prime to b
2
, as well as a
3
to b
3
,
etc., where all symbols denote numbers.
0l

v vp| e o v e, | p o c ue e
c | cv p o c v ue e , | | c v vp| e
o v c.
v vp| e o v | , , o | p
o o c e , e c.
i v p i | , e o v, p , vp.
p, | c o . c| u o , pi, | o v o p.
pi c | o o v , pi o o v o c|
v. u v , vp vp p | , v e o
v i. v v uv | | , e o v i. o v o
c e , e c.
| , e o v , o | | , e o
v i.
i v p i | , e o v, p , vp.
p, | c o . | c| o c e , pi, | o v o
p. pi c | o o v , pi o o v
o c| v. u v , vp vp p. | , v
e o v i o c i.
02
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 28
C
D
A B
If two numbers are prime to one another then their sum will also be prime to each of them. And
if the sum (of two numbers) is prime to any one of them then the original numbers will also be
prime to one another.
For let the two numbers, AB and BC, (which are) prime to one another, be laid down together.
I say that their sum AC is also prime to each of AB and BC.
For if CA and AB are not prime to one another then some number will measure CA and AB. Let
it (so) measure (them), and let it be D. Therefore, since D measures CA and AB, it will thus also
measure the remainder BC. And it also measures BA. Thus, D measures AB and BC, which
are prime to one another. The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number cannot measure
(both) the numbers CA and AB. Thus, CA and AB are prime to one another. So, for the same
(reasons), AC and CB are also prime to one another. Thus, CA is prime to each of AB and BC.
So, again, let CA and AB be prime to one another. I say that AB and BC are also prime to one
another.
For if AB and BC are not prime to one another then some number will measure AB and BC. Let
it (so) measure (them), and let it be D. And since D measures each of AB and BC, it will thus
also measure the whole of CA. And it also measures AB. Thus, D measures CA and AB, which
are prime to one another. The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number cannot measure
(both) the numbers AB and BC. Thus, AB and BC are prime to one another. (Which is) the
0`

e vpo o v vp, o p pi, e c.

e vpo o | o p p , o | , e o v
i.
i v p i | , e o v, p u vp. p o .
c| o o pi, o c o u pi, o v ; u c o u. | c|
o , pi, | o v pi e o p e u; o u o c|
v. u v , p vp. | , v e o v i
o c i.
04
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 29
C
A
B
Every prime number is prime to every number which it does not measure.
Let A be a prime number, and let it not measure B. I say that B and A are prime to one another.
For if B and A are not prime to one another then some number will measure them. Let C measure
(them). Since C measures B, and A does not measure B, C is thus not the same as A. And since
C measures B and A, it thus also measures A, which is prime, (despite) not being the same as it.
The very thing is impossible. Thus, some number cannot measure (both) B and A. Thus, A and
B are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
0

v vp| v e , o c p c ue p
e vp, | c e c v p.
v vp| | , v o , o c p
e vpo o , o o c e , pi.
o v p p c e o | , v e o v i. |
o o o pi, u p c c ; . c| u o o pi v
v c ; p, o v o o . vv p | o o
o : v c| o c e , ; c e , . c v
e o o o , u o o o . | c , e, | c e | c,
| c c pu o uo c i o p o p | o
c o c, o p o p | o cp o cp
o v o pi. op p, o | cv o p p, o p. o
v c e , pi o c i.
06
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 30
E
A
B
C
D
If two numbers make some (number by) multiplying one another, and some prime number mea-
sures the number (so) created from them, then it will also measure one of the original (numbers).
For let two numbers A and B make C (by) multiplying one another, and let some prime number
D measure C. I say that D measures one of A and B.
For let it not measure A. And since D is prime, A and D are thus prime to one another
[Prop. 7.29]. And as many times as D measures C, so many units let there be in E. Therefore,
since D measures C according to the units E, D has thus made C (by) multiplying E [Def. 7.15].
But, in fact, A has also made C (by) multiplying B. Thus, the (number created) from (multiply-
ing) D and E is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) A and B. Thus, as D is to A,
so B (is) to E [Prop. 7.19]. And A and D (are) prime (to one another), and (numbers) prime
(to one another are) also the least (of those numbers having the same ratio) [Prop. 7.21], and
the least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number
of times, the greater (measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading
(measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, D measures B. So,
similarly, we can also show that if (D) does not measure B then it will measure A. Thus, D
measures one of A and B. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
0

vpo uo o vpu pi.

vpo o , o o uo o vpu pi.
| v c o , p uo vp. p, | c o . | i pc
e c o , o i : o c. i c , p uo vp.
p, | c o . | c| o o pi, o c o pi, | o v o
pi. | i pc e c o , o i : o c. i c , p
uo vp. p c e vp, o p.
i v u , p o vpo v vp, e c c c
c o c| v c vpi. v e vp, o p o
o cu, o | o p.
v vpo uo o vpu pi o c i.
08
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 31
C
A
B
Every composite number is measured by some prime number.
Let A be a composite number. I say that A is measured by some prime number.
For since A is composite, some number will measure it. Let it (so) measure (A), and let it be B.
And if B is prime then that which was prescribed has happened. And if (B is) composite then
some number will measure it. Let it (so) measure (B), and let it be C. And since C measures B,
and B measures A, C thus also measures A. And if C is prime then that which was prescribed
has happened. And if (C is) composite then some number will measure it. So, in this manner
of continued investigation, some prime number will be found which will measure (the number
preceding it, which will also measure A). And if (such a number) cannot be found then the
number A will be measured by an innite (series of) numbers, each of which is less than the
preceding. The very thing is impossible for numbers. Thus, some prime number will be found
which will measure the (number) preceding it, which will also measure A.
Thus, every composite number is measured by some prime number. (Which is) the very thing it
09

vpo e c uo o vpu pi.

vpo o , o o e c uo o vpu pi.
i pc u e c o , o i : c. i c , p uo
e vp.
v vpo e c uo o vpu pi o c i.
l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 32
A
Every number is either prime or is measured by some prime number.
Let A be a number. I say that A is either prime or is measured by some prime number.
In fact, if A is prime then that which was prescribed has happened. And if (it is) composite then
some prime number will measure it [Prop. 7.31].
Thus, every number is either prime or is measured by some prime number. (Which is) the very
ll

pe ou ui c e o uo c ui.
| ou vp| | , , i ui c e o
uo c i , , .
| , , v e o v i| u. i pc u | , , e o
v i, c i e o uo c ui.
i c u, i e , , o p o p o , | o o c e
, , pi, u p c c c; e , , . | c v e , ,
c e , , pi v v c ; p. | , , v , , i
pu | , , v i , , c ; u; ; i. , o | c. i
v p i | , , c e o uo c i , , , c ]
e , , c vp| c ; u; ; o i , , . c | , ,
i v o o pi | c e , c e , . o c o o
pi, u p c c ; | c v e , c e ,
pi v v c ; p. | c| o o pi v v c ; p, |
o v o pi v v c ; p. v v uv o | c e ,
pi v v c c; e , p o v , , pi. | c| o
o pi v v c ; p, o v o o .
v v uv | o o o . : v c| o c e ,
; c e , . c v e o o o , u o o o . pi c o u
p v | o u . | pi , , o c| v u v
o e , , o p o p. u v c e , , c
vp| c ; u; ; o i , , . | , , v c i e o uo
c i , , o c i.
l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 33
L M A B C D E F G H K
To nd the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as any given multitude of numbers.
Let A, B, and C be any given multitude of numbers. So it is required to nd the least of those
(numbers) having the same ratio as A, B, and C.
For A, B, and C are either prime to one another, or not. In fact, if A, B, and C are prime to one
another then they are the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them [Prop. 7.22].
And if not, let the greatest common measure, D, of A, B, and C have be taken [Prop. 7.3]. And as
many times as D measures A, B, C, so many units let there be in E, F, G, respectively. And thus
E, F, G measure A, B, C, respectively, according to the units in D [Prop. 7.15]. Thus, E, F, G
measure A, B, C (respectively) an equal number of times. Thus, E, F, G are in the same ratio as
A, B, C (respectively) [Def. 7.20]. So I say that (they are) also the least (of those numbers having
the same ratio as A, B, C). For if E, F, G are not the least of those (numbers) having the same
ratio as A, B, C (respectively), then there will be [some] numbers less than E, F, G which are
in the same ratio as A, B, C (respectively). Let them be H, K, L. Thus, H measures A the same
number of times that K, L also measure B, C, respectively. And as many times as H measures A,
so many units let there be in M. Thus, K, L measure B, C, respectively, according to the units in
M. And since H measures A according to the units in M, M thus also measures A according to
the units in H [Prop. 7.15]. So, for the same (reasons), M also measures B, C according to the
units in K, L, respectively. Thus, M measures A, B, and C. And since H measures A according
to the units in M, H has thus made A (by) multiplying M. So, for the same (reasons), E has
also made A (by) multiplying D. Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) E and D is
equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) H and M. Thus, as E (is) to H, so M (is) to
D [Prop. 7.19]. And E (is) greater than H. Thus, M (is) also greater than D [Prop. 5.13]. And
(M) measures A, B, and C. The very thing is impossible. For D was assumed (to be) the greatest
common measure of A, B, and C. Thus, there cannot be any numbers less than E, F, G which
are in the same ratio as A, B, C (respectively). Thus, E, F, G are the least of (those numbers)
having the same ratio as A, B, C (respectively). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l`

vpe ui, o c pu vp.

| vp| | , i ui, o c pu vp.
| , v e o v i| u. c | , e o
v, | o o o | o v o
o . | , v o pu. , o | c. i v p,
p vpo | , c o u . p o . | o o
o pi, u p c c ; , o c o o pi, u
p c c ; . o pc v o o , o c o
o : v c| o c e , ; c e , . c v
e o o o , u o o o . | c , e, | c e | c,
| c c pu o uo c i o p o p | o
c o c o v o pi, e cp cp. | c| o ,
, , c v e o o o , u o o o .
pi c o o pi v | o o o p o c o c| v.
u v | , pu vpo c o u . o v c e uo e
, pi.
c | , e o v, | i c vp| e o
uo c i , | , : v c| o c e , ; c e , . | o
o o | o v o o
| , v o pu. , o | c. i v p, p vpo
| , c o u . p o . | o pc o o pi, u
p c c ; , o c o o pi, u p c c ; .
o pc v o o , o c o o
. : v c| o c e , ; c e , c v e o o o , u
o o o . e c o o o , u o o o | e v o o o ,
u o o o . | c , c, | c c pu o uo
c i o p o p | o c o c o v o pi.
| c| o , , , c v e o o o ,
l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 34
F
A B
C
D
E
To nd the least number which two given numbers (both) measure.
Let A and B be the two given numbers. So it is required to nd the least number which they
(both) measure.
For A and B are either prime to one another, or not. Let them, rst of all, be prime to one another.
And let A make C (by) multiplying B. Thus, B has also made C (by) multiplying A [Prop. 7.16].
Thus, A and B (both) measure C. So I say that (C) is also the least (number which they both
measure). For if not, A and B will (both) measure some (other) number which is less than C. Let
them (both) measure D (which is less than C). And as many times as A measures D, so many
units let there be in E. And as many times as B measures D, so many units let there be in F. Thus,
A has made D (by) multiplying E, and B has made D (by) multiplying F. Thus, the (number
created) from (multiplying) A and E is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) B and
F. Thus, as A (is) to B, so F (is) to E [Prop. 7.19]. And A and B are prime (to one another),
and prime (numbers) are the least (of those numbers having the same ratio) [Prop. 7.21], and
the least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number
of times, the greater (measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesser [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, B
measures E, as the following (number measuring) the following. And since A has made C and
D (by) multiplying B and E (respectively), thus as B is to E, so C (is) to D [Prop. 7.17]. And
B measures E. Thus, C also measures D, the greater (measuring) the lesser. The very thing is
impossible. Thus, A and B do not (both) measure some number which is less than C. Thus, C is
the least (number) which is measured by (both) A and B.
So let A and B be not prime to one another. And let the least numbers, F and E, have been taken
having the same ratio as A and B (respectively) [Prop. 7.33]. Thus, the (number created) from
(multiplying) A and E is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) B and F [Prop. 7.19].
And let A make C (by) multiplying E. Thus, B has also made C (by) multiplying F. Thus, A and
B (both) measure C. So I say that (C) is also the least (number which they both measure). For
if not, A and B will (both) measure some number which is less than C. Let them (both) measure
D (which is less than C). And as many times as A measures D, so many units let there be in G.
l

u o o o . o c o pi | o v o pi o p o c
o c| v. u v | , p vpo c o u . o
v c e uo e , pi o c i.
l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 34
H
A
D
B
E F
C
G
And as many times as B measures D, so many units let there be in H. Thus, A has made D
(by) multiplying G, and B has made D (by) multiplying H. Thus, the (number created) from
(multiplying) A and G is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) B and H. Thus, as A
is to B, so H (is) to G [Prop. 7.19]. And as A (is) to B, so F (is) to E. Thus, also, as F (is) to E,
so H (is) to G. And F and E are the least (numbers having the same ratio as A and B), and the
least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio an equal number of times, the
greater (measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesser [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, E measures G. And
since A has made C and D (by) multiplying E and G (respectively), thus as E is to G, so C (is)
to D [Prop. 7.17]. And E measures G. Thus, C also measures D, the greater (measuring) the
lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus, A and B do not (both) measure some (number) which
is less than C. Thus, C (is) the least (number) which is measured by (both) A and B. (Which is)
l

v vp| vp pe, | o c u ue pp o uo
p.
v vp| | , vp o p, c c o , o |
o o pi.
i v u pi o o , o o pe cu c o . |
c| | , o pu, o c o pi, | | , v o p.
pu c | o o | o v o p c o u o
c| v. u v u pi o o pi v o c i.
l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 35
D
A B
E
C F
If two numbers (both) measure some number then the least (number) measured by them will
also measure the same (number).
For let two numbers, A and B, (both) measure some number CD, and (let) E (be the) least
(number measured by both A and B). I say that E also measures CD.
For if E does not measure CD then let E leave CF less than itself (in) measuring CD. And since
A and B (both) measure E, and E measures DF, A and B will thus also measure DF. And (A
and B) also measure the whole of CD. Thus, they will also measure the remainder CF, which is
less than E. The very thing is impossible. Thus, E cannot not measure CD. Thus, (E) measures
(CD). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l9

e vpe ui, o c pu vp.

| i vp| | , , i ui, o c pu vp.
i v uo e , c pp o . o o pi u
pi. p . pu c | | , o . | , , v o pu.
, o | c. i v p, p ] vpo | , , c o
u . p o . c| | , , o pu, | | , v o pu.
| o c v uo e , pp o ] p. c c uo e ,
pp c o o v o p o p o c o c| v.
u v | , , p vpo c o u | , , v c
o pu.
p o o , | i uo e , c pp vpo
o . c| | , o pu, o c o pi, | | , v o pu.
pi c | o o |] | , , v o pu. , o | c.
i v p, p | , , c o u . p o . c| | ,
, o pu, | | , v o pu | o c v uo e ,
pp o p. c c uo e , pp c o o v o
pi. pi c | o o | , v o pu e | o c uo e
, pp o p. o c c uo e , pp c o o
v o pi o p o c o c| v. u v | , , p
vpo c o u . o v c e uo e , , pi o
c i.
20
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 36
F
A
B
C
D
E
To nd the least number which three given numbers (all) measure.
Let A, B, and C be the three given numbers. So it is required to nd the least number which they
(all) measure.
For let the least (number), D, measured by the two (numbers) Aand B have been taken [Prop. 7.34].
So C either measures, or does not measure, D. Let it, rst of all, measure (D). And A and B
also measure D. Thus, A, B, and C (all) measure D. So I say that (D is) also the least (number
measured by A, B, and C). For if not, A, B, and C will (all) measure [some] number which is
less than D. Let them measure E (which is less than D). Since A, B, and C (all) measure E then
A and B thus also measure E. Thus, the least (number) measured by A and B will also measure
[E] [Prop. 7.35]. And D is the least (number) measured by A and B. Thus, D will measure E,
the greater (measuring) the lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus, A, B, and C cannot (all)
measure some number which is less than D. Thus, A, B, and C (all) measure the least (number)
D.
So, again, let C not measure D. And let the least number, E, measured by C and D have been
taken [Prop. 7.34]. Since A and B measure D, and D measures E, A and B thus also measure
E. And C also measures [E]. Thus, A, B, and C [also] measure E. So I say that (E is) also
the least (number measured by A, B, and C). For if not, A, B, and C will (all) measure some
(number) which is less than E. Let them measure F (which is less than E). Since A, B, and C
(all) measure F, A and B thus also measure F. Thus, the least (number) measured by A and
B will also measure F [Prop. 7.35]. And D is the least (number) measured by A and B. Thus,
D measures F. And C also measures F. Thus, D and C (both) measure F. Hence, the least
(number) measured by D and C will also measure F [Prop. 7.35]. And E is the least (number)
measured by C and D. Thus, E measures F, the greater (measuring) the lesser. The very thing is
impossible. Thus, A, B, and C cannot measure some number which is less than E. Thus, E (is)
the least (number) which is measured by A, B, and C. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
2l

v vpo u vpu p, o pp opp p c ; pu.

po o u vpu u p , o o opp p c
; .
v o o pi, u p c c ; . c| o o pi
v v c ; p, pi c | pv o vpo v v c u; p,
i v pv o vpo pi | o o . cv v i pv o
vpo pi | o o o v p c| pv u vpu, o uo p
c| | o u . c pv u vpu p c| opp u; | o v
u p c| opp ; . e o p c o opp o ; o c
i.
22
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 37
D
B
A
C
If a number is measured by some number then the (number) measured will have a part called the
same as the measuring (number).
For let the number A be measured by some number B. I say that A has a part called the same as
B.
For as many times as B measures A, so many units let there be in C. Since B measures A
according to the units in C, and the unit D also measures C according to the units in it, thus the
unit D measures the number C as many times as B (measures) A. Thus, alternately, the unit D
measures the number B as many times as C (measures) A [Prop. 7.15]. Thus, which(ever) part
the unit D is of the number B, C is also the same part of A. And the unit D is a part of the
number B called the same as it (i.e., a Bth part). Thus, C is also a part of A called the same as B
(i.e., C is the Bth part of A). Hence, A has a part C which is called the same as B (i.e., A has a
Bth part). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
2`

v vp p c ou, uo opp vpu p ; p.

po v o p c ou o , | ; p opp c vpo] o
, o o o pi.
| v o u p c| opp ; , c c | pv u p opp
u;, o v p c| pv u vpu, o uo p c| | o u i
v pv o vpo pi | o o . cv v i pv o
vpo pi | o o . o v o pi o c |.
24
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 38
D
A
B
C
If a number has any part whatever then it will be measured by a number called the same as the
part.
For let the number A have any part whatever, B. And let the [number] C be called the same as
the part B (i.e., B is the Cth part of A). I say that C measures A.
For since B is a part of A called the same as C, and the unit D is also a part of C called the same as
it (i.e., D is the Cth part of C), thus which(ever) part the unit D is of the number C, B is also the
same part of A. Thus, the unit D measures the number C as many times as B (measures) A. Thus,
alternately, the unit D measures the number B as many times as C (measures) A [Prop. 7.15].
Thus, C measures A. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
2

po ui, o c e c v p.
v p v , , i vpo ui, o c e c v , ,
p.
v i , , p opp vp| | , , , | i uo e , ,
c pp vpo o .
v opp p c i , , . i c , , opp p c| v , ,
o v c v , , p. , o | c e, i v p, c u
c vp, o c v , , p. c o . c| o c v , , p, o v
uo opp vpe p i , , p. i c , , p opp
vp i | , , o v uo e , , pi. c c u o
c| v. u v c u c vp, o c v , , p o c
i.
26
ELEMENTS BOOK 7
Proposition 39
H
A B C
D E
F
G
To nd the least number that will have given parts.
Let A, B, and C be the given parts. So it is required to nd the least number which will have the
parts A, B, and C (i.e., an Ath part, a Bth part, and a Cth part).
For let D, E, and F be numbers having the same names as the parts A, B, and C (respectively).
And let the least number, G, measured by D, E, and F, have been taken [Prop. 7.36].
Thus, G has parts called the same as D, E, and F [Prop. 7.37]. And A, B, and C are parts called
the same as D, E, and F (respectively). Thus, G has the parts A, B, and C. So I say that (G)
is also the least (number having the parts A, B, and C). For if not, there will be some number
less than G which will have the parts A, B, and C. Let it be H. Since H has the parts A, B, and
C, H will thus be measured by numbers called the same as the parts A, B, and C [Prop. 7.38].
And D, E, and F are numbers called the same as the parts A, B, and C (respectively). Thus, H
is measured by D, E, and F. And (H) is less than G. The very thing is impossible. Thus, there
cannot be some number less than G which will have the parts A, B, and C. (Which is) the very
2

ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Continued proportion
136
136

v e ou vp| c v, | c v ue e o v
e, c i e o uo c ui.
ou vp| c v | , , , , | c v ue | , , e
o v c , o | , , , c i e o uo c
ui.
i v p, c c e , , , | , , , c ; u; ; o ui.
| c| | , , , c ; u; ; i| i , , , , c : o e
, , , ] ; e , , , ], : v c| e o o o , o o o
. | c , e, | c e | c, | c c vp| pu o
uo c i o p o p | o c o c, o
p o p | o cp o cp. pi v o o o p
o c o c| v. u v | , , , c o e , , ,
c ; u; ; i| ui. | , , , v c i e o uo c
ui o c i.
`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 1
H
E A
B
C
D
F
G
If there are any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, and the outermost
of them are prime to one another, then the (numbers) are the least of those (numbers) having
the same ratio as them.
Let A, B, C, D be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers. And let the
outermost of them, A and D, be prime to one another. I say that A, B, C, D are the least of those
(numbers) having the same ratio as them.
For if not, let E, F, G, H be less than A, B, C, D (respectively), being in the same ratio as
them. And since A, B, C, D are in the same ratio as E, F, G, H, and the multitude [of A,
B, C, D] is equal to the multitude [of E, F, G, H], thus, via equality, as A is to D, (so) E
(is) to H [Prop. 7.14]. And A and D (are) prime (to one another). And prime (numbers are)
also the least of those (numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21]. And the least
numbers measure those (numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number of times, the
greater (measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading (measuring)
the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, A measures E, the greater
(measuring) the lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus, E, F, G, H, being less than A, B, C,
D, are not in the same ratio as them. Thus, A, B, C, D are the least of those (numbers) having
the same ratio as them. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`l

p ui c v c, o i c , c ; ;.
o | c c vpi o u o o i vp ui c
v c, o v c, c ; u o o ;.
, | o co o , o c -
o , | c o co o , | c o
, , , , , o c o o .
| c| o co pc o , o c o
, c v e o o o , u] o o o . , c| o pc o
o , o c co o , c
v e , o c e , . c v e o o o
, u o o o . v e o o o , o o o | e v o o o
, o o o . | c| o , , , c v
e o o o , u] o o o . e c o o o , u o o o
| e v o o o , o o o . , c| o ,
, , c v e o o o , o o o . v e o o o
, o o o . | e v o o o , u o o o . | c| | , o
, , c v e o o o , u o o
o . v e o o o , u o o o | o o o . | e v o
o o , u o o o | o o o | , , v | | , ,
, v i c ; u o o ;. , o | c. c| v |
, c i e o uo c ui, | c c e o uo
c e o v i, | , v e o v i. | c
pc e , co c e , , c c e ,
c e , | , v | | , e o v
i. cv c e ou vp| c v, | c v ue e o v
`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 2
K
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
To nd the least numbers, as many as may be prescribed, (which are) continuously proportional
in a given ratio.
Let the given ratio, (expressed) in the least numbers, be that of A to B. So it is required to nd
the least numbers, as many as may be prescribed, (which are) in the ratio of A to B.
Let four (numbers) have been prescribed. And let A make C (by) multiplying itself, and let it
make D (by) multiplying B. And, further, let B make E (by) multiplying itself. And, further, let
A make F, G, H (by) multiplying C, D, E. And let B make K (by) multiplying E.
And since A has made C (by) multiplying itself, and has made D (by) multiplying B, thus as A
is to B, [so] C (is) to D [Prop. 7.17]. Again, since A has made D (by) multiplying B, and B
has made E (by) multiplying itself, A, B have thus made D, E, respectively, (by) multiplying B.
Thus, as A is to B, so D (is) to E [Prop. 7.18]. But, as A (is) to B, (so) C (is) to D. And thus as
C (is) to D, (so) D (is) to E. And since A has made F, G (by) multiplying C, D, thus as C is to
D, [so] F (is) to G [Prop. 7.17]. And as C (is) to D, so A was to B. And thus as A (is) to B, (so)
F (is) to G. Again, since A has made G, H (by) multiplying D, E, thus as D is to E, (so) G (is)
to H [Prop. 7.17]. But, as D (is) to E, (so) A (is) to B. And thus as A (is) to B, so G (is) to H.
And since A, B have made H, K (by) multiplying E, thus as A is to B, so H (is) to K. But, as A
(is) to B, so F (is) to G, and G to H. And thus as F (is) to G, so G (is) to H, and H to K. Thus,
C, D, E and F, G, H, K are (both continuously) proportional in the ratio of A to B. So I say
that (they are) also the least (sets of numbers continuously proportional in that ratio). For since
A and B are the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them, and the least of those
(numbers) having the same ratio are prime to one another [Prop. 7.22], A and B are thus prime
to one another. And A, B have made C, E, respectively, (by) multiplying themselves, and have
made F, K by multiplying C, E, respectively. Thus, C, E and F, K are prime to one another
[Prop. 7.27]. And if there are any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers,
and the outermost of them are prime to one another, then the (numbers) are the least of those
``

e, c i e o uo c ui. | , , v | | , , ,
c i e o uo c i , o c i.
p
, o cv i vp| c v c e e o uo
c ui, | v ue i, cv c , .
`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 2
(numbers) having the same ratio as them [Prop. 8.1]. Thus, C, D, E and F, G, H, K are the least
of those (continuously proportional sets of numbers) having the same ratio as A and B. (Which
Corollary
So it is clear, from this, that if three continuously proportional numbers are the least of those
(numbers) having the same ratio as them, then the outermost of them are square, and, if four,
cube.
`

v e ou vp| c v c e o uo c ui, |
v ue e o v i,
ou vp| c v c e o uo c ui |
, , , , o | v ue | , e o v i.
i v pc vp| c c ; e , , , ; | , , i c |
, , , | c c| , c o pp : ; e , ,
, . i | c | , , , .
| c| | , c i e o uo c ui, e o v
i. | c| c e , co pc c e , ,
c c e , c e , , | | , v | |
, e o v i. | c| | , , , c i e o uo
c ui, i| c | | , , , c c ; u; ; o i , , , ,
c : o e , , , ; e , , , , c v e , , ,
c; e , , , : c : v c| o pc ; , o c ; . i |
, e o v. | | , v e o v i o c i.
`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 3
O
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
K
L
M
N
If there are any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, (which are) the
least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them, then the outermost of them are prime to
one another.
Let A, B, C, D be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, (which are)
the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them. I say that the outermost of them, A
and D, are prime to one another.
For let the two least (numbers) E, F (which are) in the same ratio as A, B, C, D have been
taken [Prop. 7.33]. And the three (least numbers) G, H, K [Prop. 8.2]. And (so on), successively
increasing by one, until the multitude of (numbers) taken is made equal to the multitude of A,
B, C, D. Let them have been taken, and let them be L, M, N, O.
And since E and F are the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio as them, they are prime
to one another [Prop. 7.22]. And since E, F have made G, K, respectively, (by) multiplying
themselves [Prop. 8.2 corr.], and have made L, O (by) multiplying G, K, respectively, thus G, K
and L, O are also prime to one another [Prop. 7.27]. And since A, B, C, D are the least of those
(numbers) having the same ratio as them, and L, M, N, O are also the least (of those numbers
having the same ratio as them), being in the same ratio as A, B, C, D, and the multitude of A,
B, C, D is equal to the multitude of L, M, N, O, thus A, B, C, D are equal to L, M, N, O,
respectively. Thus, A is equal to L, and D to O. And L and O are prime to one another. Thus, A
and D are also prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`

ou c c vpi vp ui c v c
c i i .
| c c vpi o u o o | o u o
o | c o u o o i vp ui c v c c ;
u o o ; | c ; u o o | c ; u o o .
i v o uo e , c pp vpo o . | o pc o o
pi, | o o p, o c o o pi, | o
o p. o c o pi u pi. p . | o o
o pi, | o o p. | c| i o o pi | o
o , c v e o o o , u o o o . v v uv | e o o
o , u o o o , | c e o o o , u o o o | , ,
, v c v i c ; u o o | c ; u o o | c
c ; u o o ;. , o | c. i v p i | , , , c
v c c i u o o | u o o | c ; u o
o , c | , , , . | c c e o o o , u o o
o , | c , c, | c c pu o uo c i o
p o p | o c o c, o p o p
| o cp o cp, o v o pi. v v uv | o o pi |
, v o pu | o c v uo e , pp o p.
c c uo e , pi o o v o pi o p o c o
c| v. u v c e , , , c vp| c c ; u
o o | ; u o o | c ; u o o ;.
`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 4
L
A
C
E
B
D
F
N
O
M
P
H
G
K
For any multitude whatsoever of given ratios, (expressed) in the least numbers, to nd the least
numbers continuously proportional in these given ratios.
Let the given ratios, (expressed) in the least numbers, be the (ratios) of A to B, and of C to D,
and, further, of E to F. So it is required to nd the least numbers continuously proportional in
the ratio of A to B, and of C to B, and, further, of E to F.
For let the least number, G, measured by (both) B and C have be taken [Prop. 7.34]. And as
many times as B measures G, so many times let A also measure H. And as many times as C
measures G, so many times let D also measure K. And E either measures, or does not measure,
K. Let it, rst of all, measure (K). And as many times as E measures K, so many times let F also
measure L. And since A measures H the same number of times that B also (measures) G, thus
as A is to B, so H (is) to G [Def. 7.20, Prop. 7.13]. And so, for the same (reasons), as C (is) to
D, so G (is) to K, and, further, as E (is) to F, so K (is) to L. Thus, H, G, K, L are continuously
proportional in the ratio of A to B, and of C to D, and, further, of E to F. So I say that (they are)
also the least (numbers continuously proportional in these ratios). For if H, G, K, L are not the
least numbers continuously proportional in the ratios of A to B, and of C to D, and of E to F, let
N, O, M, P be (the least such numbers). And since as A is to B, so N (is) to O, and A and B are
the least (numbers which have the same ratio as them), and the least (numbers) measure those
(numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number of times, the greater (measuring)
the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading (measuring) the leading, and
the following the following [Prop. 7.20], B thus measures O. So, for the same (reasons), C also
measures O. Thus, B and C (both) measure O. Thus, the least number measured by (both) B
and C will also measure O [Prop. 7.35]. And G (is) the least number measured by (both) B and
C. Thus, G measures O, the greater (measuring) the lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus,
there cannot be any numbers less than H, G, K, L (which are) continuously (proportional) in
the ratio of A to B, and of C to D, and, further, of E to F.
`9

p o o , | i uo e , c pp vpo o
. | o pc o o pi, | c e , c e ,
p, o c o o pi, | o o p. c| i o
o pi | o o , c v e o o o , u o o o . e
c o o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u o o
o . v v uv | e o o o , u o o o . , c| i o
o pi | o o , c v e o o o , u o o o | ,
, , v c v i c i u o o | u o o | c
u o o . , o | c c i , , . i v
p, c e , , , c vp| c v c i , ,
. c | , , , . | c c e o o o , u o o o , |
c , c, | c c pu o uo c ui i o
p o p | o cp o cp, o v o pi. v v uv
| o o pi | , v o pu. | o c v uo e ,
pp o p. c c uo e , pp c o o v o
pi. c e o o o , u o o o | o v o pi.
pi c | o o | , v o pu. | o c v uo e ,
pp o p. c c uo e , pp c o o v
o pi o p o c o c| v. u v c e , ,
, c vp| c v c i u o o | u o o
| c u o o | , , , v c v c i c i
, , o c i.
40
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 4
T
A
C
E
B
D
H
G
K
N
O
M
P
F
Q
R
S
So let E not measure K. And let the least number, M, measured by (both) E and K have been
taken [Prop. 7.34]. And as many times as K measures M, so many times let H, G also measure
N, O, respectively. And as many times as E measures M, so many times let F also measure P.
Since H measures N the same number of times as G (measures) O, thus as H is to G, so N (is)
to O [Def. 7.20, Prop. 7.13]. And as H (is) to G, so A (is) to B. And thus as A (is) to B, so N
(is) to O. And so, for the same (reasons), as C (is) to D, so O (is) to M. Again, since E measures
M the same number of times as F (measures) P, thus as E is to F, so M (is) to P [Def. 7.20,
Prop. 7.13]. Thus, N, O, M, P are continuously proportional in the ratios of A to B, and of C
to D, and, further, of E to F. So I say that (they are) also the least (numbers) in the ratios of
A B, C D, E F. For if not, then there will be some numbers less than N, O, M, P (which are)
continuously proportional in the ratios of A B, C D, E F. Let them be Q, R, S, T. And since as Q
is to R, so A (is) to B, and A and B (are) the least (numbers having the same ratio as them), and
the least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio as them an equal number of
times, the leading (measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20], B thus
measures R. So, for the same (reasons), C also measures R. Thus, B and C (both) measure R.
Thus, the least (number) measured by (both) B and C will also measure R [Prop. 7.35]. And
G is the least number measured by (both) B and C. Thus, G measures R. And as G is to R, so
K (is) to S. Thus, K also measures S [Def. 7.20]. And E also measures S [Prop. 7.20]. Thus,
E and K (both) measure S. Thus, the least (number) measured by (both) E and K will also
measure S [Prop. 7.35]. And M is the least (number) measured by (both) E and K. Thus, M
measures S, the greater (measuring) the lesser. The very thing is impossible. Thus there cannot
be any numbers less than N, O, M, P (which are) continuously proportional in the ratios of A to
B, and of C to D, and, further, of E to F. Thus, N, O, M, P are the least (numbers) continuously
proportional in the ratios of A B, C D, E F. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
4l

| c vp| o v c o p c e e.
c vp| | , , | u pc | c | , vp, u c
| , , o o o o c o p c e e.
v u o c o o o | o o o i vp|
c c c i , , | , , , e | e pc o o o ,
u o o o , e c o o o , u o o o . | o o
o .
| c| o o pc o , o c o
, c v e o o o , u o o o . e c o o o , u
o o o | e v o o o , u o o o . , c| o o
o , vv p | o o , c
v e o o o , u o o o . v e o o o , u o o
o | e v o o o , u o o o . c c | e o o o
, u o o o : v c| e o o o , u] o o o . o
c o o c o p c e e | o v o o
c o p c e e o c i.
42
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 5
L
A
B
C
E
D
F
G
H
K
Plane numbers have to one another the ratio compounded
137
out of (the ratios of) their sides.
Let A and B be plane numbers, and let C, D be the sides of A, and E, F (the sides) of B. I say
that A has to B the ratio compounded out of (the ratios of) their sides.
For given the ratios which C has to E, and D (has) to F, let the least numbers, G, H, K,
continuously proportional in the ratios C E, D F have been taken [Prop. 8.4], so that as C is
to E, so G (is) to H, and as D (is) to F, so H (is) to K. And let D make L (by) multiplying E.
And since D has made A (by) multiplying C, and has made L (by) multiplying E, thus as C is
to E, so A (is) to L [Prop. 7.17]. And as C (is) to E, so G (is) to H. And thus as G (is) to H,
so A (is) to L. Again, since E has made L (by) multiplying D [Prop. 7.16], but, in fact, has also
made B (by) multiplying F, thus as D is to F, so L (is) to B [Prop. 7.17]. But, as D (is) to F,
so H (is) to K. And thus as H (is) to K, so L (is) to B. And it was also shown that as G (is) to
H, so A (is) to L. Thus, via equality, as G is to K, [so] A (is) to B [Prop. 7.14]. And G has to
K the ratio compounded out of (the ratios of) the sides (of A and B). Thus, A also has to B the
ratio compounded out of (the ratios of) the sides (of A and B). (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
137
i.e., multiplied.
4`

v e ou vp| c v, o c e o p p, uc v
u| u p.
ou vp| c v | , , , , , o c o p p
, o uc v u| u p.
pc u | , , , , c v u pu, uc v o o
pi. , o uc v u| u p. i v , p o o .
| o i| | , , , u i c vp| e o uo c
i , , | , , . | c| | , , c ; u; ; i| i , , , c :
o e , , ; e , , , : v c| e o o o , u
o o o . | c c e o o o , u o o o , u pi c o
o , u pi v uc o o u v p c o v pv vpo
pi. i | , e o v uc o v o pi]. c e o
o o , u o o o uc o v o pi. op p, o
uc v u| u p o c i.
44
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 6
E
F
G
H
A
B
C
D
If there are any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, and the rst does
not measure the second, then no other (number) will measure any other (number) either.
Let A, B, C, D, E be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, and let A
not measure B. I say that no other (number) will measure any other (number) either.
Now, (it is) clear that A, B, C, D, E do not successively measure one another. For A does
not even measure B. So I say that no other (number) will measure any other (number) either.
For, if possible, let A measure C. And as many (numbers) as are A, B, C, let so many of the
least numbers, F, G, H, have been taken of those (numbers) having the same ratio as A, B, C
[Prop. 7.33]. And since F, G, H are in the same ratio as A, B, C, and the multitude of A, B, C
is equal to the multitude of F, G, H, thus, via equality, as A is to C, so F (is) to H [Prop. 7.14].
And since as A is to B, so F (is) to G, and A does not measure B, F does not measure G either
[Def. 7.20]. Thus, F is not a unit. For a unit measures all numbers. And F and H are prime to
one another [Prop. 8.3] [and thus F does not measure H]. And as F is to H, so A (is) to C. And
thus A does not measure C either [Def. 7.20]. So, similarly, we can show that no other (number)
can measure any other (number) either. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
4

v e ou vp| c] v, o c e o c p, | o
p.
ou vp| c v | , , , , o c o p , o
| o o pi.
i v u pi o o , uc v u| u p pi c o o . pi
v | o o o c i.
46
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 7
D
A
B
C
If there are any multitude whatsoever of [continuously] proportional numbers, and the rst mea-
sures the last, then (the rst) will also measure the second.
Let A, B, C, D be any number whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers. And let A
measure D. I say that A also measures B.
For if A does not measure B then no other (number) will measure any other (number) either
[Prop. 8.6]. But A measures D. Thus, A also measures B. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
4

