ICP design methods

for driven piles

in sands and clays

Richard Jardine Imperial College London

Fiona Chow WorleyParsons Australia
Robert Overy Shell UK Ltd
Jamie Standing Imperial College London

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
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First published 2005
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ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

Page 3

CONTENTS
1

INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................7

BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................9

2.1

Rationale for developing new design approaches ..................................................................9

2.2

Imperial College research programmes................................................................................10

2.2.2

Research phases.....................................................................................................11

2.2.3

Field tests with instrumented piles...........................................................................13

2.2.4

Parallel experiments with field-scale driven piles ....................................................13

3.1

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................15

3.2

Shaft friction ..........................................................................................................................15

3.4

3.2.1

Basic mechanisms...................................................................................................15

3.2.2

Evaluating short-term shaft capacity of single cylindrical piles................................16

Base resistance.....................................................................................................................22
3.3.1

Introduction ..............................................................................................................22

3.3.2

Closed-ended piles ..................................................................................................22

3.3.3

Open-ended piles ....................................................................................................23

Axial capacity of piles with non-circular cross-sections ........................................................26

3.4.1

Recommendations for rectangular piles ..................................................................26

3.4.2

Recommendations for H section piles .....................................................................26

DESIGN METHODS FOR PILES IN CLAY ....................................................................................28

4.1

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................28

4.2

Shaft friction ..........................................................................................................................28

4.3
5

Research aims.........................................................................................................10

DESIGN METHODS FOR PILES IN SILICA SAND .......................................................................15

3.3

2.2.1

4.2.1

Basic mechanisms...................................................................................................28

4.2.2

Evaluating shaft capacity of single piles after pore pressure equalisation ..............29

Base resistance.....................................................................................................................36

RELIABILITY OF THE DESIGN METHODS ..................................................................................38

5.1

Additional entries to the Chow pile load test database .........................................................38

5.2

Reliability of shaft capacity predictions in silica sand ...........................................................42

5.3

5.4

5.2.1

Shaft capacity database for silica sand ...................................................................42

5.2.2

Reliability of the ICP shaft method in sand..............................................................42

Shaft capacity in clay ............................................................................................................46

5.3.1

Shaft capacity database for clay..............................................................................46

5.3.2

Reliability of ICP shaft method in clays ...................................................................46

Base resistance in sand ........................................................................................................49

5.4.1

End bearing database in sand.................................................................................49

5.4.2

Degree of fit for the ICP end bearing method in sand .............................................50

Page 4
5.5

5.6

5.7

6.

7.

8.

9.

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

Base resistance in clay .........................................................................................................53
5.5.1

End bearing database for clay.................................................................................53

5.5.2

Degree of fit for the ICP end bearing method in clay ..............................................53

Independent analyses of ICP methods predictive reliability.................................................54

5.6.1

Reliability for square and H section piles.................................................................54

5.6.2

Checks by other organisations on reliability for cylindrical driven piles...................54

Selection of safety factors in design .....................................................................................55

5.7.1

Foundation COVs in mixed soil profiles...................................................................57

5.7.2

Reliability calibrated against well-established design methods...............................57

5.7.3

Reliability in terms of probability of failure ...............................................................58

5.7.4

Safety Factors for the ICP methods ........................................................................58

TIME EFFECTS IN SAND AND CLAY ...........................................................................................61

6.1

Time effects in sand ..............................................................................................................61

6.2

Time effects in clay ...............................................................................................................64

6.3

Implications ...........................................................................................................................65

GROUP EFFECTS IN SAND AND CLAY ......................................................................................66

7.1

Group effects in sand ............................................................................................................66

7.2

Group effects in clay .............................................................................................................66

EXPERIENCE WITH OTHER SOIL PROFILES.............................................................................68

8.1

Micaceous sands ..................................................................................................................68

8.2

Calcareous sands .................................................................................................................68

8.3

Silts and low plasticity clays ..................................................................................................69

