Index FAQ

Finding and Using Taylor

Series
Finding Taylor Series
Taylor Series and Limits
Approximate Integration
Comparison of Functions
Elusive Limit
Other Types of Limits

Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Summary Formulae
Taylor
Polynomials at
x=a
( )
2
f( ) f( ) f ( )
P( ) f( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1! 2! !
n
n
a a a
x a x a x a x a
n
= + + + +
2 3
( 1) ( 1)( 2)
(1 ) 1
2! 3!
p
p p p p p
x px x x

+ = + + + +
The Binomial Series
2 4 2
0
1 1 ( 1)
cos( ) 1
2! 4! (2 )!
k
k
k
x x x x
k

= + =

1
2 1
3 5
0
1 1 ( 1)
sin( ) .
3! 5! (2 1)!
k k
k
x
x x x x
k
+
=

= + =
+

2
2 3
0
1 1 1
e 1
2! 3! !
x k
k
x x x
k

=
= + + + =

3
Maclaurin series = Taylor series at x = 0. Basic Maclaurin series:
Formulae 1 3
can be used
for all x.
Valid only if
-1 < x < 1.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Error Estimates
<
( )
Assume that there is a constant such that for all positive integers
and for all between 0 and :
f ( ) .
k
L k
t x
t L
For alternating Taylor or Maclaurin series, use the error estimates for
alternating series.
( )
+
s
+
1
( 1)!
m
m
x
E x L
m
=
= =

( ) ( )
2
0
f(0) f(0) f (0) f (0)
E ( ) f(x) f(0) f( )
1! 2! ! !
m n m
m n
m
n
x x x x x x
m n
Error when Approximating the Function f with its Taylor polynomial of degree m
Error Estimate
This number L usually
depends on x.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Overview of Problems
( )
2
Find the Maclaurin series of the function sin x .
1
( )
sin x
Find Maclaurin series of the function .
x
2
( ) ( )
= Find the Maclaurin series of the function f arctan . x x 3
( ) ( ) ( )
=
Find the first three non-zero terms for Maclaurin series of the
function f cos sin . x x
4
The functions f, g and h satisfy the following:
3 3
f(3) g(3) h(3) 0, f(3) h(3) 0, g(3) 10 and f(3) 5,
f( ) f( )
g(3) 7, h(3) 10. Determine the limits lim and lim .
g( ) h( )
x x
x x
x x

= = = = = = =
= =
5
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Overview of Problems
( )
}
1
0
sin
Approximate the value of the definite integral
by replacing the integrand by its Maclaurin series.
x
dx
x
6
7
2
2
1
0
Approximate the error done when the value of the
definite integral e is approximated by replacing
the function e by its Taylor polynomial of degree 6 at 0.
x
x
dx
x

=
}
2
1
Let f( ) sin( ), g( ) e 1, and h( ) 1.
1
x
x x x x
x
= = =

8
Decide which of the above functions takes the smallest values and
which the largest values for small positive values of x.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Overview of Problems
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
sin tan tan sin
Let f .
arcsin arctan arctan arcsin
x x
x
x x

9
1. Compute f(1), f(0.1), f(0.01) and f(0.001) with a mathematics program or a
calculator. What can you deduce of the limit of f(x) as x 0?
2. Plot the graph of the function f. What does the graph suggest about the
limit of f(x) as x 0?
3. Using Taylor series at x = 0, compute the above limit.
( )

+ + =
+ + + + +
Assume that 0.
Compute lim 1 2 3 .
n
a b c
a n b n c n
10
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Finding Taylor Series (1)
( )
( )
( )
2 1
0
1
Start with the Taylor series sin .
2 1 !
k
k
k
z z
k

+
=

=
+

( )
2
Find the Maclaurin series of the function sin x .
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 1
2 2 4 2
0 0
Substitute to get
1 1
sin .
2 1 ! 2 1 !
k k
k
k
k k
z x
x x x
k k

+
+
= =
=

= =
+ +

Problem
Solution
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Finding Taylor Series (2)
( )
( )
( )