v vpe p v o c v cp vp, o i u
p v o c v cp vp, u | i o uo
c ui] p v o c v cpu.
v vpe e , p v o c v cp vp| | , ,
| e o o o , u o o o , o o i , p
v o c v cp vp, u | i , p v o
c v cpu.
i ; | , , , , u i c vp| e o uo
c i , , , | , , , | v v ue | , e o
v i. | c| | , , , i , , , c ; u; ; i, c :
o e , , , ; e , , , , : v c| e o o o ,
u o o o . e c o o o , u o o o | e v o o
o , u o o o . | c , e, | c e | c, | c c
vp| pu o uo c i o p o p | o c
o c, o p o p | o cp o cp. i
v o o pi | o o . o o o pi, | c
e , c e , p | , , , v , , , i pu.
| , , , v i , , , c ; u; ; i. vv | , , , i , , ,
c ; u; ; i | | , , , v i , , , c ; u; ; i. |
c , , , c v i | | , , , v c v i. o v i
, p v o c v cp vp, u | i ,
p v o c v cp vp o c i.
48
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 8
F
G
K
L
H
A
C
D
B
E
M
N
If between two numbers there fall (some) numbers in continued proportion, then as many num-
bers as fall in between them in continued proportion, so many (numbers) will also fall in between
(any two numbers) having the same ratio [as them] in continued proportion.
For let the numbers, C and D, fall between two numbers, A and B, in continued proportion, and
let it have been made (so that) as A (is) to B, so E (is) to F. I say that as many numbers as have
fallen in between A and B in continued proportion, so many (numbers) will also fall in between
E and F in continued proportion.
For as many as A, B, C, D are in multitude, let so many of the least numbers, G, H, K, L, having
the same ratio as A, B, C, D, have been taken [Prop. 7.33]. Thus, the outermost of them, G
and L, are prime to one another [Prop. 8.3]. And since A, B, C, D are in the same ratio as G,
H, K, L, and the multitude of A, B, C, D is equal to the multitude of G, H, K, L, thus, via
equality, as A is to B. so G (is) to L [Prop. 7.14]. And as A (is) to B, so E (is) to F. And thus
as G (is) to L, so E (is) to F. And G and L (are) prime (to one another). And (numbers) prime
(to one another are) also the least (numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21]. And
the least numbers measure those (numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number of
times, the greater (measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading
(measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, G measures E the
same number of times as L (measures) F. So as many times as G measures E, so many times let
H, K also measure M, N, respectively. Thus, G, H, K, L measure E, M, N, F (respectively) an
equal number of times. Thus, G, H, K, L are in the same ratio as E, M, N, F [Def. 7.20]. But,
G, H, K, L are in the same ratio as A, C, D, B. Thus, A, C, D, B are also in the same ratio as E,
M, N, F. And A, C, D, B are continuously proportional. Thus, E, M, N, F are also continuously
proportional. Thus, as many numbers as have fallen in between A and B in continued proportion,
so many numbers have also fallen in between E and F in continued proportion. (Which is) the
49

v vp| e o v e, | i u p v o c v
cp vp, o i u p v o c v cp vp,
u | c ue | p p v o c v cpu.
vp| e o v | , , | i u p v o c
v cp | , , | c p , o o i , p
v o c v cp vp, u | c e , |
p p v o c v cpu.
i v pc vp| c c ; e , , , ; o | , , i
c | , , , | v| c c| , c i : o ue ;
e , , , . i, | c | , , , . o , o o pc co
o , o c o , | o co
pc o , o c o . | c| |
, , , c i e o uo c i , , i| c | | , , ,
c e o uo c i , , c : o e , , ,
; e , , , , c v e , , , c; e , , , : c :
v c| o pc ; , o c ; . | c| o co o ,
o v o pi v v c ; p. pi c | pv o v v
c u; p i v pv o vpo pi | o o . c v e
pv o o vp, u o o o . , c| o o
o , o v o pi v v c ; p. pi c | pv
o vpo v v c u; p i v pv o vpo pi | o
o . c v e pv o o vp, u o o o . c c
| e pv o o vp, u o o o | e v pv o
o vp, u o o o | o o o . : c o ; c v e
0
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 9
G
A
C
D
B
H
K
L
M
N
O
P
E
F
If two numbers are prime to one another, and there fall in between them (some) numbers in
continued proportion, then as many numbers as fall in between them in continued proportion, so
many (numbers) will also fall between each of them and a unit in continued proportion.
Let A and B be two numbers (which are) prime to one another, and let the (numbers) C and D
fall in between them in continued proportion. And let the unit E be taken. I say that as many
numbers as have fallen in between A and B in continued proportion, so many (numbers) will
also fall between each of A and B and a unit in continued proportion.
For let the least two numbers, F and G, which are in the ratio of A, B, C, D, have been taken
[Prop. 7.33]. And the (least) three (numbers), H, K, L. And so on, successively increasing by
one, until the multitude of the (least numbers taken) is made equal to the multitude of A, B, C,
D [Prop. 8.2]. Let them have been taken, and let them be M, N, O, P. So (it is) clear that F has
made H (by) multiplying itself, and has made M (by) multiplying H. And G has made L (by)
multiplying itself, and has made P (by) multiplying L [Prop. 8.2 corr.]. And since M, N, O, P are
the least of those (numbers) having same ratio as F, G, and A, B, C, D are also the least of those
(numbers) having the same ratio as F, G [Prop. 8.2], and the multitude of M, N, O, P is equal
to the multitude of A, B, C, D, thus M, N, O, P are equal to A, B, C, D, respectively. Thus, M
is equal to A, and P to B. And since F has made H (by) multiplying itself, F thus measures H
according to the units in F [Def. 7.15]. And the unit E also measures F according to the units in
it. Thus, the unit E measures the number F as many times as F (measures) H. Thus, as the unit
E is to the number F, so F (is) to H [Def. 7.20]. Again, since F has made M (by) multiplying
H, H thus measures M according to the units in F [Def. 7.15]. And the unit E also measures the
number F according to the units in it. Thus, the unit E measures the number F as many times
as H (measures) M. Thus, as the unit E is to the number F, so H (is) to M [Prop. 7.20]. And it
was shown that as the unit E (is) to the number F, so F (is) to H. And thus as the unit E (is) to
l

pv o o vp, u o o o | o o o . v v uv
| e pv o o vp, u o o o | o o o . o v
i , p v o c v cp vp, u | c
e , | p p v o c v cp vp o
c i.
2
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 9
the number F, so F (is) to H, and H (is) to M. And M (is) equal to A. Thus, as the unit E is to
the number F, so F (is) to H, and H to A. And so, for the same (reasons), as the unit E (is) to
the number G, so G (is) to L, and L to B. Thus, as many (numbers) as have fallen in between A
and B in continued proportion, so many numbers have also fallen between each of A and B and
the unit E in continued proportion. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`

vpe c | p p v o c v cp vp,
o c ue | p p v o c v cp vp,
u | i u p v o c v cpu.
v vpe e , | p p v o c v cp
vp| : , | | , , o o c e , | p p
v o c v cp vp, u | i , p v o
c v cpu.
v o o , c c e , o
c e , .
| c c e pv o o vp, u o o o , i v
pv o vpo pi | o o . c pv o vpo pi v v c
; p | o v vpo o pi v v c ; p o v co
o . , c c e pv] o o vpo, u
o o o , i v pv o vpo pi | o o . c pv
o vpo pi v v c ; p | o v o pi v v c ;
p o v o o . v v uv | o pc
co o , o c o . | c|
o co pc o , o c o ,
c v e o o o , u o o o . v v uv | e o o o ,
u o o o . | e v o o o , u o o o . , c| o
c e , c e , , c v e o o o
, u o o o . v e o o o , u o o o | e v o
o o , u o o o . , c| c e , o c-
4
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 10
L
C C
D
E
A B
G
F
H
K
If (some) numbers fall between each of two numbers and a unit in continued proportion, then as
many (numbers) as fall between each of the (two numbers) and the unit in continued proportion,
so many (numbers) will also fall in between the (two numbers) themselves in continued propor-
tion.
For let the numbers D, E and F, G fall between the numbers A and B (respectively) and the unit
C in continued proportion. I say that as many numbers as have fallen between each of A and B
and the unit C in continued proportion, so many will also fall in between A and B in continued
proportion.
For let D make H (by) multiplying F. And let D, F make K, L, respectively, by multiplying H.
As since as the unit C is to the number D, so D (is) to E, the unit C thus measures the number D
as many times as D (measures) E [Def. 7.20]. And the unit C measures the number D according
to the units in D. Thus, the number D also measures E according to the units in D. Thus, D has
made E (by) multiplying itself. Again, since as the [unit] C is to the number D, so E (is) to A,
the unit C thus measures the number D as many times as E (measures) A [Def. 7.20]. And the
unit C measures the number D according to the units in D. Thus, E also measures A according
to the units in D. Thus, D has made A (by) multiplying E. And so, for the same (reasons), F
has made G (by) multiplying itself, and has made B (by) multiplying G. And since D has made
E (by) multiplying itself, and has made H (by) multiplying F, thus as D is to F, so E (is) to H
[Prop 7.17]. And so, for the same reasons, as D (is) to F, so H (is) to G [Prop. 7.18]. And thus
as E (is) to H, so H (is) to G. Again, since D has made A, K (by) multiplying E, H, respectively,
thus as E is to H, so A (is) to K [Prop 7.17]. But, as E (is) to H, so D (is) to F. And thus as
D (is) to F, so A (is) to K. Again, since D, F have made K, L, respectively, (by) multiplying H,
thus as D is to F, so K (is) to L [Prop. 7.18]. But, as D (is) to F, so A (is) to K. And thus as A
- e , , c v e o o o , u o o o . v e o
o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u o o o .
c c| o c e , c e , , c v e
o o o , u o o o . e c o o o , u o o o |
e v o o o , u o o o . c c | e o o o , u o
o o | o o o | e v o o o , u o o o |
o o o . | , , , v v o c c i v. o v c
e , | p p v o c v cp vp, u
| i , p v o c cpu o c i.
6
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 10
(is) to K, so K (is) to L. Further, since F has made L, B (by) multiplying H, G, respectively, thus
as H is to G, so L (is) to B [Prop 7.17]. And as H (is) to G, so D (is) to F. And thus as D (is)
to F, so L (is) to B. And it was also shown that as D (is) to F, so A (is) to K, and K to L. And
thus as A (is) to K, so K (is) to L, and L to B. Thus, A, K, L, B are successively in continued
proportion. Thus, as many numbers as fall between each of A and B and the unit C in continued
proportion, so many will also fall in between A and B in continued proportion. (Which is) the
vpe | p v c vp, | o o o
c v o .
vp| | , , | u pc v c o , u c o ,
o e , | p v c vp, | o o o c
o o o .
v o o . | c| c o , v c
uu c o , o v co o . v v uv | o
co o . c| u o c e ,
c e , , c v e o o o , u o o o . v v
uv | e o o o , u o o o . | e v o o o , u o
o o . e , v | p v c vp.
, o | o o o c o o o . c| v i
vp| v i | , , , o v o o c o o
o . e c o o o , u o o o . o v o o
c v o o c i.
8
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 11
D
A
B
C
E
There exists one number in mean proportion to two (given) square numbers.
138
And (one) square
(number) has to the (other) square (number) a squared
139
ratio with respect to (that) the side
(of the former has) to the side (of the latter).
Let A and B be square numbers, and let C be the side of A, and D (the side) of B. I say that
there exists one number in mean proportion to A and B, and that A has to B a squared ratio with
respect to (that) C (has) to D.
For let C make E (by) multiplying D. And since A is square, and C is its side, C has thus made
A (by) multiplying itself. And so, for the same (reasons), D has made B (by) multiplying itself.
Therefore, since C has made A, E (by) multiplying C, D, respectively, thus as C is to D, so A (is)
to E [Prop. 7.17]. And so, for the same (reasons), as C (is) to D, so E (is) to B [Prop. 7.18].
And thus as A (is) to E, so E (is) to B. Thus, one number (namely, E) is in mean proportion to
A and B.
So I say that A also has to B a squared ratio with respect to (that) C (has) to D. For since A, E,
B are three (continuously) proportional numbers, A thus has to B a squared ratio with respect
to (that) A (has) to E [Def. 5.9]. And as A (is) to E, so C (is) to D. Thus, A has to B a squared
ratio with respect to (that) side C (has) to (side) D. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
138
In other words, between two given square numbers there exists a number in continued proportion.
139
Literally, double.
9

vpe p v i vp, | o o o
c v o .
vp| | , | u pc v c o , u c o , o e
, p v i vp, | o o o c o
o o .
v co pc o , o c o ,
o c co o , c c e , o
c e , .
| c| c| o , v c uu o , | o co pc o
, o v co pc o , o c
o . v v uv | o co pc o , o c
o . | c| o c e , c
e , , c v e o o o , u o o o . v v uv |
e o o o , u o o o . , c| o c e ,
c e , , c v e o o o , u o o o . e c o
o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u o o o . ,
c| c e , o c e , , c v e o
o o , u o o o . , c| o c e ,
c e , , c v e o o o , u o o o . e c o
o o , u o o o | e v o o o , u o o o
| o o o | o o o . e , v p v i | , .
, o | o o o c o o o . c| v
vp| v i | , , , , o v o o c
o o o . e c o o o , u o o o | o v] o o
c o o o o c i.
60
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 12
K
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
There exist two numbers in mean proportion to two (given) cube numbers.
140
And (one) cube
(number) has to the (other) cube (number) a cubed
141
ratio with respect to (that) the side (of
the former has) to the side (of the latter).
Let A and B be cube numbers, and let C be the side of A, and D (the side) of B. I say that there
exist two numbers in mean proportion to A and B, and that A has to B a cubed ratio with respect
to (that) C (has) to D.
For let C make E (by) multiplying itself, and let it make F (by) multiplying D. And let D make
G (by) multiplying itself, and let C, D make H, K, respectively, (by) multiplying F.
And since A is cube, and C (is) its side, and C has made E (by) multiplying itself, C has thus made
E (by) multiplying itself, and has made A (by) multiplying E. And so, for the same (reasons), D
has made G (by) multiplying itself, and has made B (by) multiplying G. And since C has made
E, F (by) multiplying C, D, respectively, thus as C is to D, so E (is) to F [Prop. 7.17]. And so,
for the same (reasons), as C (is) to D, so F (is) to G [Prop. 7.18]. Again, since C has made A, H
(by) multiplying E, F, respectively, thus as E is to F, so A (is) to H [Prop. 7.17]. And as E (is)
to F, so C (is) to D. And thus as C (is) to D, so A (is) to H. Again, since C, D have made H, K,
respectively, (by) multiplying F, thus as C is to D, so H (is) to K [Prop. 7.18]. Again, since D
has made K, B (by) multiplying F, G, respectively, thus as F is to G, so K (is) to B [Prop. 7.17].
And as F (is) to G, so C (is) to D. And thus as C (is) to D, so A (is) to H, and H to K, and K to
B. Thus, H and K are two (numbers) in mean proportion to A and B.
So I say that A also has to B a cubed ratio with respect to (that) C (has) to D. For since A, H,
K, B are four (continuously) proportional numbers, A thus has to B a cubed ratio with respect
to (that) A (has) to H [Def. 5.10]. And as A (is) to H, so C (is) to D. And [thus] A has to B a
cubed ratio with respect to (that) C (has) to D. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
140
In other words, between two given cube numbers there exist two numbers in continued proportion.
141
Literally, triple.
6l

v e ou vp| c v, | c co
, | p c ue v c | cv | c v p -
e , | u| v c | v| | v u
p].
ou vp| c v, | , , , e o o o , u o o
o , | | , , c pc , , , c , ,
, , , o : , , | | , , c
v i.
pc v o o , c c e , o -
c e , . | o pc o o
, c c e , o c e , .
p i c ip, o | , , | | , , , c i v c ;
u o o ;, | c | , , | | , , , c i v c ; u
o o ;. c e o o o , u o o o | | , , v
i , , c ; u; ; i| | c | , , , i , , , . c : o
pc e , , ; e , , , o c e , , , ; e , , ,
: v c| e pc o o o , u o o o , e c o o o ,
u o o o o c i.
62
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 13
P
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
K
L
O
M
N
Q
If there are any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, and each makes
some (number by) multiplying itself, then the (numbers) created from them will (also) be (con-
tinuously) proportional. And if the original (numbers) make some (more numbers by) multiply-
ing the created (numbers) then these will also be (continuously) proportional [and this always
happens with the extremes].
Let A, B, C be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, (such that) as
A (is) to B, so B (is) to C. And let A, B, C make D, E, F (by) multiplying themselves, and let
them make G, H, K (by) multiplying D, E, F. I say that D, E, F and G, H, K are continuously
proportional.
For let A make L (by) multiplying B. And let A, B make M, N, respectively, (by) multiplying
L. And, again, let B make O (by) multiplying C. And let B, C make P, Q, respectively, (by)
multplying O.
So, similarly to the above, we can show that D, L, E and G, M, N, H are continuously pro-
portional in the ratio of A to B, and, further, (that) E, O, F and H, P, Q, K are continuously
proportional in the ratio of B to C. And as A is to B, so B (is) to C. And thus D, L, E are in
the same ratio as E, O, F, and, further, G, M, N, H (are in the same ratio) as H, P, Q, K. And
the multitude of D, L, E is equal to the multitude of E, O, F, and that of G, M, N, H to that of
H, P, Q, K. Thus, via equality, as D is to E, so E (is) to F, and as G (is) to H, so H (is) to K
[Prop. 7.14]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6`

v p, | v v p | cv v
v p, | o o p.
vp| | , , | c ue c | , , o c o
p , o | o o pi.
v o o | , , v c v i c ; u
o o ;. | c| | , , c v i, | pi o o , pi v
| o o . c e o o o , u o o o pi v | o o .
o o p , o | o o pi.
e v ue op p, o | , , c v i c ;
u o o ;. | c c e o o o , u o o o , pi c
o o , pi v | o o . i | , , c v pi v | o
o .
v v p, | v v p | cv v
v p, | o o p o c i.
64
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 14
D
A
B
E
C
If a square (number) measures a(nother) square (number) then the side (of the former) will also
measure the side (of the latter). And if the side (of a square number) measures the side (of
another square number) then the (former) square (number) will also measure the (latter) square
(number).
Let A and B be square numbers, and let C and D be their sides (respectively). And let A measure
B. I say that C also measures D.
For let C make E (by) multiplying D. Thus, A, E, B are continuously proportional in the ratio
of C to D [Prop. 8.11]. And since A, E, B are continuously proportional, and A measures B, A
thus also measures E [Prop. 8.7]. And as A is to E, so C (is) to D. Thus, C also measures D
[Def. 7.20].
So, again, let C measure D. I say that A also measures B.
For similarly, by the same construction, we can show that A, E, B are continuously proportional
in the ratio of C to D. And since as C is to D, so A (is) to E, and C measures D, A thus also
measures E [Def. 7.20]. And A, E, B are continuously proportional. Thus, A also measures B.
Thus, if a square (number) measures a(nother) square (number) then the side (of the former)
will also measure the side (of the latter). And if the side (of a square number) measures the side
(of another square number) then the (former) square (number) will also measure the (latter)
square (number). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6

v vpo vpo p, | v v p | cv
v v p, | o o p.
v vpo o o p, | u pc v c o , u c o
, o o o pi.
v co o , o c co o ,
| c o o o ], c c e , o
c e , . o , o | , , | | , , , c v i
c ; u o o ;. | c| | , , , c v i, | pi o o
, pi v | o . c e o o o , u o o o pi v |
o o .
v p o o , o | o o p.
e v ue op p, o | , , , c v i
c ; u o o ;. | c| o o pi, c e o o o , u
o o o , | o v o pi e | o pi o o c i.
66
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 15
D
A
B
E
G
F
H
K
C
If a cube number measures a(nother) cube number then the side (of the former) will also measure
the side (of the latter). And if the side (of a cube number) measures the side (of another cube
number) then the (former) cube (number) will also measure the (latter) cube (number).
For let the cube number A measure the cube (number) B, and let C be the side of A, and D (the
side) of B. I say that C measures D.
For let C make E (by) multiplying itself. And let D make G (by) multiplying itself. And, further,
[let] C [make] F (by) multiplying D, and let C, D make H, K, respectively, (by) multiplying
F. So it is clear that E, F, G and A, H, K, B are continuously proportional in the ratio of C
to D [Prop. 8.12]. And since A, H, K, B are continuously proportional, and A measures B, (A)
thus also measures H [Prop. 8.7]. And as A is to H, so C (is) to D. Thus, C also measures D
[Def. 7.20].
And so let C measure D. I say that A will also measure B.
For similarly, by the same construction, we can show that A, H, K, B are continuously propor-
tional in the ratio of C to D. And since C measures D, and as C is to D, so A (is) to H, A thus also
measures H [Def. 7.20]. Hence, A also measures B. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
6