8.3.1

Assessing whether to apply clay or sand design criteria.........................................69

8.3.2

Low plasticity, low YSR, sensitive clays and clay-silts ............................................70

8.4

Diatomaceous clays and mudstones ....................................................................................71

8.5

Layered soil profiles ..............................................................................................................71

CYCLIC LOADING AND SEISMIC ACTION ..................................................................................72

9.1

General..................................................................................................................................72

9.2

Recent cyclic pile testing in sand and clay............................................................................74

9.3

Axial capacity of piles driven in clay under seismic loading..................................................77

10. CONCLUSIONS..............................................................................................................................78
10.1 Main points ............................................................................................................................78
10.2 Check list for sands...............................................................................................................79
10.3 Check list for clays ................................................................................................................79
11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................................80
12. REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................81
APPENDIX A ..........................................................................................................................................87
RING SHEAR TESTING METHODOLOGY ...........................................................................................87

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

Page 5

A1.1 Principle of test......................................................................................................................87

A1.2 Specimen and interface preparation .....................................................................................87
A1.3 Test procedure ......................................................................................................................88
APPENDIX B ..........................................................................................................................................91
CASE HISTORIES AND WORKED EXAMPLES FOR PILES IN SAND AND CLAY ............................91
B1

B2

EURIPIDES...........................................................................................................................92
B1.1

Site conditions .........................................................................................................92

B1.2

Test pile ...................................................................................................................92

B1.3

Pile capacity prediction ............................................................................................92

B1.4

Comparison of calculated and measured capacity..................................................95

Pentre....................................................................................................................................96
B2.1

Site conditions .........................................................................................................96

B2.2

Test pile ...................................................................................................................99

B2.3

Pile capacity prediction ............................................................................................99

B2.4

Comparison of calculated and measured capacity............................................... 101

APPENDIX C....................................................................................................................................... 102

LIST OF NOTATION ........................................................................................................................... 102

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

Page 7

INTRODUCTION

In 1996 the UK Marine Technology Directorate (MTD) published a booklet by Jardine and Chow that
summarised a new integrated approach for calculating the axial capacity of tubular piles driven in
sands and clays. Axial capacity is often the governing criterion when designing driven piles and a
simplified treatment had been developed at Imperial College London through four consecutive PhD
studies (Jardine 1985, Bond 1989, Lehane 1992 and Chow 1997). The work had been co-funded by
Industry, the UKs Health and Safety Executive and the Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council through MTD, with the main focus being on offshore pile behaviour. The recommendations
made by Jardine and Chow relied heavily on the earlier contributions made by Bond (1989) and
Lehane (1992), testing, extending, updating and applying their work in the light of the research by
Chow (1997).
The recommendations have been applied world-wide by the Authors and others in dozens of offshore,
marine and onshore projects. Applications have ranged from major new offshore platforms (including
13 such structures commissioned and operated by Shell Exploration and Production) to large bridges
and smaller scale foundations for light industrial facilities. Offshore Engineers often refer to the
procedures as the MTD or Imperial College Pile (ICP) design method. However, the Marine
Technology Directorate no longer operates and we suggest that the acronym ICP is now the most
appropriate.
This second edition, published by Thomas Telford Ltd, broadens and updates the original work. New
contributions are included and we emphasise the wide range of potential civil engineering applications.
Reference is made to relevant research completed since 1996 and to lessons learned through
practice. Substantial new sections are included on choosing appropriate factors of safety, the selection
of geotechnical parameters, case histories, non-cylindrical pile shapes, ageing processes, a wider
range of soil types (including calcareous sands), group action, cyclic loading and seismic action. The
prediction of load-displacement behaviour, including the response to lateral loading, is not addressed
here. However, reference is made to other publications that describe how improved predictive
procedures have been developed from associated research at Imperial College.
Our aim is to provide:

Descriptions of the axial capacity calculation procedures that are sufficiently detailed and clear
to allow their application by suitably qualified geotechnical engineers.