+
=

=
+

2 1
0
1
Start with the Maclaurin series sin .
2 1 !
k
k
k
x x
k
( )
sin x
Find the Maclaurin series of the function .
x
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2 1 2
0 0
Divide all terms by to get
sin 1 1
1
.
2 1 ! 2 1 !
k k
k k
k k
x
x
x x
x x k k

+
= =

= =
+ +

Problem
Solution
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Finding Taylor Series (3)
( )
2
2
1
Observe that f . This is the sum of a geometric
1
series with first term 1 and ratio of two subsequent terms .
x
x
q x
' =
+
=
( ) ( )
= Find the Maclaurin series for the function f arctan . x x
( ) ( )
2 4 6 2
0
Hence f 1 1 .
k
k
k
x x x x x

=
' = + + =

Problem
Solution
( )
( )
1
3 5 7 2 1
0
This implies by integration that
1
1 1 1
f .
3 5 7 2 1
k
k
k
x C x x x x x
k
+

+
=

+ = + + =
+

To determine the constant of integration C, insert x = 0 in the above

equation to get C = 0.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Finding Taylor Series (4)
( ) ( ) ( )
=
Find the first three non-zero terms for
Maclaurin series of the function f cos sin . x x
( )
3 5 2 4
1 1 1 1
We have sin and cos( ) 1 .
3! 5! 2! 4!
x x x x u u u = + + = + +
( )
3 5
Use the shown beginnings of the Taylor series and substitute
1 1
in the Taylor polynomial for cos .
3! 5!
u x x x u = +
Problem
Solution
( ) ( )
2 4
3 5 3 5
2 4
2 4
One gets
1 1 1 1 1 1
cos sin 1 higher order terms
2! 3! 5! 4! 3! 5!
1 1 2 1
1 higher order terms
2! 2! 3! 4!
1 5
1 higher order term
2! 4!
x x x x x x x
x x
x x
| | | |
~ + + + +
| |
\ . \ .
| |
= + + +
|
\ .
= + + s
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Taylor Series and Limits (1)
The functions f, g and h satisfy the following:
3 3
f(3) g(3) h(3) 0, f(3) h(3) 0, g(3) 10 and f(3) 5,
f( ) f( )
g(3) 7, h(3) 10. Determine the limits lim and lim .
g( ) h( )
x x
x x
x x

= = = = = = =
= =
2 2 2
f g h
The properties of the functions f, g and h imply that their Taylor
polynomials of degree 2 at 3 are
5 7 10
P( ) ( 3) , P ( ) 10( 3) ( 3) , and P ( ) ( 3) .
2! 2! 2!
x
x x x x x x x
=
= = + =
Problem
Solution
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
2 3
3
Hence
5
( 3) terms divisible by ( 3)
f( )
2!
7
g( )
10( 3) ( 3) terms divisible by ( 3)
2!
5
( 3) terms containing powers of ( 3)
2!
0.
7
10 ( 3) terms containing powers of ( 3)
2!
x
x x
x
x
x x x
x x
x x

+
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Taylor Series and Limits (2)
The functions f, g and h satisfy the following:
3 3
f(3) g(3) h(3) 0, f(3) h(3) 0, g(3) 10 and f(3) 5,
f( ) f( )
g(3) 7, h(3) 10. Determine the limits lim and lim .
g( ) h( )
x x
x x
x x

= = = = = = =
= =
Problem
Solution (part b)
( )
( )
2 3
2 3
Using the Taylor series expansions at 3 one gets
5
( 3) terms divisible by ( 3)
f( )
2!
10
h( )
( 3) terms divisible by ( 3)
2!
x
x x
x
x
x x
=
+
=
+
( )
( )
3
5
terms containing powers of ( 3)
1
2!
.
10
2
terms containing powers of ( 3)
2!
x
x
x

+
=
+
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Approximate Integration
( )
}
1
0
sin
Approximate the value of the definite integral
by replacing the integrand by its Maclaurin series.
x
dx
x
Problem
Solution
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 1 2
0 0
1 sin 1
Start with sin , .
2 1 ! 2 1 !
k k
k k
k k
x
x x x
k x k

+
= =

= =
+ +

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
1
2 2
0
0 0
0 0
sin 1 1
2 1 ! 2 1 !
k k
k k
k k
x
dx x dx x dx
x k k

= =
| | | |

| | = =
| |
+ +
\ . \ .