v vpo vpo p p, uc v v p
i v v p p, uc o o p.
v vp| | , , | c ue c | , , | p p o
o c, o uc o o pi.
i v pi o o , p | o o . u pi c o o uc v o o
p.
p ] o o , o uc o o p.
i v pi o o , p | o o . u pi c o o u v o o
p o c i.
68
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 16
.
A
B
C
D
If a square number does not measure a(nother) square number then the side (of the former) will
not measure the side (of the latter) either. And if the side (of a square number) does not measure
the side (of another square number) then the (former) square (number) will not measure the
(latter) square (number) either.
Let A and B be square numbers, and let C and D be their sides (respectively). And let A not
measure B. I say that C does not measure D either.
For if C measures D then A will also measure B [Prop. 8.14]. And A does not measure B. Thus,
C will not measure D either.
[So], again, let C not measure D. I say that A will not measure B either.
For if A measures B then C will also measure D [Prop. 8.14]. And C does not measure D. Thus,
A will not measure B either. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
69

v vpo vpo p p, uc v v p i
v v p p, uc o o p.
v vpo o vpo o p p, | u pc v c o ,
u c o , o o o u p.
i v pi o o , | o o p. u pi c o o u v o o
pi.
v p p o o , o uc o o p.
i v o o pi, | o o p. u pi c o o u v o o
p o c i.
0
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 17
.
A
B
C
D
If a cube number does not measure a(nother) cube number then the side (of the former) will not
measure the side (of the latter) either. And if the side (of a cube number) does not measure the
side (of another cube number) then the (former) cube (number) will not measure the (latter)
cube (number) either.
For let the cube number A not measure the cube number B. And let C be the side of A, and D
(the side) of B. I say that C will not measure D.
For if C measures D then A will also measure B [Prop. 8.15]. And A does not measure B. Thus,
C does not measure D either.
And so let C not measure D. I say that A will not measure B either.
For if A measures B then C will also measure D [Prop. 8.15]. And C does not measure D. Thus,
A will not measure B either. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
l

op c vpe | p v c vp | o c o o
c c op v o op .
op c vp| | , , | u pc | c | ,
vp, u c | , . | c| op c i | v c v ,
c v e o o o , u o o o . u, o e , | p
v c vp, | o o o c o o o o
o o , op v o op ].
| c c e o o o , u o o o , cv v c| e o o
o , o o o . | c| c c o , | c uu | , , o v
o o . v v uv | o o
o . o o o . | c| o o pc
o , o c o , c v e o
o o , u o o o . v e o o o , u] o o o |
e v o o o , u o o o . , c| o o pc
o , o c o , c v e o o o ,
u o o o . c c | e o o o , u o o o | e v
o o o , u o o o . | , , v c v i. e , v
| p v c vp.
, o | o o o c op v o
op , o o o o o o . c| v | , ,
c v i, o o o c o o . c e
o o o , u o o o | o o o . | o v o o
c o o o o o o o c i.
2
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 18
E
A
C
G
D
B
F
There exists one number in mean proportion to two similar plane numbers. And (one) plane
(number) has to the (other) plane (number) a squared ratio with respect to (that) a corresponding
side (of the former has) to a corresponding side (of the latter).
Let A and B be two similar plane numbers. And let the numbers C, D be the sides of A, and E, F
(the sides) of B. And since similar numbers are those having proportional sides [Def. 7.21], thus
as C is to D, so E (is) to F. Therefore, I say that there exists one number in mean proportion to
A and B, and that A has to B a squared ratio with respect to that C (has) to E, or D to Fthat
is to say, with respect to (that) a corresponding side (has) to a corresponding [side].
For since as C is to D, so E (is) to F, thus, alternately, as C is to E, so D (is) to F [Prop. 7.13].
And since A is plane, and C, D its sides, D has thus made A (by) multiplying C. And so, for the
same (reasons), E has made B (by) multiplying F. So let D make G (by) multiplying E. And
since D has made A (by) multiplying C, and has made G (by) multiplying E, thus as C is to E,
so A (is) to G [Prop. 7.17]. But as C (is) to E, [so] D (is) to F. And thus as D (is) to F, so A
(is) to G. Again, since E has made G (by) multiplying D, and has made B (by) multiplying F,
thus as D is to F, so G (is) to B [Prop. 7.17]. And it was also shown that as D (is) to F, so A (is)
to G. And thus as A (is) to G, so G (is) to B. Thus, A, G, B are continously proportional. Thus,
there exists one number (namely, G) in mean proportion to A and B.
So I say that A also has to B a squared ratio with respect to (that) a corresponding side (has) to
a corresponding sidethat is to say, with respect to (that) C (has) to E, or D to F. For since A,
G, B are continuously proportional, A has to B a squared ratio with respect to (that A has) to G
[Prop. 5.9]. And as A is to G, so C (is) to E, and D to F. And thus A has to B a squared ratio
with respect to (that) C (has) to E, or D to F. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
`

op e vpe p v cp vp | o o o
o op o c op v o op
.
op | | , , | u pc | c | , , , u c |
, , . | c| op i | v c v , c v e pc o
o o , u o o o , e c o o o , u o o o . ,
o e , p v cp vp, | o o o
c o o o | o o o | c o o o .
v o o , o c o o .
| c| | , | , c ; u; ; i, | c pc e , c o , c c e ,
o , | , v] op c i vp e , v | p v c
vp. c o . o v c| o c e , , e c ; o p c.
| c| o o pc o , o c o
, c v e o o o , u o o o . v e o o o ,
o o o . | , , v c i v c ; u o o ;. |
c c e o o o , u o o o , cv v c| e o o o ,
u o o o . v v uv | e o o o , u o o o . | ,
, v c i v c ; u o o ; | ; u o o |
c ; u o o . c e , o c e ,
. | c| c o , | c uu i | , , , o v o c e ,
o . o c c e , c o o v o
o . v v uv | o o o . | c| o
4
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 19
O
A
B
K
M
L
D
E
F
G
H
C
N
Two numbers fall (between) two similar solid numbers in mean proportion. And a solid (number)
has to a similar solid (number) a cubed
142
ratio with respect to (that) a corresponding side (has)
to a corresponding side.
Let A and B be two similar solid numbers, and let C, D, E be the sides of A, and F, G, H (the
sides) of B. And since similar solid (numbers) are those having proportional sides [Def. 7.21],
thus as C is to D, so F (is) to G, and as D (is) to E, so G (is) to H. I say that two numbers
fall (between) A and B in mean proportion, and (that) A has to B a cubed ratio with respect to
(that) C (has) to F, and D to G, and, further, E to H.
For let C make K (by) multiplying D, and let F make L (by) multiplying G. And since C, D are
in the same ratio as F, G, and K is the (number created) from (multiplying) C, D, and L the
(number created) from (multiplying) F, G, [thus] K and L are similar plane numbers [Def. 7.21].
Thus, there exits one number in mean proportion to K and L [Prop. 8.18]. Let it be M. Thus,
M is the (number created) from (multiplying) D, F, as shown in the theorem before this (one).
And since D has made K (by) multiplying C, and has made M (by) multiplying F, thus as C is
to F, so K (is) to M [Prop. 7.17]. But, as K (is) to M, (so) M (is) to L. Thus, K, M, L are
continuously proportional in the ratio of C to F. And since as C is to D, so F (is) to G, thus,
alternately, as C is to F, so D (is) to G [Prop. 7.13]. And so, for the same (reasons), as D (is)
to G, so E (is) to H. Thus, K, M, L are continuously proportional in the ratio of C to F, and of
D to G, and, further, of E to H. So let E, H make N, O, respectively, (by) multiplying M. And
since A is solid, and C, D, E are its sides, E has thus made A (by) multiplying the (number cre-
142
Literally, triple.
o o , vv p | o o
, c v e o o o , u o o o . e c o o o ,
u o o o | o o o | c o o o | e v o o
o | o o o | o o o , u o o o . , c| c
e , o c e , , c v e o o o
, u o o o . v e o o o , u o o o | o o
o | e v o o o | o o o | o o o , u o
o o | o o o . , c| o o o ,
vv p | o o , c v e o o o , u o
o o . v e o o o , u o o o | o o o | o
o o . | e v o o o | o o o | o o o , u
u p o o o , vv | o o o | o o o . | , , , v
c i v c i ip e e .
, o | o o o c op v o
op , o vpo o o o o o | c o
o o . c| v vp| c v i | , , , , o v o
o c o o o . v e o o o , u c
o o o | o o o | c o o o . | o v o o
c p v o op ,
o vpo o o | o o o | c o o o o c i.
6
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 19
-ated) from (multiplying) C, D. And K is the (number created) from (multiplying) C, D. Thus, E
has made A (by) multiplying K. And so, for the same (reasons), H has made B (by) multiplying
L. And since E has made A (by) multiplying K, but has, in fact, also made N (by) multiplying
M, thus as K is to M, so A (is) to N [Prop. 7.17]. And as K (is) to M, so C (is) to F, and D to
G, and, further, E to H. And thus as C (is) to F, and D to G, and E to H, so A (is) to N. Again,
since E, H have made N, O, respectively, (by) multiplying M, thus as E is to H, so N (is) to O
[Prop. 7.18]. But, as E (is) to H, so C (is) to F, and D to G. And thus as C (is) to F, and D to
G, and E to H, so (is) A to N, and N to O. Again, since H has made O (by) multiplying M, but
has, in fact, also made B (by) multiplying L, thus as M (is) to L, so O (is) to B [Prop. 7.17]. But,
as M (is) to L, so C (is) to F, and D to G, and E to H. And thus as C (is) to F, and D to G, and
E to H, so not only (is) O to B, but also A to N, and N to O. Thus, A, N, O, B are continuously
proportional in the aforementioned ratios of the sides.
So I say that A also has to B a cubed ratio with respect to (that) a corresponding side (has) to
a corresponding sidethat is to say, with respect to (that) the number C (has) to F, or D to G,
and, further, E to H. For since A, N, O, B are four continuously proportional numbers, A thus
has to B a cubed ratio with respect to (that) A (has) to N [Def. 5.10]. But, as A (is) to N, so it
was shown (is) C to F, and D to G, and, further, E to H. And thus A has to B a cubed ratio with
respect to (that) a corresponding side (has) to a corresponding sidethat is to say, with respect
to (that) the number C (has) to F, and D to G, and, further, E to H. (Which is) the very thing it
v vpe | p v cp vp, op c c | vp.

v vpe e , | p v cp vpo o , o | ,
op c i vp.
i v] c vp| e o uo c i , | , i
v o o pi | o o . o o o pi, u p c
c ; o v o o . e o c c, | c
uu | , . , c| | , c i e o uo c i , , i
c ; . o v o pi v v c ; p o v o o
. o v c c, | c uu i | , . | , v c i
vp. , o | op. c| v o o pc o ,
o c o , c v e o o o , u o o o
, o o o . , c| o c e , ,
, c v e o o o , u o o o . e c o o o , u
o o o | e v o o o , u o o o | cv e o
o o , u o o o . | , v op c vp i | v |
ue v i o c i.
8
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 20
G
A
C
B
D
F
E
If one number falls between two numbers in mean proportion then the numbers will be similar
plane (numbers).
For let one number C fall between the two numbers A and B in mean proportion. I say that A
and B are similar plane numbers.
[For] let the least numbers, D and E, having the same ratio as A and C have been taken
[Prop. 7.33]. Thus, D measures A as many times as E (measures) C [Prop. 7.20]. So as many
times as D measures A, so many units let there be in F. Thus, F has made A (by) multiplying
D [Def. 7.15]. Hence, A is plane, and D, F (are) its sides. Again, since D and E are the least
of those (numbers) having the same ratio as C and B, D thus measures C as many times as E
(measures) B [Prop. 7.20]. So as many times as E measures B, so many units let there be in
G. Thus, E measures B according to the units in G. Thus, G has made B (by) multiplying E
[Def. 7.15]. Thus, B is plane, and E, G are its sides. Thus, A and B are (both) plane numbers.
So I say that (they are) also similar. For since F has made A (by) multiplying D, and has made
C (by) multiplying E, thus as D is to E, so A (is) to Cthat is to say, C to B [Prop. 7.17].
143
Again, since E has made C, B (by) multiplying F, G, respectively, thus as F is to G, so C (is) to
B [Prop. 7.17]. And as C (is) to B, so D (is) to E. And thus as D (is) to E, so F (is) to G. And,
alternately, as D (is) to F, so E (is) to G [Prop. 7.13]. Thus, A and B are similar plane numbers.
For their sides are proportional [Def. 7.21]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
143
This part of the proof is defective, since it is not demonstrated that F E = C. Furthermore, it is not necessary
to show that D : E :: A : C, because this is true by hypothesis.
9

v vpe p v cp vp, op i | vp.

v vpe e , p v cp vp| | , , o |
, op i.
i v c vp| e o uo c i , , i | , ,
| v v ue | , e o v i. | c| e , | p
v cp vpo o , | , v vp| op c i. c u
u pc | | , , u c | , . o v c| c u o , o |
, , c i v c ; u o o ; | ; u o o . |
c| | , , c i e o uo c i , , , c : o
e , , ; e , , , : v c| e o o o , u o
o o . | c , e, | c e | c, | c c pu
o uo c ui i o p o p | o c o c,
o p o p | o cp o cp i v o o
pi | o o . o o o pi, u p c c ; . o
v o o . o c c o c e , o v o c e
, o . o v c| o , | c uu i | ,
, . , c| | , , c i e o uo c i , , , i
c ; . o v o pi v v c ; p o v o
o . o c c o c e , o v o c e , o
. o v c| o , | c uu i | , , | , v
i.
], o | op. c| v | , o , ,
80
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 21
H A
C
D
B
E
F
G
L
M
O
N
K
If two numbers fall between two numbers in mean proportion then the (latter) are similar solid
(numbers).
For let the two numbers C and D fall between the two numbers A and B in mean proportion. I
say that A and B are similar solid (numbers).
Let the three least numbers E, F, Ghaving the same ratio as A, C, D have been taken [Prop. 8.2].
Thus, the outermost of them, E and G, are prime to one another [Prop. 8.3]. And since one
number, F, has fallen (between) E and G in mean proportion, E and G are thus similar plane
numbers [Prop. 8.20]. Therefore, let H, K be the sides of E, and L, M (the sides) of G. Thus, it
is clear from the (proposition) before this (one) that E, F, G are continuously proportional in the
ratio of H to L, and of K to M. And since E, F, G are the least (numbers) having the same ratio
as A, C, D, and the multitude of E, F, G is equal to the multitude of A, C, D, thus, via equality,
as E is to G, so A (is) to D [Prop. 7.14]. And E and G (are) prime (to one another), and prime
(numbers) are also the least (of those numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21], and
the least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio as them an equal number of
times, the greater (measuring) the greater, and the lesser the lesserthat is to say, the leading
(measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, E measures A the
same number of times as G (measures) D. So as many times as E measures A, so many units let
there be in N. Thus, N has made A(by) multiplying E [Def. 7.15]. And E is the (number created)
from (multiplying) H and K. Thus, N has made A (by) multiplying the (number created) from
(multiplying) H and K. Thus, A is solid, and its sides are H, K, N. Again, since E, F, G are the
least (numbers) having the same ratio as C, D, B, thus E measures C the same number of times
as G (measures) B [Prop. 7.20]. So as many times as E measures C, so many units let there be in
O. Thus, G measures B according to the units in O. Thus, O has made B (by) multiplying G. And
G is the (number created) from (multiplying) L and M. Thus, O has made B (by) multiplying the
8l

c v e o o o , o o o , o o o . v e o o
o , o o o | o o o | e v o o o , u o o
o | o o o . i | pc , , | u , | c , , |
u . | , v vp| op i o c i.
82
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 21
(number created) from (multiplying) L and M. Thus, B is solid, and its sides are L, M, O. Thus,
A and B are (both) solid.
[So] I say that (they are) also similar. For since N, O have made A, C (by) multiplying E, thus as
N is to O, so A (is) to Cthat is to say, E to F [Prop. 7.18]. But, as E (is) to F, so H (is) to L,
and K to M. And thus as H (is) to L, so K (is) to M, and N to O. And H, K, N are the sides of
A, and L, M, O
144
the sides of B. Thus, A and B are similar solid numbers [Def. 7.21]. (Which
144
The Greek text has O, L, M, which is obviously a mistake.
8`

v i vp| c v e, o c e , | o
c.
i vp| c v | , , , o c e o c ,
o | o o c.
| v e , | p v c vpo o , | , v op c i.
c o v | o o c i.
84
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 22
C
A
B
If three numbers are continuously proportional, and the rst is square, then the third will also be
square.
Let A, B, C be three continuously proportional numbers, and let the rst A be square. I say that
the third C is also square.
For since one number, B, is in mean proportion to A and C, A and C are thus similar plane
(numbers) [Prop. 8.20]. And A is square. Thus, C is also square [Def. 7.21]. (Which is) the very
8

v vp| c v e, o c e , | o c.
vp| c v | , , , , o c c , o | o
c.
| v e , p v i vp| | , , | , v op i |
vp. c o v | o o c i.
86
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 23
. A
B
C
D
If four numbers are continuously proportional, and the rst is cube, then the fourth will also be
cube.
Let A, B, C, D be four continuously proportional numbers, and let A be cube. I say that D is also
cube.
For since two numbers, B and C, are in mean proportion to A and D, A and D are thus similar
solid numbers [Prop. 8.21]. And A (is) cube. Thus, D (is) also cube [Def. 7.21]. (Which is) the
8

v vp| o v c, o vpo o
vp, o c e , | o c.
v vp| | , o v c, o vpo o o
vpo o , o c c , o | o c.
| v | , i, | , v op c i. e , v | p
v cp vp. c e o o o , o o o | e ,
v | p v cp vp. c o | o v
c o c i.
88
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 24
D
A
B
C
If two numbers have to one another the ratio which a square number (has) to a(nother) square
number, and the rst is square, then the second will also be square.
For let two numbers, A and B, have to one another the ratio which the square number C (has)
to the square number D. And let A be square. I say that B is also square.
For since C and D are square, C and D are thus similar plane (numbers). Thus, one number falls
(between) C and D in mean proportion [Prop. 8.18]. And as C is to D, (so) A (is) to B. Thus,
one number also falls (between) A and B in mean proportion [Prop. 8.8]. And A is square. Thus,
B is also square [Prop. 8.22]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
89

v vp| o v c, o vpo o vp, o c

e , | o c.
v vp| | , o v c, o vpo o o
vpo o , c c o ], o | o c.
| v | , i, | , op i e , v p v
cp vp. o c i , p v o c v cp,
u | i o uo c ui e | e , p v
cp vp. cp | , . c| u vp| | , , , c
v i, c o , v | o o c i.
90
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 25
D
A
E
F
B
C
If two numbers have to one another the ratio which a cube number (has) to a(nother) cube
number, and the rst is cube, then the second will also be cube.
For let two numbers, A and B, have to one another the ratio which the cube number C (has) to
the cube number D. And let A be cube. [So] I say that B is also cube.
For since C and D are cube (numbers), C and D are (thus) similar solid (numbers). Thus, two
numbers fall (between) C and D in mean proportion [Prop. 8.19]. And as many (numbers) as fall
in between C and D in continued proportion, so many also (fall) in (between) those (numbers)
having the same ratio as them (in continued proportion) [Prop. 8.8]. And hence two numbers fall
(between) A and B in mean proportion. Let E and F (so) fall. Therefore, since the four numbers
A, E, F, B are continuously proportional, and A is cube, B (is) thus also cube [Prop. 8.23].
9l

| op c vp| o v c, o vpo o
vp.
op c vp| | , , o o o o c, o
vpo o vp.
| v | , op c i, e , v | p v cp vp.
cp | c o , | i c vp| e o uo c i
, , | , , | v v ue | , i. | c c e o o
o , u o o o , i | , , o v o o c,
o vpo o vp o c i.
92
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 26
F
A
C
B
D
E
Similar plane numbers have to one another the ratio which (some) square number (has) to
a(nother) square number.
Let A and B be similar plane numbers. I say that A has to B the ratio which (some) square
number (has) to a(nother) square number.
For since A and B are similar plane numbers, one number thus falls (between) A and B in mean
proportion [Prop. 8.18]. Let it (so) fall, and let it be C. And let the least numbers, D, E, F,
having the same ratio as A, C, B have been taken [Prop. 8.2]. The outermost of them, D and F,
are thus square [Prop. 8.2 corr.]. And since as D is to F, so A (is) to B, and D and F are square,
A thus has to B the ratio which (some) square number (has) to a(nother) square number. (Which
9`

| op | vp| o v c, o vpo o
vp.
op | vp| | , , o o o o c, o
vpo o vp.
| v | , op i, e , v p v cp vp.
cp | , , | i c vp| e o uo c i ,
, , : ui o | , , , | v v ue | , i.
c e o o o , u o o o | o v o o c, o
vpo o vp o c i.
94
ELEMENTS BOOK 8
Proposition 27
H
A
C
D
B
E
F
G
Similar solid numbers have to one another the ratio which (some) cube number (has) to a(nother)
cube number.
Let A and B be similar solid numbers. I say that A has to B the ratio which (some) cube number
(has) to a(nother) cube number.
For since A and B are similar solid (numbers), two numbers thus fall (between) A and B in
mean proportion [Prop. 8.19]. Let C and D have (so) fallen. And let the least numbers, E, F,
G, H, having the same ratio as A, C, D, B, (and) equal in multitude to them, have been taken
[Prop. 8.2]. Thus, the outermost of them, E and H, are cube [Prop. 8.2 corr.]. And as E is to H,
so A (is) to B. And thus A has to B the ratio which (some) cube number (has) to a(nother) cube
number. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
9

ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Applications of number theory
145
145

v op c vp| v e , o p
c.
op c vp| | , , | o o o
, o o c.
v co o . o v c. c| u o
co pc o , o c o ,
c v e o o o , u o o o . | c| | , op c i
vp, e , v | p v cp vp. cv c vpe p v
o c v cp vp, o i u cp, u | i
o uo c e | e , | p v cp vp. c
o v | o o c i.
98
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 1
D
A
B
C
If two similar plane numbers make some (number by) multiplying one another then the created
(number) will be square.
Let A and B be two similar plane numbers, and let A make C (by) multiplying B. I say that C is
square.
For let A make D (by) multiplying itself. D is thus square. Therefore, since A has made D
(by) multiplying itself, and has made C (by) multiplying B, thus as A is to B, so D (is) to C
[Prop. 7.17]. And since A and B are similar plane numbers, one number thus falls (between)
A and B in mean proportion [Prop. 8.18]. And if (some) numbers fall between two numbers
in continued proportion, then as many (numbers) as fall in (between) them (in continued pro-
portion), so many also (fall) in (between numbers) having the same ratio (as them in continued
proportion) [Prop. 8.8]. And hence one number falls (between) D and C in mean proportion.
And D is square. Thus, C (is) also square [Prop. 8.22]. (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
99

v vp| v e , op c i
vp.
vp| | , , | o o o
, o | , op c i vp.
v co o o v c. | c| o
co pc o , o c o , c
v e o o o , o o o . | c| o c, vv | o , |
, v op c i. e , v | p v cp. c e o
o o , u o o o | e , v | p v cp. cv c
vpe | p v cp, op c i |] vp | v , op
i c o c i.
600
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 2
D
A
B
C
If two numbers make a square (number by) multiplying one another then they are similar plane
numbers.
Let A and B be two numbers, and let A make the square (number) C (by) multiplying B. I say
that A and B are similar plane numbers.
For let A make D (by) multiplying itself. Thus, D is square. And since A has made D (by) multi-
plying itself, and has made C (by) multiplying B, thus as A is to B, so D (is) to C [Prop. 7.17].
And since D is square, and also C, D and C are thus similar plane numbers. Thus, one (number)
falls (between) D and C in mean proportion [Prop. 8.18]. And as D is to C, so A (is) to B.
Thus, one (number) also falls (between) A and B in mean proportion [Prop. 8.8]. And if one
(number) falls (between) two numbers in mean proportion then [the] numbers are similar plane
(numbers) [Prop. 8.20]. Thus, A and B are similar plane (numbers). (Which is) the very thing it
60l

v vpo co , o p c.
v vpo o co o , o o c.
i v u v o , | o co o . o
c, o o o o . | c| o co
o , o v o pi v v c u; p. vv p | pv
o pi v v c u; p c v e pv o o , o o o .
, c| o o o , o v o pi v v c
; p. pi c | pv o v v c u; p c v e pv
o o , o o o . v e pv o o , o o o | e v
pv o o , u o o o | o o o . v p | u
vpu p v v o c cp vp| | , . , c| o
co o , o v o pi v v c u; p
pi c | pv o v v c u; p c v e pv o o , o
o o . c p | u p v cp vp | e
, v p v cpu vp. cv c vpe p v
cp, o c e , | o c. c o | o
v c o c i.
602
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 3
D
A
B
C
If a cube number makes some (number by) multiplying itself then the created (number) will be
cube.
For let the cube number A make B (by) multiplying itself. I say that B is cube.
For let the side C of A have been taken. And let C make D by multiplying itself. So it is clear
that C has made A (by) multiplying D. And since C has made D (by) multiplying itself, C thus
measures D according to the units in it [Def. 7.15]. But, in fact, a unit also measures C according
to the units in it [Def. 7.20]. Thus, as a unit is to C, so C (is) to D. Again, since C has made A
(by) multiplying D, D thus measures A according to the units in C. And a unit also measures C
according to the units in it. Thus, as a unit is to C, so D (is) to A. But, as a unit (is) to C, so C
(is) to D. And thus as a unit (is) to C, so C (is) to D, and D to A. Thus, two numbers, C and
D, have fallen (between) a unit and the number A in successive mean proportion. Again, since
A has made B (by) multiplying itself, A thus measures B according to the units in it. And a unit
also measures A according to the units in it. Thus, as a unit is to A, so A (is) to B. And two
numbers have fallen (between) a unit and A in mean proportion. Thus two numbers will also fall
(between) A and B in mean proportion [Prop. 8.8]. And if two (numbers) fall (between) two
numbers in mean proportion, and the rst (number) is cube, then the second will also be cube
[Prop. 8.23]. And A is cube. Thus, B is also cube. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
60`

v vpo vpo , o p c.
v vpo o vpo o o , o o
c.
v co o o v c. | c| o co
pc o , o c o , c v
e o o o , u o o o . | c| | , i, op i
| , . e , v p v cp vp e | e , p
v cpu vp. c o v | o o c i.
604
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 4
D
A
B
C
If a cube number makes some (number by) multiplying a(nother) cube number then the created
(number) will be cube.
For let the cube number A make C (by) multiplying the cube number B. I say that C is cube.
For let A make D (by) multiplying itself. Thus, D is cube [Prop. 9.3]. And since A has made
D (by) multiplying itself, and has made C (by) multiplying B, thus as A is to B, so D (is) to
C [Prop. 7.17]. And since A and B are cube, A and B are similar solid (numbers). Thus, two
numbers fall (between) A and B in mean proportion [Prop. 8.19]. Hence, two numbers will also
fall (between) D and C in mean proportion [Prop. 8.8]. And D is cube. Thus, C (is) also cube
60

v vpo vp , | o |
c.
v vp o vp o o , o
o c.
v co o v c o . | c| o co pc
o , o c o , c v e o
o o , o o o . | c| | , i, op i. e ,
v p v cp vp. c e o o o , u o o
o | e , v p v cp vp. c o
v c| | o o c i.
606
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 5
C
A
B
D
If a cube number makes a(nother) cube number (by) multiplying some (number) then the (num-
ber) multiplied will also be cube.
For let the cube number A make the cube (number) C (by) multiplying some number B. I say
that B is cube.
For let A make D (by) multiplying itself. D is thus cube [Prop. 9.3]. And since A has made D
(by) multiplying itself, and has made C (by) multiplying B, thus as A is to B, so D (is) to C
[Prop. 7.17]. And since D and C are (both) cube, they are similar solid (numbers). Thus, two
numbers fall (between) D and C in mean proportion [Prop. 8.19]. And as D is to C, so A (is)
to B. Thus, two numbers also fall (between) A and B in mean proportion [Prop. 8.8]. And A is
cube. Thus, B is also cube [Prop. 8.23]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
60

v vpo co , | uo c.
po v o co o , o | o c.
v o o . c| u o co pc o
, o c o , o v c. | c| o
co o , o v o pi v v c u; p.
pi c | pv o v v c u; p. c v e pv o o ,
u o o o . | c| o o o , o v o
pi v v c ; p. p| c | pv o v v c u; p.
c v e pv o o , u o o o . v e pv o o , u
o o o | e v o o o , o o o . | c| | , i,
op i. e , v p v i vp. c e o o
o , o o o . | e , v p v i vp. c
o v c| | o o c |.
608
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 6
C
A
B
If a number makes a cube (number by) multiplying itself then it itself will also be cube.
For let the number A make the cube (number) B (by) multiplying itself. I say that A is also cube.
For let A make C (by) multiplying B. Therefore, since A has made B (by) multiplying itself, and
has made C (by) multiplying B, C is thus cube. And since A has made B (by) multiplying itself,
A thus measures B according to the units in (A). And a unit also measures A according to the
units in it. Thus, as a unit is to A, so A (is) to B. And since A has made C (by) multiplying B, B
thus measures C according to the units in A. And a unit also measures A according to the units
in it. Thus, as a unit is to A, so B (is) to C. But, as a unit (is) to A, so A (is) to B. And thus
as A (is) to B, (so) B (is) to C. And since B and C are cube, they are similar solid (numbers).
Thus, there exist two numbers in mean proportion (between) B and C [Prop. 8.19]. And as B is
to C, (so) A (is) to B. Thus, there also exist two numbers in mean proportion (between) A and
B [Prop. 8.8]. And B is cube. Thus, A is also cube [Prop. 8.23]. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
609

v vpo vp , o p o c.
v vpo o vp o o , o o
c.
| v o c, uo vpu p. p uo u , |
o o o pi, u p c c ; . c| u o o pi v
v c ; p, o v o o . | c| o o
o , o c c o c e , , o v c e , o
o . o v c, | c uu i | , ,
o c i.
6l0
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 7
E
A
B
C
D
If a composite number makes some (number by) multiplying some (other) number then the
created (number) will be solid.
For let the composite number A make C (by) multiplying some number B. I say that C is solid.
For since A is a composite (number), it will be measured by some number. Let it be measured
by D, and as many times as D measures A, so many units let there be in E. Therefore, since D
measures A according to the units in E, E has thus made A (by) multiplying D [Def. 7.15]. And
since A has made C (by) multiplying B, and A is the (number created) from (multiplying) D, E,
the (number created) from (multiplying) D, E has thus made C (by) multiplying B. Thus, C is
solid, and its sides are D, E, B. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6ll

v vo p ou vp| c v e, o pc vo p
c | | c , o c | | ,
o c cp vp | | | .
vo p ou vp| c v | , , , , , , o o pc
vo p o c | | c , o c o
| | , o c cp o vp | | |
.
| c e pv o o , u o o o , i v pv o
vpo pi | o o . c pv o vpo pi v v c u; p
| o v o pi v v c ; p. o v co o
v c| o . | c| | , , c v i, o c
c, | o v c. v v uv | o c.
op p, o | | c i. , o | o
vo p o c| | | . c| c e
pv o o , u o o o , i v pv o vpo pi |
o o . c pv o vpo pi v v c ; p | o v o
pi v v c ; p o v o o . c| u
o co pc o , o c o ,
v c| o . | c| | , , , c v i, o c c|, | o
v c. c c | o v cp vo p
c | . op p, o | | i |
o c i.
6l2
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 8
F
A
B
C
D
E
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers is continuously proportional, (starting) from a unit, then
the third from the unit will be square, and (all) those (numbers after that) which leave an interval
of one (number), and the fourth (will be) cube, and all those (numbers after that) which leave
an interval of two (numbers), and the seventh (will be) both cube and square, and (all) those
(numbers after that) which leave an interval of ve (numbers).
Let any multitude whatsoever of numbers, A, B, C, D, E, F, be continuously proportional,
(starting) from a unit. I say that the third from the unit, B, is square, and all those (numbers
after that) which leave an interval of one (number). And the fourth (from the unit), C, (is) cube,
and all those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of two (numbers). And the seventh
(from the unit), F, (is) both cube and square, and all those (numbers after that) which leave an
interval of ve (numbers).
For since as the unit is to A, so A (is) to B, the unit thus measures the number A the same
number of times as A (measures) B [Def. 7.20]. And the unit measures the number A according
to the units in it. Thus, A also measures B according to the units in A. A has thus made B (by)
multiplying itself [Def. 7.15]. Thus, B is square. And since B, C, D are continuously proportional,
and B is square, D is thus also square [Prop. 8.22]. So, for the same (reasons), F is also square.
So, similarly, we can also show that all those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of one
(number) are square. So I also say that the fourth (number) from the unit, C, is cube, and all
those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of two (numbers). For since as the unit is
to A, so B (is) to C, the unit thus measures the number A the same number of times that B
(measures) C. And the unit measures the number A according to the units in A. And thus B
measures C according to the units in A. A has thus made C (by) multiplying B. Therefore, since
A has made B (by) multiplying itself, and has made C (by) multiplying B, C is thus cube. And
since C, D, E, F are continuously proportional, and C is cube, F is thus also cube [Prop. 8.23].
And it was also shown (to be) square. Thus, the seventh (number) from the unit is (both) cube
and square. So, similarly, we can show that all those (numbers after that) which leave an interval
of ve (numbers) are (both) cube and square. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6l`

v vo p ou c v o c vp| v e, o c pv
p , | | | c. | cv o pv p
, | | | c.
vo p c v ou vp| | , , , , , , o c pv
p o c , o | | | c.
pc u o vo p o c | | c ,
], o | | | i. c| v | , , c
v i, c o , | o v] c. , c| |] |
, , c v i, c o , | o v] c. op
p, o | | | i.
v c o , o | | | i.
pc u o vo p o c| | | ,
], o | | | i. c| c e pv o o
, u o o o , i v pv o pi | o o . c pv o
pi v v c u; p | o v o pi v v c u; p o
v co o . c o . cv c vpo
co , o p c | o v c. | c|
vp| | , , , c v i, c o , | o v
c. v v uv | o c, | op | | i o c
i.
6l4
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 9
F
A
B
C
D
E
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers is continuously proportional, (starting) from a unit, and
the (one) after the unit is square, then all the remaining (numbers) will also be square. And if
the (one) after the unit is cube, then all the remaining (numbers) will also be cube.
(starting) from a unit. And let the (one) after the unit, A, be square. I say that all the remaining
(numbers) will also be square.
In fact, it has (already) been shown that the third (number) from the unit, B, is square, and all
those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of one (number) [Prop. 9.8]. [So] I say that all
the remaining (numbers) are also square. For since A, B, C are continuously proportional, and
A (is) square, C is [thus] also square [Prop. 8.22]. Again, since B, C, D are [also] continuously
proportional, and B is square, D is [thus] also square [Prop. 8.22]. So, similarly, we can show
that all the remaining (numbers) are also square.
And so let A be cube. I say that all the remaining (numbers) are also cube.
In fact, it has (already) been shown that the fourth (number) from the unit, C, is cube, and
all those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of two (numbers) [Prop. 9.8]. [So] I say
that all the remaining (numbers) are also cube. For since as the unit is to A, so A (is) to B,
the unit thus measures A the same number of times as A (measures) B. And the unit measures
A according to the units in it. Thus, A also measures B according to the units in (A). A has
thus made B (by) multiplying itself. And A is cube. And if a cube number makes some (number
by) multiplying itself then the created (number) is cube [Prop. 9.3]. Thus, B is also cube. And
since the four numbers A, B, C, D are continuously proportional, and A is cube, D is thus also
cube [Prop. 8.23]. So, for the same (reasons), E is also cube, and, similarly, all the remaining
(numbers) are cube. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6l

v vo p ou vp| c] v e, o c pv p p
, u v u| c | u vo p | e
c . | cv o pv p p , uc v u|
c | u vo p | e .
vo p c v ou vp| | , , , , , , o pv
p o p c , o uc v u| c | u
vo p | e c ].
i v , c o . c c | o | , v o v
c, o vpo o vp. c e o o o
, o o o | , v o v c, o vpo o
vp e | , op c i. c o
v c| | o o u u. u v o c. op p, o
u v u| c | u vo p | e c .
v p c o . , o u v u| c | u
vo p | e .
i v , c o . c c | o c vo p.
c e o o o , o o o | o v o o c, o
o . c o | o v c. | c c e pv o
o , o o o , c pv o pi v v c u; p, | o v o
pi v v c u; p o v co o .
cv c vpo co , | uo c. v | o
o u u. u v o c. op p, o u v u|
c| | u vo p | e o c i.
6l6
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 10
F
A
B
C
D
E
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers is [continuously] proportional, (starting) from a unit,
and the (one) after the unit is not square, then no other (number) will be square either, apart
from the third from the unit, and all those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of one
(number). And if the (number) after the unit is not cube, then no other (number) will be cube
either, apart from the fourth from the unit, and all those (numbers after that) which leave an
interval of two (numbers).
(starting) from a unit. And let the (number) after the unit, A, not be square. I say that no other
(number) will be square either, apart from the third from the unit [and (all) those (numbers after
that) which leave an interval of one (number)].
For, if possible, let C be square. And B is also square [Prop. 9.8]. Thus, B and C have to one
another (the) ratio which (some) square number (has) to (some other) square number. And
as B is to C, (so) A (is) to B. Thus, A and B have to one another (the) ratio which (some)
square number has to (some other) square number. Hence, A and B are similar plane (numbers)
[Prop. 8.26]. And B is square. Thus, A is also square. The very opposite thing was assumed.
C is thus not square. So, similarly, we can show that no other (number is) square either, apart
from the third from the unit, and (all) those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of one
(number).
And so let A not be cube. I say that no other (number) will be cube either, apart from the fourth
from the unit, and (all) those (numbers after that) which leave an interval of two (numbers).
For, if possible, let D be cube. And C is also cube [Prop. 9.8]. For it is the fourth (number) from
the unit. And as C is to D, (so) B (is) to C. And B thus has to C the ratio which (some) cube
(number has) to (some other) cube (number). And C is cube. Thus, B is also cube [Props. 7.13,
8.25]. And since as the unit is to A, (so) A (is) to B, and the unit measures A according to the
units in it, A thus also measures B according to the units in (A). Thus, A has made the cube
6l