Demonstrations of the theoretical and practical advantages offered in comparison with

conventional design methods.

Evidence of the greater reliability and accuracy offered by the methods.

Worked examples with references to case histories.

Commentaries on how pile shape, age, group action, cyclic loading and seismic action can
influence field performance.

Guidance on applying the methods to a wider range of soil types.

Page 8

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

Details of the experimental research, background theory and validation studies cannot be covered in
this deliberately short publication. Instead, a substantial list of references is provided and Appendices
are included covering (A) the methodology recommended for ring shear testing; (B) worked examples
of the ICP methods use in sands and clays; and (C) the notation and symbols employed.

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

BACKGROUND

2.1

Rationale for developing new design approaches

Page 9

The approaches applied by most practitioners to predict the axial capacity, Q, of displacement piles
are relatively unreliable. This may be demonstrated by comparing independent predictions, made by a
statistically meaningful group of well qualified practitioners, with data from well conducted field tests in
predictions competitions, or through database analyses in which a single individual (or team) applies
a range of methods to a collection of load tests. The first approach relies on just one site, which might
not be generally representative, while the second often has to rely on incomplete information drawn
from the literature, and may be biased by the subjective judgments of the single individual or team
concerned.
Jardine et al. (2001) report a study of the first type that focused on piles driven in dense sand at the
Dunkirk research site in northern France. Full details of the site conditions and loading procedures
were published through a dedicated website. Axial capacity predictions were offered in confidence, to
an independent body, by a wide range of international consultants, researchers and specialists. Figure
1 shows the compression test capacity measured on site and the wide spread of predictions offered,
which ranged from around one third of the measured capacity to about twice this value. The calculated
capacities Qc fell on average around 21% below the measured value Qm and gave a Coefficient of
Variation (COV)1 for (Qc /Qm) of around 0.53. Database studies by Briaud and Tucker (1988) and
Jardine and Chow (1996) show that even the best conventional approaches give COVs of a similarly
high magnitude and may also be subject to substantial bias. Despite their limitations, predictions
competitions and database studies lead to similar conclusions: predictive reliability is generally far
poorer than many practitioners recognise.
Pile load tests are specified in many projects to help mitigate the effects of predictive scatter.
However, this option is rarely available to offshore engineers and can be difficult to carry forward with
large piles in more general applications. Jardine and Chow (1996), and others since, considered how
well the procedures most commonly used by Offshore Engineers predict the capacities held in high
quality databases. They found little overall bias but report COV values as high as 0.5 to 0.7 that sit
uncomfortably with the relatively low safety margins (typically 1.5 to 2.0) that are commonly adopted
for offshore pile design. Jardine and Chow showed that the existing offshore methods are subject to
strong and systematic skewing of (Qc /Qm) with respect to factors such as pile slenderness (L/D), sand
relative density (Dr) or clay apparent over-consolidation ratio (YSR). Existing offshore methods may be
conservative in some cases, including low L/D piles in dense sands or high YSR clays, and nonconservative in others, such as slender piles driven in loose sands or low YSR clays.

The Coefficient of Variation (COV) is defined as the standard deviation, s, divided by the mean value
. In an ideal method should tend to unity and the COV to zero.

Page 10

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

6000

5000

Total
Pile loads (kN)

4000

3000

Measurement = 2760 kN
IC prediction = 2592 kN

2000

Base
1000

Shaft
0
36

35

32

11

17

10

15

13

30

12

31

29

34

Entry Number
Figure 1. Results from pile predictions competition based on tests in Dunkirk sand;
entries stacked in order of ascending total pile capacity estimate

Reports of piled structures experiencing difficulties due to axial capacity failures are rare. However, a
clear need exists to improve predictive methods to obtain economies, where possible, and enhance
performance, and safety, in other cases. The implementation of improved methods needs to be coordinated with any parallel developments in site characterisation techniques and the specification of
loading. The latter applies particularly in cases involving high levels of environmental load, and caution
is required when working with structural arrangements that impose unusual requirements on their
foundations.