6l8
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 10
(number) B (by) multiplying itself. And if a number makes a cube (number by) multiplying
itself then it itself will be cube [Prop. 9.6]. Thus, A (is) also cube. The very opposite thing was
assumed. Thus, D is not cube. So, similarly, we can show that no other (number) is cube either,
apart from the fourth from the unit, and (all) those (numbers after that) which leave an interval
of two (numbers). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6l9

v vo p ou vp| c v e, o c o p pi
e u c i v vpi.
vo p ou vp| c v | , , , , o e
, , , o c o o pi e , .
| c e pv o o , u o o o , i v pv o
vpo pi | o o cv v i pv o pi | o o .
c pv o pi v v c u; p | o v o pi v v c ;
p e o c o o p o pi vpo e u
c i v vpi.
p
| , o c o pe vo p, u c | o o pi vo
u pp c| o o uu. o c i.
620
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 11
E
A
B
C
D
a lesser (number) measures a greater according to some existing (number) among the propor-
tional numbers.
Let any multitude whatsoever of numbers, B, C, D, E, be continuously proportional, (starting)
from the unit A. I say that, for B, C, D, E, the least (number), B, measures E according to some
(one) of C, D.
For since as the unit A is to B, so D (is) to E, the unit A thus measures the number B the same
number of times as D (measures) E. Thus, alternately, the unit A measures D the same number
of times as B (measures) E [Prop. 7.15]. And the unit A measures D according to the units in
it. Thus, B also measures E according to the units in D. Hence, the lesser (number) B measures
the greater E according to some existing number among the proportional numbers (namely, D).
Corollary
And (it is) clear that what(ever relative) place the measuring (number) has from the unit, the
(number) according to which it measures has the same (relative) place from the measured (num-
ber), in (the direction of the number) before it. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
62l

v vo p ou vp| c v e, u o i o c
vpe p, uo e ue | o v p p.
vo p ou vp| v | , , , , o u o
i o vpe p, uo e ue | o p.
v o u vpu u , o o o pi. p
c o e, v c e vpo o v, o p pi, e c |
, v e o v i. | c| o o pi, p uo v o
o v o o . , c| o o pi v v
c ; p, o v o o . vv p | o o
o o v c e , : c| ; c e , . c v
e o o o , o o o . | c , e, | c e | c, | c
c pu o uo c i o p o p | o
cp o cp pi v o o . p uo v o o v o
o . vv p v o o | o o
o . o v c e , : c| ; c e , . c v e o o o
, o o o . | c , e, | c e | c, | c c vp|
pu o uo c ui i o p o p | o
cp o cp pi v o o . p uo v o o v o
o . vv p | o co o
o v c e , : c| ; vo u . c v e o o o , o o o .
| c , e, | c e | c, | c c pu o uo
c i o p o p | o cp o cp pi v o o
e p p. vv p | u pi o v. u v | , e
o v i. v. | c uo ] vpu pu. |
c| o e u, o c e uo c vpu u pi u cu, o
v , pi e o o pi. pi c | o o v , pi.
op p, o u o i o vpe p, uo e ue | o
p o c i.
622
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 12
C
A
B
D
E
F
G
H
however many prime numbers the last (number) is measured by, the (number) next to the unit
will also be measured by the same (prime numbers).
Let any multitude whatsoever of numbers, A, B, C, D, be (continuously) proportional, (starting)
from a unit. I say that however many prime numbers D is measured by, A will also be measured
by the same (prime numbers).
For let D be measured by some prime number E. I say that E measures A. For (suppose it does)
not. E is prime, and every prime number is prime to every number which it does not measure
[Prop. 7.29]. Thus, E and A are prime to one another. And since E measures D, let it measure it
according to F. Thus, E has made D (by) multiplying F. Again, since A measures D according
to the units in C [Prop. 9.11 corr.], A has thus made D (by) multiplying C. But, in fact, E has
also made D (by) multiplying F. Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) A, C is equal to
the (number created) from (multiplying) E, F. Thus, as A is to E, (so) F (is) to C [Prop. 7.19].
And A and E (are) prime (to one another), and (numbers) prime (to one another are) also the
least (of those numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21], and the least (numbers)
measure those (numbers) having the same ratio as them an equal number of times, the leading
(measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, E measures C.
Let it measure it according to G. Thus, E has made C (by) multiplying G. But, in fact, via the
(proposition) before this, A has also made C (by) multiplying B [Prop. 9.11 corr.]. Thus, the
(number created) from (multiplying) A, B is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying)
E, G. Thus, as A is to E, (so) G (is) to B [Prop. 7.19]. And A and E (are) prime (to one another),
and (numbers) prime (to one another are) also the least (of those numbers having the same ratio
as them) [Prop. 7.21], and the least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio
as them an equal number of times, the leading (measuring) the leading, and the following the
following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, E measures B. Let it measure it according to H. Thus, E has made
B (by) multiplying H. But, in fact, A has also made B (by) multiplying itself [Prop. 9.8]. Thus,
the (number created) from (multiplying) E, H is equal to the (square) on A. Thus, as E is to A,
(so) A (is) to H [Prop. 7.19]. And A and E are prime (to one another), and (numbers) prime (to
one another are) also the least (of those numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21],
and the least (numbers) measure those (numbers) having the same ratio as them an equal num-
62`

624
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 12
-ber of times, the leading (measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20].
Thus, E measures A, as the leading (measuring the) leading. But, in fact, (E) also does not
measure (A). The very thing (is) impossible. Thus, E and A are not prime to one another.
Thus, (they are) composite (to one another). And (numbers) composite (to one another) are
(both) measured by some [prime] number [Def. 7.14]. And since E is assumed (to be) prime,
and a prime (number) is not measured by another number (other) than itself [Def. 7.11], E thus
measures (both) A and E. Hence, E measures A. And it also measures D. Thus, E measures
(both) A and D. So, similarly, we can show that however many prime numbers D is measured by,
A will also be measured by the same (prime numbers). (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
62

v vo p ou vp| c v e, o c pv p e , o
p u uo v] p c e u c i v vpi.
vo p ou vp| c v | , , , , o c pv p
o e c , o o p ue o u uo v p c e
, , .
i v , p uo u , | o p| e , , c o u. o
, o o e u c. i v o e c | pi o , | o p
e o p e u; o u o c| v. u v o e c.
v. i c vpo uo o vpu pi. o v uo
o vpu pi. , o u uo v p u . i
v u c pi o , o c o pi, vi v o p e |
o p e o p e u; o u o c| v. o v o pi.
| c| o o pi, p uo v o . , o o u| e , , c
o u. i v o c| e , , c o uo | pi o v o , | | v
e , , o pi o . vv | e , , o pi e , ,
| o v c| e , , c o u o u u. u v o c| e ,
, c o u. op p, o pi o uo u , , o
o u c e. i v, | pi o , | o p e o p e u;
o u o c| v u v e c o v. v c
vpo uo o vpu pi o v uo o vpu pi.
, o u c u p u . i v c e o
pi, o c o pi, vi v o p e | o p e
o p e u; o u o c| v. o v o pi. | c| o o
pi v o , o v o o . vv p | o o
o o v c e , : c| ; c e , . v
v c| e o o o , u o o o . o c o pi | o v o
pi. p uo v o . op p, o o u| e , c o
u, | o pi uo u . | c| o o pi v o , o v o
o . vv p | o o o
o v c e , : c| ; c e , . v v e o o o , o o o
. pi c o o pi v | o o . p uo v o . op
626
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 13
E A
B
C
D H
G
F
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers is continuously proportional, (starting) from a unit, and
the (number) after the unit is prime, then the greatest (number) will be measured by no [other]
(numbers) except (numbers) existing among the proportional numbers.
Let any multitude whatsoever of numbers, A, B, C, D, be continuously proportional, (starting)
from a unit. And let the (number) after the unit, A, be prime. I say that the greatest of them, D,
will be measured by no other (numbers) except A, B, C.
For, if possible, let it be measured by E, and let E not be the same as one of A, B, C. So it
is clear that E is not prime. For if E is prime, and measures D, then it will also measure A,
(despite A) being prime (and) not being the same as it [Prop. 9.12]. The very thing is impossible.
Thus, E is not prime. Thus, (it is) composite. And every composite number is measured by
some prime number [Prop. 7.31]. Thus, E is measured by some prime number. So I say that
it will be measured by no other prime number than A. For if E is measured by another (prime
number), and E measures D, then this (prime number) will thus also measure D. Hence, it will
also measure A, (despite A) being prime (and) not being the same as it [Prop. 9.12]. The very
thing is impossible. Thus, A measures E. And since E measures D, let it measure it according to
F. I say that F is not the same as one of A, B, C. For if F is the same as one of A, B, C, and
measures D according to E, then one of A, B, C thus also measures D according to E. But one
of A, B, C (only) measures D according to some (one) of A, B, C [Prop. 9.11]. And thus E is
the same as one of A, B, C. The very opposite thing was assumed. Thus, F is not the same as
one of A, B, C. Similarly, we can show that F is measured by A, (by) again showing that F is
not prime. For if (F is prime), and measures D, then it will also measure A, (despite A) being
prime (and) not being the same as it [Prop. 9.12]. The very thing is impossible. Thus, F is not
prime. Thus, (it is) composite. And every composite number is measured by some prime number
[Prop. 7.31]. Thus, F is measured by some prime number. So I say that it will be measured by
no other prime number than A. For if some other prime (number) measures F, and F measures
D, then this (prime number) will thus also measure D. Hence, it will also measure A, (despite
A) being prime (and) not being the same as it [Prop. 9.12]. The very thing is impossible. Thus,
A measures F. And since E measures D according to F, E has thus made D (by) multiplying F.
But, in fact, A has also made D (by) multiplying C [Prop. 9.11 corr.]. Thus, the (number created)
from (multiplying) A, C is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) E, F. Thus, propor-
62

p, o o ; u c o u. | c| o o pi v o , o v
o o . vv p | o co o
o v uo , : c| ; vo u ; c v e o o o ,
o o o . pi c o o pi v | o o e o p e u; o
u o v. u v o p o uo c vpu p c e ,
, o c i.
628
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 13
-tionally as A is to E, so F (is) to C [Prop. 7.19]. And A measures E. Thus, F also measures C.
Let it measure it according to G. So, similarly, we can show that G is not the same as one of A, B,
and that it is measured by A. And since F measures C according to G, F has thus made C (by)
multiplying G. But, in fact, A has also made C (by) multiplying B [Prop. 9.11 corr.]. Thus, the
(number created) from (multiplying) A, B is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying)
F, G. Thus, proportionally, as A (is) to F, so G (is) to B [Prop. 7.19]. And A measures F. Thus,
G also measures B. Let it measure it according to H. So, similarly, we can show that H is not the
same as A. And since G measures B according to H, G has thus made B (by) multiplying H. But,
in fact, A has also made B (by) multiplying itself [Prop. 9.8]. Thus, the (number created) from
(multiplying) H, G is equal to the square on A. Thus, as H is to A, (so) A (is) to G [Prop. 7.19].
And A measures G. Thus, H also measures A, (despite A) being prime (and) not being the same
as it. The very thing (is) absurd. Thus, the greatest (number) D cannot be measured by another
(number) except (one of) A, B, C. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
629

v c vpo uo vpe p, u uo v vpu

p c e c v p.
v vpo o uo vpe e , , p , o o u
uo v vpu p c e , , .
i v , p uo u , | o p| e , , c o u.
| c| o o pi, p uo v o o v o
o . | pi o uo vpe e , , . cv c vp|
v e , o c p c ue p e vp,
| c e c v p | , , v c e , p. o pc u
u p o v e c | u| e , , o u. o v
pu c o u o v. o v u c uo e , ,
pp. u v o p e vpo c e , , o c i.
6`0
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 14
D
A
E
F
B
C
If a least number is measured by (some) prime numbers then it will not be measured by any other
prime number except (one of) the original measuring (numbers).
For let A be the least number measured by the prime numbers B, C, D. I say that A will not be
measured by any other prime number except (one of) B, C, D.
For, if possible, let it be measured by the prime (number) E. And let E not be the same as one
of B, C, D. And since E measures A, let it measure it according to F. Thus, E has made A
(by) multiplying F. And A is measured by the prime numbers B, C, D. And if two numbers
make some (number by) multiplying one another, and some prime number measures the number
created from them, then (the prime number) will also measure one of the original (numbers)
[Prop. 7.30]. Thus, B, C, D will measure one of E, F. In fact, they do not measure E. For E is
prime, and not the same as one of B, C, D. Thus, they (all) measure F, which is less than A. The
very thing (is) impossible. For A was assumed (to be) the least (number) measured by B, C, D.
Thus, no prime number can measure A except (one of) B, C, D. (Which is) the very thing it was
required to show.
6`l

v i vp| c v e c e o uo c ui,
ou o o o e i.
i vp| c v c e o uo c ui | , ,
, o e , , ou o o o e i, | pc ,
o o , | c , o o | c | , o o .
i v c vp| e o uo c i , , | , .
o , o o pc co o , o c
o , | c o co o . | c| | ,
c i, e o v i. cv c vp| e o v e,
| p o c e c | o v o c e ,
e c. vv p | o o o e c | , v o o
e i. cv c vp| vpo e e, | o c ue p
o o o e c e o c e , o o e c e |
o c e , o o vo u e c. cv v vp| e o
v e, o c u co ue p o o o e c]. v o c e
, o vo u c pv u c e , o v vo u pv u c e ,
o o vo u e c. c o pc vo u o , o c c e ,
o , o c vo u o | , v o o e i. op
p, o | | , o o e i. , o | | , o o e
i. c| v o o c e , e c, | o vo u o o
c e , e c. vv ; vo u : i| | vo e , pv u
| c e , | | vo e , v pv u | uo e , o o uo
e , e i]. | vo e , pv u v uo , o o
uo , e i. c | vo e , v o o uo , e
i. c o pc vo u o , o c uo e , o , o c vo u o . |
, v o o e i o c i.
6`2
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 15
E
A
B
C
F D
If three continuously proportional numbers are the least of those (numbers) having the same ratio
as them, then two (of them) added together in any way are prime to the remaining (one).
Let A, B, C be three continuously proportional numbers (which are) the least of those (numbers)
having the same ratio as them. I say that two of A, B, C added together in any way are prime to
the remaining (one), (that is) A and B (prime) to C, B and C to A, and, further, A and C to B.
Let the two least numbers, DE and EF, having the same ratio as A, B, C, have been taken
[Prop. 8.2]. So it is clear that DE has made A (by) multiplying itself, and has made B (by)
multiplying EF, and, further, EF has made C (by) multiplying itself [Prop. 8.2]. And since
DE, EF are the least (of those numbers having the same ratio as them), they are prime to one
another [Prop. 7.22]. And if two numbers are prime to one another then the sum (of them) is also
prime to each [Prop. 7.28]. Thus, DF is also prime to each of DE, EF. But, in fact, DE is also
prime to EF. Thus, DF, DE are (both) prime to EF. And if two numbers are (both) prime to
some number then the (number) created from (multiplying) them is also prime to the remaining
(number) [Prop. 7.24]. Hence, the (number created) from (multiplying) FD, DE is prime to
EF. Hence, the (number created) from (multiplying) FD, DE is also prime to the (square) on
EF [Prop. 7.25]. [For if two numbers are prime to one another then the (number) created from
(squaring) one of them is prime to the remaining (number).] But the (number created) from
(multiplying) FD, DE is the (square) on DE plus the (number created) from (multiplying) DE,
EF [Prop. 2.3]. Thus, the (square) on DE plus the (number created) from (multiplying) DE,
EF is prime to the (square) on EF. And the (square) on DE is A, and the (number created)
from (multiplying) DE, EF (is) B, and the (square) on EF (is) C. Thus, A, B summed is prime
to C. So, similarly, we can show that B, C (summed) is also prime to A. So I say that A, C
(summed) is also prime to B. For since DF is prime to each of DE, EF then the (square) on
DF is also prime to the (number created) from (multiplying) DE, EF [Prop. 7.25]. But, the
(sum of the squares) on DE, EF plus twice the (number created) from (multiplying) DE, EF
is equal to the (square) on DF [Prop. 2.4]. And thus the (sum of the squares) on DE, EF plus
twice the (rectangle contained) by DE, EF [is] prime to the (rectangle contained) by DE, EF.
By separation, the (sum of the squares) on DE, EF plus once the (rectangle contained) by DE,
EF is prime to the (rectangle contained) by DE, EF.
146
Again, by separation, the (sum of the
squares) on DE, EF is prime to the (rectangle contained) by DE, EF. And the (square) on DE
146
Since if measures
2
+
2
+ 2 then it also measures
2
+
2
+, and vice versa.
6``

6`4
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 15
is A, and the (rectangle contained) by DE, EF (is) B, and the (square) on EF (is) C. Thus, A,
C summed is prime to B. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6`

v vp| e o v e, u c e o e o o ,
u o o v .
v vp| | , e o v c , o u c e o o
o , u o o v .
i v , c e o o o , o o o . | c , e, | c e
| c, | c c vp| pu o uo c i o
p o p | o cp o cp pi v o o e p
p. pi c | c o v , pi o o v
o v. u v c e o o o , u o o o o c i.
6`6
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 16
C
A
B
If two numbers are prime to one another then as the rst is to the second, so the second (will)
not (be) to some other (number).
For let the two numbers A and B be prime to one another. I say that as A is to B, so B is not to
some other (number).
For, if possible, let it be that as A (is) to B, (so) B (is) to C. And A and B (are) prime (to one
another). And (numbers) prime (to one another are) also the least (of those numbers having
the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21]. And the least numbers measure those (numbers) having
the same ratio (as them) an equal number of times, the leading (measuring) the leading, and
the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, A measures B, as the leading (measuring) the
leading. And (A) also measures itself. Thus, A measures A and B, which are prime to one
another. The very thing (is) absurd. Thus, as A (is) to B, so B cannot be to C. (Which is) the
6`

v e ou vp| c v, | c v ue e o v
e, u c e o e o o , u o c o v .
ou vp| c v | , , , , | c v ue | ,
e o v c , o u c e o o o , u o o v
.
i v , c e o o o , u o o o . cv v c| e o
o o , o o o . | c , e, | c e | c, | c c
vp| pu o uo c i o p o p | o
cp o cp. pi v o o . c e o o o , o o o .
| o v o pi e | o o pi. | c c e o o o , o
o o , pi c o o , pi v | o o . v o o cp e
o | o pi. pi c | c. o v , pi o o
v o c| v. u v c e o o o , u o o v
o c |.
6`8
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 17
E
A
B
C
D
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers is continuously proportional, and the outermost of them
are prime to one another, then as the rst (is) to the second, so the last will not be to some other
(number).
Let A, B, C, D be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers. And let the
outermost of them, A and D, be prime to one another. I say that as A is to B, so D (is) not to
some other (number).
For, if possible, let it be that as A (is) to B, so D (is) to E. Thus, alternately, as A is to D, (so) B
(is) to E [Prop. 7.13]. And A and D are prime (to one another). And (numbers) prime (to one
another are) also the least (of those numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21]. And
the least numbers measure those (numbers) having the same ratio (as them) an equal number of
times, the leading (measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, A
measures B. And as A is to B, (so) B (is) to C. Thus, B also measures C. And hence A measures
C [Def. 7.20]. And since as B is to C, (so) C (is) to D, and B measures C, C thus also measures
D [Def. 7.20]. But, A was measuring C. And hence A measures D. And (A) also measures itself.
Thus, A measures A and D, which are prime to one another. The very thing is impossible. Thus,
as A (is) to B, so D cannot be to some other (number). (Which is) the very thing it was required
to show.
6`9

vpe c, i c ui v i.
| vp| | , , | c c, i c
ui v i.
| , e o v i| u. | i e o v i, ,
o v c ui v i.
v p c | , e o v, | o c o
. o o pi u pi. p v o o v o
o . v p | o co o
o v c e , : c| ; vo u . c v e o o o , o o o
i , v vpo v o .
v p p o o , o i , v c v i
vp. i v , o . o v c e , : c| ; vo u . o
c vo u c o o v c e , : c| ; . e o o
o o v o pi v o . v p u | p pe o
v. u v c i , v i vpo, o o o
p p o c i.
640
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 18
D
A
B
C
For two given numbers, to investigate whether it is possible to nd a third (number) proportional
to them.
Let A and B be the two given numbers. And let it be required to investigate whether it is possible
to nd a third (number) proportional to them.
So A and B are either prime to one another or not. And if they are prime to one another it
has (already) been show that it is impossible to nd a third (number) proportional to them
[Prop. 9.16].
And so let A and B not be prime to one another. And let B make C (by) multiplying itself. So A
either measures or does not measure C. Let it rst of all measure (C) according to D. Thus, A
has made C (by) multiplying D. But, in fact, B has also made C (by) multiplying itself. Thus, the
(number created) from (multiplying) A, D is equal to the (square) on B. Thus, as A is to B, (so)
B (is) to D [Prop. 7.19]. Thus, a third number has been found proportional to A, B, (namely) D.
And so let A not measure C. I say that it is impossible to nd a third number proportional to
A, B. For, if possible, let it have been found, (and let it be) D. Thus, the (number created)
from (multiplying) A, D is equal to the (square) on B [Prop. 7.19]. And the (square) on B is C.
Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) A, D is equal to C. Hence, A has made C (by)
multiplying D. Thus, A measures C according to D. But (A) was, in fact, also assumed (to be)
not measuring (C). The very thing (is) absurd. Thus, it is not possible to nd a third number
proportional to A, B when A does not measure C. (Which is) the very thing it was required to
show.
64l

e vpe c, c ui v -
i.
| i vp| | , , , | c ,
c ui v i.
u u i c v, | | v ue e o v i, c
i v, | | v ue u i e o v, u c i v,
u | v ue e o v i, | c i v, | | v ue
e o v i.
i pc u | , , c i v, | | v ue | , e o v
i, , o v c ui v i vp. p c
| , , c v e ve o o v. , o |
u v c ui v i. i v , o
, e | e o o o , o o o , | e o o o , o
o o . | c c e pc o o o , o o o , e c o o o ,
o o o , : v e o o o , o o o . | c , e, | c
e | c, | c c pu o uo c o p
o p | o cp o cp. pi v o o e p p.
pi c | c o v , pi o o v o c|
v. u v i , , c v i.
c | , , c v, | c , p c e o
v. , o c ui v i. o v o
o o v o pi u pi. p uo
v o o v o o . vv p | o o
o o v c e , : c| ; c e , . v v
c|] e o o o , o o o | , , v v
o .
642
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 19
147
C
A
B
D
E
For three given numbers, to investigate when it is possible to nd a fourth (number) proportional
to them.
Let A, B, C be the three given numbers. And let it be required to investigate when it is possible
to nd a fourth (number) proportional to them.
In fact, (A, B, C) are either not continuously proportional and the outermost of them are prime
to one another, or are continuously proportional and the outermost of them are not prime to one
another, or are neither continuously proportional nor are the outermost of them prime to one
another, or are continuously proportional and the outermost of them are prime to one another.
In fact, if A, B, C are continuously proportional, and the outermost of them, A and C, are prime
to one another, (then) it has (already) been shown that it is impossible to nd a fourth number
proportional to them [Prop. 9.17]. So let A, B, C not be continuously proportional, (with) the
outermost of them again being prime to one another. I say that, in this case, it is also impossible
to nd a fourth (number) proportional to them. For, if possible, let it have been found, (and let it
be) D. Hence, it will be that as A (is) to B, (so) C (is) to D. And let it be contrived that as B (is)
to C, (so) D (is) to E. And since as A is to B, (so) C (is) to D, and as B (is) to C, (so) D (is) to E,
thus, via equality, as A (is) to C, (so) C (is) to E [Prop. 7.14]. And A and C (are) prime (to one
another). And (numbers) prime (to one another are) also the least (numbers having the same
ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21]. And the least (numbers) measure those numbers having the same
ratio as them (the same number of times), the leading (measuring) the leading, and the following
the following [Prop. 7.20]. Thus, A measures C, (as) the leading (measuring) the leading. And it
also measures itself. Thus, A measures A and C, which are prime to one another. The very thing
is impossible. Thus, it is not possible to nd a fourth (number) proportional to A, B, C.
147
The proof of this proposition is incorrect. There are, in fact, only two cases. Either A, B, C are continuously
proportional, with A and C prime to one another, or not. In the rst case, it is impossible to nd a fourth proportional
number. In the second case, it is possible to nd a fourth proportional number provided that A measures B times
C. Of the four cases considered by Euclid, the proof given in the second case is incorrect, since it only demonstrates
that if A : B :: C : D then a number E cannot be found such that B : C :: D : E. The proofs given in the other three
cases are correct.
64`

v p p o o , o v c i , , v
i vp. i v , o o v c e , : c| ;
c e , . vv o c e , c o | o c e , v : c| ; . o
v o o o v o pi v o e pi
o o . vv | u pi o v. u v c i , ,
v i vp, o o o p p. vv | , , p c
c v p | v e o v. | o o o
. op , o i pc pi o o , c ui v
i, i c u pi, v o c i.
644
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 19
And so let A, B, C again be continuously proportional, and let A and C not be prime to one
another. I say that it is possible to nd a fourth (number) proportional to them. For let B
make D (by) multiplying C. Thus, A either measures or does not measure D. Let it, rst of all,
measure (D) according to E. Thus, A has made D (by) multiplying E. But, in fact, B has also
made D (by) multiplying C. Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) A, E is equal to the
(number created) from (multiplying) B, C. Thus, proportionally, as A [is] to B, (so) C (is) to E
[Prop. 7.19]. Thus, a fourth (number) proportional to A, B, C has been found, (namely) E.
And so let A not measure D. I say that it is impossible to nd a fourth number proportional to A,
B, C. For, if possible, let it have been found, (and let it be) E. Thus, the (number created) from
(multiplying) A, E is equal to the (number created) from (multiplying) B, C. But, the (number
created) from (multiplying) B, C is D. And thus the (number created) from (multiplying) A, E
is equal to D. Thus, A has made D (by) multiplying E. Thus, A measures D according to E.
Hence, A measures D. But, it also does not measure (D). The very thing (is) absurd. Thus, it
is not possible to nd a fourth number proportional to A, B, C when A does not measure D.
And so (let) A, B, C (be) neither continuously proportional, nor (let) the outermost of them
(be) prime to one another. And let B make D (by) multiplying C. So, similarly, it can be show
that if A measures D then it is possible to nd a fourth (number) proportional to (A, B, C), and
impossible if (A) does not measure (D). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
64

| e vp| i| o u vpe.
| e vp| | , , , o e , , i| e
vp.
i v o uo e , , c pp | c , | ;
pv . o e c u. c e up v i|
e vp| | , , , e , , .
v p c o e uo v o vpu pi. p uo
u , o o u| e , , c o u. i v , c. | c
, , o pu | o v o p. pi c | o |
p p o vpo e o v. u v o c| e , , c
o u. | u e. up v i| e vp| u
e , , | , , , o c i.
646
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 20
F E
A
B
C
G
D
The (set of all) prime numbers is more numerous than any assigned multitude of prime numbers.
Let A, B, C be the assigned prime numbers. I say that the (set of all) primes numbers is more
numerous than A, B, C.
For let the least number measured by A, B, C have been taken, and let it be DE [Prop. 7.36].
And let the unit DF have been added to DE. So EF is either prime or not. Let it, rst of all, be
prime. Thus, the (set of) prime numbers A, B, C, EF, (which is) more numerous than A, B, C,
has been found.
And so let EF not be prime. Thus, it is measured by some prime number [Prop. 7.31]. Let it
be measured by the prime (number) G. I say that G is not the same as any of A, B, C. For, if
possible, let it be (the same). And A, B, C (all) measure DE. Thus, G will also measure DE. And
it also measures EF. (So) G will also measure the remainder, unit DF, (despite) being a number
[Prop. 7.28]. The very thing (is) absurd. Thus, G is not the same as one of A, B, C. And it was
assumed (to be) prime. Thus, the (set of) prime numbers A, B, C, G, (which is) more numerous
than the assigned multitude (of prime numbers), A, B, C, has been found. (Which is) the very
64

v v vp| ou e, o o v c.
v v vp| ou | , , , , o o o v
c.
| v c e , , , v c, c p p e | o o
c p p. v c vp c o p v v c| o o
c i.
648
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 21
C D E A B
If any multitude whatsoever of even numbers is added together then the whole is even.
For let any multitude whatsoever of even numbers, AB, BC, CD, DE, lie together. I say that the
whole, AE, is even.
For since everyone of AB, BC, CD, DE is even, it has a half part [Def. 7.6]. And hence the whole
AE has a half part. And an even number is one (which can be) divided in two [Def. 7.6]. Thus,
AE is even. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
649

v | vp| ou e, o c ue v , o o v
c.
v | vp| ou v o | , , ,
, o o o v c.
| v c e , , , c, v p v c
c e e v c e | o p c ue v c. c c | o
e p v. | o v o v c o c i.
60
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 22
C D E A B
If any multitude whatsoever of odd numbers is added together, and the multitude of them is even,
then the whole will be even.
For let any even multitude whatsoever of odd numbers, AB, BC, CD, DE, lie together. I say that
the whole, AE, is even.
For since everyone of AB, BC, CD, DE is odd then, a unit being subtracted from each, ev-
eryone of the remainders will be (made) even [Def. 7.7]. And hence the sum of them will be
even [Prop. 9.21]. And the multitude of the units is even. Thus, the whole AE is also even
6l

v | vp| ou e, o c ue o , | o o
o c.
v ou | vp, e o o c, | , ,
, o | o o c.
vo u pv o v o v c. c c | o v
| o v o v c. c pv . o v c| o o c
i.
62
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 23
E A B C D
If any multitude whatsoever of odd numbers is added together, and the multitude of them is odd,
then the whole will also be odd.
For let any multitude whatsoever of odd numbers, AB, BC, CD, lie together, and let the multi-
tude of them be odd. I say that the whole, AD, is also odd.
For let the unit DE have been subtracted from CD. The remainder CE is thus even [Def. 7.7].
And CA is also even [Prop. 9.22]. Thus, the whole AE is also even [Prop. 9.21]. And DE is a
unit. Thus, AD is odd [Def. 7.7]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6`

v vo v vpu v v, o o v c.
o v v u v v o , o o o o v c.
| v o v c, c p p. v v uv | o c p p
e | o o c p p] v v] c| o o c i.
64
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 24
A C B
If an even (number) is subtracted from an(other) even number then the remainder will be even.
For let the even (number) BC have been subtracted from the even number AB. I say that the
remainder CA is even.
For since AB is even, it has a half part [Def. 7.6]. So, for the same (reasons), BC also has a half
part. And hence the remainder [CA has a half part]. [Thus,] AC is even. (Which is) the very
6

v vo v vpu o v, o o o c.
o v v u o v o , o o o o c.
v vo u pv o v v c. c c | o v |
o v o v c. c pv o c o c i.
66
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 25
B A C D
If an odd (number) is subtracted from an even number then the remainder will be odd.
For let the odd (number) BC have been subtracted from the even number AB. I say that the
remainder CA is odd.
For let the unit CD have been subtracted from BC. DB is thus even [Def. 7.7]. And AB is also
even. And thus the remainder AD is even [Prop. 9.24]. And CD is a unit. Thus, CA is odd
[Def. 7.7]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
6

v vo u vpu o v, o o v c.
o v u u o v o , o o o o v c.
| v o c, v pv o v o v c. v v
uv | o v c e | o o v c o c i.
68
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 26
C A D B
If an odd (number) is subtracted from an odd number then the remainder will be even.
For let the odd (number) BC have been subtracted from the odd (number) AB. I say that the
remainder CA is even.
For since AB is odd, let the unit BD have been subtracted (from it). Thus, the remainder AD
is even [Def. 7.7]. So, for the same (reasons), CD is also even. And hence the remainder CA is
even [Prop. 9.24]. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
69

v vo u vpu v v, o o o c.
o v u u v v o , o o o o c.
v] pv o v v c. c c | o v | o
v o v c. o v o o c i.
660
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 27
C A D B
If an even (number) is subtracted from an odd number then the remainder will be odd.
For let the even (number) BC have been subtracted from the odd (number) AB. I say that the
remainder CA is odd.
[For] let the unit AD have been subtracted (fromAB). DB is thus even [Def. 7.7]. And BC is also
even. Thus, the remainder CD is also even [Prop. 9.24]. CA (is) thus odd [Def. 7.7]. (Which is)
66l

v o vpo v , o p v c.
o v vpo o v o o , o o v
c.
| v o o o , o v c :
; , o i| c ; p. c o v o v c v. cv c
v vp| ou e, o o v c. v v c| o o c
i.
662
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 28
C
A
B
If an odd number makes some (number by) multiplying an even (number) then the created
(number) will be even.
For let the odd number A make C (by) multiplying the even (number) B. I say that C is even.
For since A has made C (by) multiplying B, C is thus composed out of so many (magnitudes)
equal to B, as many as (there) are units in A [Def. 7.15]. And B is even. Thus, C is composed out
of even (numbers). And if any multitude whatsoever of even numbers is added together then the
whole is even [Prop. 9.21]. Thus, C is even. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
66`

v o vpo o vpo , o p o
c.
o v vpo o o o o , o o
c.
| v o o o , o v c :
; , o i| c ; p. c c e , o v c
e vpe, e o c. e o c o c i.
664
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 29
C
A
B
If an odd number makes some (number by) multiplying an odd (number) then the created (num-
ber) will be odd.
For let the odd number A make C (by) multiplying the odd (number) B. I say that C is odd.
For since A has made C (by) multiplying B, C is thus composed out of so many (magnitudes)
equal to B, as many as (there) are units in A [Def. 7.15]. And each of A, B is odd. Thus, C is com-
posed out of odd (numbers), (and) the multitude of them is odd. Hence C is odd [Prop. 9.23].
66

v o vpo v vpo p, | o p uu p.
o v vpo o v o p , o | o p uu p.
| v o o pi, p uo v o , o o u c . i
v , c. | c| o o pi v o , o v o o
. o v c e vpe, e o c. o v
c o v u v v. u v o c v v
c| o . e o o pi v. v u | o p uu p o
c i.
666
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 30
A
C
B
If an odd number measures an even number then it will also measure (one) half of it.
For let the odd number A measure the even (number) B. I say that (A) will also measure (one)
half of (B).
For since A measures B, let it measure it according to C. I say that C is not odd. For, if possible,
let it be (odd). And since A measures B according to C, A has thus made B (by) multiplying
C. Thus, B is composed out of odd numbers, (and) the multitude of them is odd. B is thus odd
[Prop. 9.23]. The very thing (is) absurd. For (B) was assumed (to be) even. Thus, C is not odd.
Thus, C is even. Hence, A measures B an even number of times. So, on account of this, (A) will
also measure (one) half of (B). (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
66

v o vpo vpo e , | o o uu e
c.
o v vpo o vpo o e c, u c c
o , o o |] o o e c.
i v p i | , ] e, p u vp. p, | c o .
c o o v | o . | c| o o e o pi, c
o v, | o p v u p o ]. u c p c o o v
o pi. pi c | o . o v , pi o o v
o c| v. u v o o o e u c. | , v e o
v i o c i.
668
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 31
D
A
B
C
If an odd number is prime to some number then it will also be prime to its double.
For let the odd number A be prime to some number B. And let C be double B. I say that A is
[also] prime to C.
For if [A and C] are not prime (to one another) then some number will measure them. Let it
measure (them), and let it be D. And A is odd. Thus, D (is) also odd. And since D, which is odd,
measures C, and C is even, [D] will thus also measure half of C [Prop. 9.30]. And B is half of C.
Thus, D measures B. And it also measures A. Thus, D measures (both) A and B, (despite) them
being prime to one another. The very thing is impossible. Thus, A is not unprime to C. Thus, A
and C are prime to one another. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
669

e vo p vp c v v c p.
o v ou vp| | , , , o | ,
, v v i p.
pc u c e , , ] v v c, vo v c|
. , o | p. c v p. c| u vo p ou
vp| c v i, o c pv p o e c, o p e , ,
, o u uo v p c e , , . c c e , ,
v o v v v c p. op ip, o |] c e ,
v v c p o c i.
60
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 32
D
A
B
C
Each of the numbers (which is continually) doubled, (starting) from a dyad, is an even-times-even
(number) only.
For let any multitude of numbers whatsoever, B, C, D, have been (continually) doubled, (start-
ing) from the dyad A. I say that B, C, D are even-times-even (numbers) only.
In fact, (it is) clear that each [of B, C, D] is an even-times-even (number). For they are doubled
from a dyad [Def. 7.8]. I also say that (they are even-times-even numbers) only. For let a unit be
laid down. Therefore, since any multitude of numbers whatsoever are continuously proportional,
starting from a unit, and the (number) A after the unit is prime, the greatest of A, B, C, D,
(namely) D, will not be measured by any other (numbers) except A, B, C [Prop. 9.13]. And each
of A, B, C is even. Thus, D is an even-time-even (number) only [Def. 7.8]. So, similarly, we can
show that each of B, C is [also] an even-time-even (number) only. (Which is) the very thing it
6l

v vpo o p c , v c p.
po v o o p c , o o v c p.
pc u v c, o v p uu o e pi uo
v, , o | p. i v c o | v v, p uo
v v v vp e | o p uu p uo v vpu
o e o c| v. o v v c p o c i.
62
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 33
A
If a number has an odd half then it is an even-time-odd (number) only.
For let the number A have an odd half. I say that A is an even-times-odd (number) only.
In fact, (it is) clear that (A) is an even-times-odd (number). For its half, being odd, measures it
an even number of times [Def. 7.9]. So I also say that (it is an even-times-odd number) only. For
if A is also an even-times-even (number) then it will be measured by an even (number) according
to an even number [Def. 7.8]. Hence, its half will also be measured by an even number, (despite)
being odd. The very thing is absurd. Thus, A is an even-times-odd (number) only. (Which is) the
6`

v vpo p e vo p , p o p c , v
v c | v .
po v o p e vo p c p o p c
, o o v c v | v .
pc u o v c| v, o v p u c . ,
o | v c. cv v o pp | o p uu |
u v| ep, p : vpo , o p o v v
vp. i v u, p i , | c o e vo p
o u u. e o v c. c c | v v. o
v v v c | v o c i.
64
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 34
A
If a number is neither (one) of the (numbers) doubled from a dyad, nor has an odd half, then it
is (both) an even-times-even and an even-times-odd (number).
For let the number A neither be (one) of the (numbers) doubled from a dyad, nor let it have an
odd half. I say that A is (both) an even-times-even and an even-times-odd (number).
In fact, (it is) clear that A is an even-times-even (number) [Def. 7.8]. For it does not have an
odd half. So I say that it is also an even-times-odd (number). For if we cut A in half, and (then
cut) its half in half, and we do this continually, then we will arrive at some odd number which
will measure A according to an even number. For if not, we will arrive at a dyad, and A will be
(one) of the (numbers) doubled from a dyad. The very opposite thing (was) assumed. Hence,
A is an even-times-odd (number) [Def. 7.9]. And it was also shown (to be) an even-times-even
(number). Thus, A is (both) an even-times-even and an even-times-odd (number). (Which is)
6

v e ou vp| c v, ve c v u | u
c : ; ;, c e u u o o e, u u
c u o o cu .
ou vp| c v | , , , vp vo c
u , | v vo u | u ; : c e , , o
c| e o o o , u o o , , .
v ; pc : o , ; c : o . | c| o ; : c, e
o ; : c, o v o ; ; c :. | c c e o
o o , u o o o | o o o , : c o pc ; , o c
; , o c ; , c v e o o o , u o o o | o
o o . , e o o o , u o o o | o o o
. c v | e | e p o c e cp, u v | p
o v cp c v e o o o , u | , , o
, , . : c o pc ; , o c ; , | c , , | ,
, c v e o o o , u o o , , . c v e
u u o o e, u u c u o o cu
o c i.
66
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 35
148
L E
B
A
D
C
F
G
H K
If there is any multitude whatsoever of continually proportional numbers, and (numbers) equal
to the rst are subtracted from (both) the second and the last, then as the excess of the second
(number is) to the rst, so the excess of the last will be to (the sum of) all those (numbers) before
it.
Let A, BC, D, EF be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, beginning
from the least A. And let BG and FH, each equal to A, have been subtracted from BC and EF
(respectively). I say that as GC is to A, so EH is to A, BC, D.
For let FK be made equal to BC, and FL to D. And since FK is equal to BC, of which FH is
equal to BG, the remainder HK is thus equal to the remainder GC. And since as EF is to D,
so D (is) to BC, and BC to A [Prop. 7.13], and D (is) equal to FL, and BC to FK, and A to
FH, thus as EF is to FL, so LF (is) to FK, and FK to FH. By separation, as EL (is) to LF,
so LK (is) to FK, and KH to FH [Props. 7.11, 7.13]. And thus as one of the leading (numbers)
is to one of the following, so all of the leading (numbers are) to all of the following [Prop. 7.12].
Thus, as KH is to FH, so EL, LK, KH (are) to LF, FK, HF. And KH (is) equal to CG, and
FH to A, and LF, FK, HF to D, BC, A. Thus, as CG is to A, so EH (is) to D, BC, A. Thus, as
the excess of the second (number) is to the rst, so the excess of the last (is) to (the sum of) all
those (numbers) before it. (Which is) the very thing it was required to show.
148
This proposition allows us to sum a geometric series of the form a, a r, a r
2
, a r
3
, a r
n1
. According to Euclid,
the sum S
n
satises (a r a)/a = (a r
n
a)/S
n
. Hence, S
n
= a (r
n
1)/(r 1).
6