2.2

Imperial College research programmes

2.2.1

Research aims

The research carried out at Imperial College has sought to achieve: (i) a more fundamental and
thorough understanding of pile behaviour, and (ii) practical design methods that capture the basic
mechanics of driven piles as simply as possible. The main tasks were to identify:

How piles behave in different soils and layering sequences.

The scaling laws that relate the behaviour of models to that of full-scale piles.

The effects on capacity of pile properties (dimensions, wall thickness, end conditions, surface
roughness, material hardness, etc.) and installation methods.

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

Page 11

Any changes in capacity and stiffness associated with time after pile installation.

The response to different loading types, including group effects, cyclic loading and seismic
action.

The controlling soil parameters that should be measured in site investigations.

The research reached a sufficiently developed state in 1996 for it to be applied practically. Ample
scope remained then, and now, for further discussion and research; several issues remain open to
academic discussion and potential improvement. However, as set out below, the ICP methods offer
substantially increased overall accuracy and hence tangible engineering benefits in improved reliability
and cost-effectiveness. They have also been widely applied and tested in practice since the mid
1990s.

2.2.2

Research phases

The research at Imperial College has taken place in five main phases, principally involving the sites
and profiles identified in Table 1 and Figure 2, but also supplemented by data gathered at other
locations ranging from Belfast to Mexico City.
The first phase of work involved developing the ICP instrumented piles and experimental procedures.
Multiple ICP tests and other experiments were then performed at the Building Research
Establishments (BRE) Canons Park test site. The research was summarised by Bond (1989) and
Bond and Jardine (1990, 1991).

Figure 2. Locations of ICP test sites in UK and France

Page 12

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

The scope was broadened in Phase 2 to cover tests in sand at the French Ponts et Chausses test
site at Labenne, the BREs stiff till site at Cowden, and the Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Councils (EPSRC) former national soft clay test site at Bothkennar. At each location an
advanced site investigation was performed, a field pile testing facility established, and a programme of
multiple (closed-ended) ICP tests carried out. The Phase 2 work was reported by Lehane (1992) and
Jardine and Lehane (1994); clear and striking results emerged from the experiments that allowed new
design approaches to be proposed for closed-ended piles (Lehane et al., 1993; Lehane and Jardine,
1994a, b). The tentative proposals of Lehane and Jardine (1994c) and Lehane et al. (1994) provided
many of the key elements of the later MTD procedures.
The third phase reported by Chow (1997) and Chow and Jardine (1996) involved:

Establishing facilities and performing advanced site investigations and multiple ICP tests at
the Pentre (clay-silts/laminated clays) LDP research site and at the Dunkirk CLAROM dense
sand research site.

Interpreting and performing tests on full-scale driven open-ended piles (with diameters up to
760 mm) at the ICP sites to assess the effects of scale, installation methods and pile-end
conditions.

Field experiments to assess pile group and ageing effects in dense sand.

Using the above to refine the new approaches for closed-ended piles and extend the design
methods to cover open-ended driven piles.

Collating an up-to-date and critically approved database of full-scale pile tests that met
rigorous quality criteria.

Using the above to calibrate and validate the new methods for a wide range of practical
applications.

Phase 4 (Jardine & Standing, 2000) comprised research on full-sized piles performed at Dunkirk
between 1998 and 1999. Eight 456mm OD open-ended piles (six of which were 19m long, two 10m
long) were driven to examine the effects of cyclic loading, pile age and base grouting.
The fifth phase of relevant work at Imperial College work involved a number of smaller projects
conducted (often in collaboration with other groups) between 1997 and 2003:

Studies by Thompson (1997) into driven pile capacity in calcareous sands and by Cowley
(1998) into the effects of pile shape on axial capacity.

Field tests with Trinity College Dublin (TCD) on square section concrete piles driven in soft
Belfast clay to examine group action, cyclic loading and pile ageing (see Lehane and Jardine
2003 and Lehane et al., 2004).

Field tests in collaboration with the Building Research Establishment at Canons Park to
investigate long-term pile ageing effects in clay (Pellew, 2002).

Research into the effects of pile shape, clay type and seismic/cyclic action for piles driven in
Mexico City (Saldivar-Moguel, 2002).

Further research into the interface shearing properties of clays and sands.

Application of the pile design procedures to circumstances and combinations of soil conditions
that were not covered by the range of tests collated by Chow (1997), including the reuse of
pile foundations in construction projects.

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

2.2.3

Page 13

Field tests with instrumented piles

A central feature of the first three phases of research has been the development of the accurate and
reliable on-pile Imperial College Pile (ICP) instrumentation to study the pore pressures, radial total
stresses, local shear stresses and temperatures developed on pile shafts. Until reliable instruments
became available, the stress conditions surrounding driven piles had been open to conjecture. The
ICP gauges were mounted on 6 to 20 m long, 102 mm diameter, closed-ended2 steel pipe piles for
intensive testing programmes in the geotechnical profiles summarised in Table 1. The ICPs were
installed by fast jacking, allowing comprehensive measurements of the effective stress conditions
developed close to the shafts to be made at multiple levels during installation, long-term equalisation
and load testing to failure. In particular, it was possible to make direct measurements of the residual
loads set up by installation, a feature that is often hard to assess in conventional pile tests.
Detailed site investigations were performed at each site, involving in-situ tests and advanced
laboratory experiments. Strain Path Method numerical simulations of the ICP tests performed at
Canons Park and Bothkennar were also carried out in conjunction with Professor Whittle from MIT as
described by Bond (1989) and Lehane (1992).

Table 1. Summary of Imperial College pile research sites

Site

Soil conditions

1. Canons Park

London Clay: stiff to very stiff, high plasticity, Eocene marine clay; high YSR

2. Cowden

Cowden till: stiff to very stiff, lean, glacial lodgement till; high YSR

3. Bothkennar

Carse clay: soft, high plasticity, moderately organic, Holocene shallowmarine/estuarine clay-silt, lightly cemented: moderate YSR

4. Labenne

Dune sand: loose to medium dense, medium-sized, Holocene; low YSR

5. Pentre

Glacio-lacustrine clay-silt and laminated clays: very soft to firm, low plasticity, low
YSR

6. Dunkirk

Marine sand: dense to very dense, shelly medium-sized sand, Flandrian: low
YSR

Note:

Yield Stress Ratio (YSR) is the apparent OCR

2.2.4

Parallel experiments with field-scale driven piles

As mentioned above, less heavily instrumented open-ended driven tubular piles were driven and
tested at four of the ICP sites, providing data with which to check the potential effects on axial capacity
of pile tip detail and installation method. Offshore scale open-ended piles had been tested at Pentre as
part of the Large Diameter Pile (LDP) project described by Clarke (1993), while those at Dunkirk and
Cowden were installed for earlier projects run by the CLAROM group and BRE respectively.

The use of closed-ended piles allowed more accurate and robust instrumentation to be deployed.

Page 14

ICP design methods for driven piles in sands and clays

The Canons Park driven piles were installed by the Imperial College research team and the same
group worked with full-scale driven tubular piles at Dunkirk between 1998 and 1999 to study cyclic
loading, pile age and base grouting. Recent research on driven square section solid piles, performed
with Trinity College Dublin (TCD), has examined the effects of group action, cyclic loading and pile
ageing at the Kinnegar soft clay site in Belfast (see for example Lehane et al., 2004). Other projects
have investigated the effects of ageing in London Clay and pile shape, seismic action and cyclic
loading in Mexico City clay.