v vo p ou vp| c ce c v;, c u o
p | e , | o p c| o c | ,
o p c.
o v p c ou vp| c v;, c u o
p | e , | , , , , | ; p : c o , | o o
o . , o o c.
i | , , , ; , u vo u i c
v; | , , , : v c| e o o o , u o o o . o
v c e , : c| ; c e , . c o c e , o | o c e ,
v c| o . o v o o o v o
pi v v c ; p. c v o v c| o u . i| c
| | , , , c v | , , , , v c v i
c v;. v vo u u | u c u
; ; ; : c e , c v e u vpu u
o o e, u u c c o o cu . c v e
o o o , u o o , , , . c o : ; | o
v : c| i , , , . c c | o ; :, o c i , , , |
p. o v o : c| i , , , | i , , , | p
| pi u ue. , o | o u uo v p c e ,
, , , , , , | p. i v , p o o , | o
p| e , , , , , , , c o u. | o o o pi, u
p c c ; o v o o . vv p |
o o o c v e o o o , o o o .
| c| vo p c v i | , , , , o v u uo v vpu
p c e , , . | u o u| e , , o u u v
p o o . v e o o o , o o o uc o v o pi.
c o e i c e vpo o v, o p pi, e c]. | ,
v e o v i. | c e | c, | c c pu
o uo c i o p o p | o cp o cp
68
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 36
149
D
A
B
C
If any multitude whatsoever of numbers is set out continuously in a double proportion, (starting)
from a unit, until the whole sum added together becomes prime, and the sum multiplied into the
last (number) makes some (number), then the (number so) created will be perfect.
For let any multitude of numbers, A, B, C, D, be set out (continuouly) in a double proportion,
until the whole sum added together is made prime. And let E be equal to the sum. And let E
make FG (by) multiplying D. I say that FG is a perfect (number).
For as many as is the multitude of A, B, C, D, let so many (numbers), E, HK, L, M, have been
taken in a double proportion, (starting) from E. Thus, via equality, as A is to D, so E (is) to
M [Prop. 7.14]. Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) E, D is equal to the (number
created) from (multiplying) A, M. And FG is the (number created) from (multiplying) E, D.
Thus, FG is also the (number created) from (multiplying) A, M [Prop. 7.19]. Thus, A has made
FG (by) multiplying M. Thus, M measures FG according to the units in A. And A is a dyad.
Thus, FG is double M. And M, L, HK, E are also continuously double one another. Thus, E,
HK, L, M, FG are continuously proportional in a double proportion. So let HN and FO, each
equal to the rst (number) E, have been subtracted from the second (number) HK and the last
FG (respectively). Thus, as the excess of the second number is to the rst, so the excess of the
last (is) to (the sum of) all those (numbers) before it [Prop. 9.35]. Thus, as NK is to E, so OG
(is) to M, L, KH, E. And NK is equal to E. And thus OG is equal to M, L, HK, E. And
FO is also equal to E, and E to A, B, C, D, and a unit. Thus, the whole of FG is equal to E,
HK, L, M, and A, B, C, D, and a unit. And it is measured by them. I also say that FG will be
measured by no other (numbers) except A, B, C, D, E, HK, L, M, and a unit. For, if possible,
let some (number) P measure FG, and let P not be the same as any of A, B, C, D, E, HK, L,
M. And as many times as P measures FG, so many units let there be in Q. Thus, Q has made
FG (by) multiplying P. But, in fact, E has also made FG (by) multiplying D. Thus, as E is to Q,
so P (is) to D [Prop. 7.19]. And since A, B, C, D are continually proportional, (starting) from a
unit, D will thus not be measured by any other numbers except A, B, C [Prop. 9.13]. And P was
assumed not (to be) the same as any of A, B, C. Thus, P does not measure D. But, as P (is) to
149
This proposition demonstrates that perfect numbers take the form 2
n1
(2
n
1) provided 2
n
1 is a prime
number. The ancient Greeks knew of four perfect numbers: 6, 28, 496, and 8128, which correspond to n = 2, 3, 5,
and 7, respectively.
69

c e o o o , o o o . i v o o pi | o o . o
c u uo v pi c e , , o v c| e , , c o u.
c ; o u. | o i| | , , ; u i vo u | ,
, . i | , , i , , c ; u; : v c| e o o
o , o o o . o v c e , : c| ; c e , v o c e , :
c| ; c e , | o c e , v : c| ; c e , . c v e o o
o , o o o . c o ; o u | o v ; c o u o
v o v u p| e cp o u u v o p
vpo c e , , , , , , , | p. | c o i , , ,
, , , , | p :. c vp c o i cu p : e
v c| o o c i.
680
ELEMENTS BOOK 9
Proposition 36
G
N K
E
L
M
P
Q
F O
H
D, so E (is) to Q. Thus, E does not measure Q either [Def. 7.20]. And E is a prime (number).
And every prime number [is] prime to every (number) which it does not measure [Prop. 7.29].
Thus, E and Q are prime to one another. And (numbers) prime (to one another are) also the
least (of those numbers having the same ratio as them) [Prop. 7.21], and the least (numbers)
measure those (numbers) having the same ratio as them an equal number of times, the leading
(measuring) the leading, and the following the following [Prop. 7.20]. And as E is to Q, (so)
P (is) to D. Thus, E measures P the same number of times as Q (measures) D. And D is not
measured by any other (numbers) except A, B, C. Thus, Q is the same as one of A, B, C. Let
it be the same as B. And as many as is the multitude of B, C, D, let so many (of the set out
numbers) have been taken, (starting) from E, (namely) E, HK, L. And E, HK, L are in the
same ratio as B, C, D. Thus, via equality, as B (is) to D, (so) E (is) to L [Prop. 7.14]. Thus,
the (number created) from (multiplying) B, L is equal to the (number created) from multiplying
D, E [Prop. 7.19]. But, the (number created) from (multiplying) D, E is equal to the (number
created) from (multiplying) Q, P. Thus, the (number created) from (multiplying) Q, P is equal
to the (number created) from (multiplying) B, L. Thus, as Q is to B, (so) L (is) to P [Prop. 7.19].
And Q is the same as B. Thus, L is also the same as P. The very thing (is) impossible. For P was
assumed not (to be) the same as any of the (numbers) set out. Thus, FG cannot be measured by
any number except A, B, C, D, E, HK, L, M, and a unit. And FG was shown (to be) equal to
(the sum of) A, B, C, D, E, HK, L, M, and a unit. And a perfect number is one which is equal
to (the sum of) its own parts [Def. 7.22]. Thus, FG is a perfect (number). (Which is) the very
68l
GREEKENGLISH LEXICON
Abbreviations: act - active; adj - adjective; adv - adverb; conj - conjunction; fut - future; gen
- genitive; imperat - imperative; ind - indeclinable; indic - indicative; intr - intransitive; mid -
middle; no - noun; par - particle; part - participle; pass - passive; perf - perfect; pre - preposition;
pres - present; pro - pronoun; sg - singular; tr - transitive; vb - verb.
v, v, , -, p, : vb, lead, draw (a line).
v - : adj, impossible.
v| : adv, always, for ever.
|, |, |], , p, : vb, grasp.
v, i, , , p, : vb, postulate.
:p -, : no, postulate.
v - : adj, analogous.
v - - : adj, outermost, end, extreme.
v : conj, but, otherwise.
vp : adv, at once, at the same time, together.
vp - : adj, obtuse-angled; o vp, no, obtuse angle.
vp -i - : adj, obtuse.
vp - - : pro, both (of two).
v : vb, describe (a gure); see .
v, : no, proportion, (geometric) progression.
v - : adj, proportional.
v : adv, inverse(ly).
v : vb, turn upside down, convert (ratio); see .
v, : no, turning upside down, conversion (of ratio).
v : vb, take away in turn; see |.
v - : adj, unequal, uneven.
v : vb, be reciprocally proportional; see .
v : adv, once.
v, v, v : adj, quite all, the whole.
682
v - : adj, innite.
v : ind, opposite.
v : vb, be far from, be away from; see c.
v - : adj, without breadth.
v -, : no, proof.
vp : vb, take from, subtract from, cut off from; see p.
v, v, , , pp, : vb, touch, join, meet.
v - - : adj, further off.
v : par, thus, as it seems (inferential).
vp, o : no, number.
v : adv, an even number of times.
v - - : adj, even, perfect.
vp - : adj, uncut.
v - : adj, absurd, paradoxical.
u : adv, immediately, obviously.
v : vb, take from, subtract from, cut off from; see |.
\, : no, point of contact.
, -p, -, , , : vb, walk; perf, stand (of angle).
, e, c, , p, c : vb, throw.
-, : no, base (of a triangle).
: conj, for (explanatory).
]p, p, cp, , p, : vb, happen, become.
p -, : no, gnomon.
pp, : no, line.
, , c/], , pp, cp : vb, draw (a gure).
, : no, angle.
i : vb, be necessary; i, it is necessary; c, it was necassary; , being necessary.
68`
i -, : no, proof.
up, , c, , p, c : vb, show, demonstrate.
p, p, cp, , p, c : vb, receive, accept.
: conj, so (explanatory).
: ind, quite clear, manifest.
- - : adj, clear.
: adv, manifestly.
: vb, carry over, draw through, draw across; see v.
: vb, leave an interval between,
p - : adj, diametrical; p, no, diameter, diagonal.
-, : no, division, separation.
: vb, divide (in two); - -, adj, separated (ratio); see |.
p -, : no, radius.
: vb, differ; see .
p, , c, , p, c : vb, give.
: vb, double.
- - : adj, double, twofold.
u - -u : adj, double.
: adv, twice.
: adv, in two, in half.
-, : no, the number two, dyad.
p : vb, be able, be capable.
- - : adj, possible.
cu - -u : adj, of him/her/it/self, his/her/its/own.
c - : adj, nearer, nearest.
c : vb, inscribe; see .
| -, : no, gure, form, shape.
684
:/, ce/, |, :, :p, c : vb, say, speak; per pass part, p
- -, adj, said, aforementioned.
c - - : pro, each, every one.
c - - : pro, each (of two).
c, ce, c, c, cp, c : vb, produce (a line).
cp : vb, be set out, be taken; see ip.
cp : vb, set out; see p.
c : pre + gen, outside, external.
c/] - : adj, less, lesser.
c : vb, be less than, fall short of.
cp : vb, meet (of lines), fall on; see .
c : adv, alternate(ly).
cp : vb, insert; perf indic pass 3rd sg, cp.
c, : no, notion.
c : see cp.
c : pre + gen, inside, interior, within, internal.
c - : adj, hexagonal; o c, no, hexagon.
c : adv, in order, successively, consecutively.
c : adv, above.
c, : no, point of contact.
c : conj, since (causal).
c : ind, inasmuch as, seeing that.
cup, c, c, , cp, c : vb, join (by a line).
c - : adj, level, at, plane.
cp : vb, investigate.
c -, : no, inspection, investigation.
c : vb, put upon, enjoin; o c, no, the (thing) prescribed; see .
68
c, : no, surface.
cp : vb, follow.
cp, cp, , c, , : vb, come, go.
c - - : adj, outermost, uttermost, last.
cp - : adj, oblong; o cp, no, rectangle.
c - - : adj, other (of two).
c : par, yet, still, besides.
upp - : adj, rectilinear; o upp, no, rectilinear gure.
u -i - : adj, straight; ui, no, straight-line; c ui, in a straight-line, straight-
on.
u, u, u, u, up, u : vb, nd.
c : vb, bind to; mid, touch; cp, no, tangent; see v;
cp, cp, cp, cp, cpp, cp : vb, coincide; pass, be ap-
plied.
c : adv, in order, adjacent.
cp : vb, set, stand, place upon; see :p.
c, c, c, c, -p, : vb, have.
p, p, p, p, , : vb, lead.
, , , , , : vb, have come, be present.
p, : no, semi-circle.
p - - : adj, half.
= + : conj, than, than indeed.
. . . : par, surely, either . . . or; in fact, either . . . or.
p -, : no, theorem.
i : adv, the same number of times; i , the same multiples, equal multiples.
i - : adj, equiangular.
i - : adj, equilateral.
: - - : adj, equal; c :, equally, evenly.
686
i - : adj, isosceles.
:p, , c, , , c : vb tr, stand (something).
:p, , c, c, cp, c : vb intr, stand up (oneself); Note: perfect I
have stood up can be taken to mean present I am standing.
- : adj, perpendicular.
: adv, on the whole, in general.
v = | ci
v = | v : ind, even if, and if.
, : no, diagram, gure.
: vb, describe/draw (a gure); see .
: vb, follow after.
, , , , pp, : vb, leave behind;
v p, no, remainder.
- : adj, in succession, in corresponding order.
p : vb, measure (exactly).
: vb, come to, arrive at.
: vb, furnish, construct.
ip, ip, , , , : vb, have been placed, lie, be made; see p.
, : no, center.
: vb, break off, inect.
-, : no, inclination, bending.
i - - : adj, hollow, concave.
, : no, top, summit, apex; v , vertically opposite (of angles).
, o : no, cube.
, o : no, circle.
- - : adj, convex.
p, p, c, : :pp, c : vb, take.
: vb, say; pres pass part, p - -, no, so-called; see c.
68
-, : no, taking, catching.
, o : no, ratio, proportion.
- - : adj, remaining.
p -, : no, magnitude, size.
p - : adj, greater.
p -, : no, part, direction, side.
p - - : adj, middle, mean.
pp : vb, take up.
p : adv, between.
p : vb, measure.
p, : no, measure.
p : adv, never.
p - - : pro, neither (of two).
p -, : no, length.
p : par, truely, indeed.
p -, : no, unit, unity.
p - - : adj, alone.
, , , , p, c : vb, apprehend, conceive.
| - - : pre, such as, of what sort.
o - - : adj, whole.
op - : adj, of the same kind.
op - - : adj, similar.
op -, : no similarity.
op : adv, similarly.
op - : adj, corresponding, homologous.
opp - : adj, having the same name.
o - : adj, acute-angled; o o, no, acute angle.
688
o -i - : adj, acute.
ou = oi - - + u : adj, of whatever kind, any kind whatsoever.
o - - : pro, as many, as many as.
ou = o - - + + + u : adj, of whatever number, any number
whatsoever.
ou = o - - + u : adj, of whatever number, any number whatsoever.
o - - : pro, either (of two), which (of two).
o, : no, rectangle, right-angle.
o - - : adj, straight, right-angled; o ov , at right-angles.
o, o : no, boundary, denition, term (of a ratio).
ou = o + + + u : ind, any number whatsoever.
o : ind, as many times as, as often as.
o - : pro, as many times as.
o - - : pro, as many as.
o, , o : pro, the very man who, the very thing which.
o, , o : pro, anyone who, anything which.
o : adv, when, whenever.
ou : ind, whatsoever.
u, up, u : pro, not one, nothing.
u : ind, nothing.
u : adv, therefore, in fact.
u : adv, thusly, in this case.
: vb, apply (a gure); see .
, , , , , : vb, miss, fall awry.
pp - : adj, bounded by parallel lines; o pp, no, parallelo-
gram.
- : adj, parallel; o , no, parallel, parallel-line.
p -, : no, complement (of a parallelogram).
689
: prep + gen, except.
p : vb, insert; see .
, p, c, , , : vb, suffer.
- : adj, pentagonal; o , no, pentagon.
, : no, fteen-sided gure.
p - - : adj, nite, limited; see .
, e, c, , p, c : vb, bring to end, nish, complete.
-, : no, end, extremity.
, , , , , : vb, bring to an end.
: vb, circumscribe; see .
: vb, encompass, surround, contain, comprise; see c.
: adv, an odd number of times.
- - : adj, odd.
, : no, circumference.
-, : no, magnitude, size.
, up, c, , , : vb, fall.
-, : no, breadth, width.
- : adj, more, several.
, : no, side.
-, o : no, great number, multitude, number.
: adv & prep + gen, more than.
- - : adj, of a certain nature, kind, quality, type.
: vb, multiply.
p, o : no, multiplication.
, : no, multiple.
- : adj, polygonal; , no, polygon.
- : adj, multilateral.
690
p -, : no, corollary.
: ind, at some time.
: vb, say beforehand; perf pass part, p - -, adj, aforementioned; see
:.
: vb, ll up, complete.
: vb, complete (tracing of); see .
: vb, produce (a line); see c.
: vb, nd besides, nd; see u.
p : vb, be laid on, have been added to; see ip.
: vb, fall on, fall toward, meet; see .
: vb, prescribe, enjoin; o , no, the thing prescribed; see .
p : vb, add; see p.
- - : adj, rst (comparative).
p : vb, assign; see p.
e - - : adj, rst, prime.
p - : adj, rhomboidal; o p, no, romboid.
p, o no, rhombus.
pi, : no, point.
- - : adj, scalene.
- - : adj, solid.
i, : no, element.
, -, c, , cpp, c : vb, turn.
p : vb, lie together, be the sum of, be composed; p - -, adj, composed
(ratio), compounded; see ip.
p : vb, come to pass, happen, follow; see .
p : vb, throw together, meet; see .
p -, o : no, sum, whole.
p : vb, meet together (of lines); see .
69l
p : vb, complete (a gure), ll in.
: vb, conclude, infer; see v.
p - - : adj, both together; o p, no, sum (of two things).
, : no, point of junction.
, |, |, : no, two together, in pairs.
- : adj, continuous; v o , continuously.
-, : no, putting together, composition.
- : adj, composite.
]p : vb, construct (a gure), set up together; perf imperat pass 3rd sg, ; see
:p.
p : vb, put together, add together, compound (ratio); see p.
-, : no, state, condition.
p -, : no, gure.
-, : no, arrangement, order.
, , , , p, c : vb, stir, trouble, disturbe; p -
-, adj, disturbed, perturbed.
, , c, , p, c : vb, arrange, draw up.
- - : adj, perfect.
p, pe, cp, -p, pp, cp : vb, cut; pres/fut indic act 3rd sg, p.
- : adj, square; o , no, square.
: adv, four times.
- - : adj, quadruple.
- : adj, quadrilateral.
p, , c, , ip, c : vb, place, put.
pp -, : no, part cut off, piece, segment.
: par, accordingly.
u - -u : pro, such as this.
p -, o : no, sector (of circle).
692
p, : no, cutting, stump, piece.
, o : no, place, space.
: adv, so many times.
- - : pro, so many times.
u - -u : pro, so many.
= u c : par, that is to say.
, : no, trapezium.
- : adj, triangular; o , no, triangle.
- - : adj, triple, threefold.
- : adj, trilateral.
- - - : adj, triple.
, p, c, , p, c : vb, hit, happen to be at (a place).
u : vb, begin, be, exist; see v.
u -, : no, removal.
u : vb, overshoot, exceed; see .
u, : no, excess.
u : vb, exceed; see c.
up : vb, underlie, be assumed (as hypothesis); see ip.
u, ue, u, u, up, u : vb, subtend.
u -, : no, height.
- - : adj, visible, manifest.
, :, , c, cp, : vb, carry.
, : no, place, spot, area, gure.
: pre + gen, apart from.
e : par, as, like, for instance.
e c : par, at random.
e : adv, in the same manner, just so.
e : conj, so that (causal), hence.
69`

Euclid's Elements in Greek and English

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EUCLIDS ELEMENTS IN GREEK

The Greek text of J.L. Heiberg (18831884)

e vpo o v vp, o p pi, e c.

vpo uo o vpu pi.

vpo e c uo o vpu pi.

vpe ui, o c pu vp.

e vpe ui, o c pu vp.

v vpo u vpu p, o pp opp p c ; pu.

v vp p c ou, uo opp vpu p ; p.

v vpe | p v cp vp, op c c | vp.

v vpe p v cp vp, op i | vp.

v vp| o v c, o vpo o vp, o c

v c vpo uo vpe p, u uo v vpu

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