} } }
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2 1
0 0
0
1 1
.
2 1 ! 2 1 2 1 ! 2 1
k k
k
k k
x
k k k k

+
= =
| |

|
= =
|
+ + + +
\ .

1 1 1 1
1 1 0.9461111
3 3! 5 5! 18 600
= + ~ + ~

Problem
Estimate the error of
the approximation.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Error Estimates
2
2
2 4 6 8
The Taylor series of the function e is
1 1 1
e 1 .
2! 3! 4!
x
x
x x x x

= + +
Problem
Solution
2
2
1
0
Approximate the error done when the value of the
definite integral e is approximated by replacing
the function e by its Taylor polynomial of degree 6 at 0.
x
x
dx
x

=
}
2 1 1 1
2 4 6 2 4 6 8
0 0 0
Hence
1 1 1 1 1
1 dx e 1
2! 3! 2! 3! 4!
x
x x x dx x x x x dx

| | | |
+ s s + +
| |
\ . \ .
} } }
1
8
0
1 1 1
So the error is at most 0.004629.
4! 9(4!) 216
x dx = = ~
}
2
2 4 6 2 4 6 8
Looking at the first terms left out, we deduce that
1 1 1 1 1
1 e 1 for 0 1.
2! 3! 2! 3! 4!
x
x x x x x x x x

+ s s + + s s
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Comparison of Functions (1)
2
1
Let f( ) sin( ), g( ) e 1, and h( ) 1.
1
x
x x x x
x
= = =

Problem
Decide which of the above functions takes the smallest values and which
the largest values for small positive values of x.
Solution
( )
1
2
2
2
2 4
2
1
The Taylor expansion for the function starts
1
1 3
1 1 2 2
1 1 .
2 2!
1
Substituting one gets
1 1 3
1 .
2 8
1
z
z z z
z
z x
x x
x

+
| || |

| |
\ .\ .
= + = + +
+
=
= + + +

Solution continues
We solve the problem by comparing the Taylor series at x = 0 of
the above functions. The smallest power terms of the series
determine the behavior of the function near the origin.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
2 2
2
1 1
Since for small positive values of , , we deduce
2 2!
1
that for small positive values of , 1 sin( ) e 1
1

x
x x x x x
x x
x
< < +
< <

Comparison of Functions (2)

2 4
2
1 1 3
We have 1 .
2 8
1-
x x
x
= + +
3
2 3 2 3
Taylor series for the other functions are basic Taylor series:
1
sin( ) and
3!
1 1 1 1
e 1 1 1 .
2! 3! 2! 3!
For values of near 0 it suffices to look at the Taylor pol
x
x x x
x x x x x x
x
= +
| |
= + + + + = + + +
|
\ .
ynomials of degree 2.
2 2
2
1 1 1
We have sin( ) , e 1 and 1
2! 2
1-x
x
x x x x x ~ ~ + ~
Solution continues
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Comparison of Functions (3)
Final Comments
2
1
1
1- x

e 1
x

sin( ) x
2
On the right we have graphs of the functions
1
1, sin( ), and e 1 plotted for near 0.
1-
x
x x
x

2
2
2
Since the Taylor series for
1
1 starts with the term ,
2
1-
the graph of this function looks like the parabola near 0. The
2
difference to the graphs of the functions sin( ) and e 1 is big sin
x
x
x
x
x
x

2
ce
1
the Taylor expansion of 1 does not have the first order term.
1-
The difference between sin( ) and e 1 is, on the other hand small, since
their first order terms of the Taylor expansions agree.
x
x
x

Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Elusive Limit (1)
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
sin tan tan sin
Let f .
arcsin arctan arctan arcsin
x x
x
x x

Problem
( )
0
This suggests that limf 3 or the limit does not exist.
x
x

>
Solution
1. Compute f(1), f(0.1), f(0.01) and f(0.001) with a mathematics program or a
calculator. What can you deduce of the limit of f(x) as x 0?
2. Plot the graph of the function f. What does the graph suggest about the
limit of f(x) as x 0?
3. Using Taylor series at x = 0, compute the above limit.
Numeric computations with Maple give f(1) ~ 1.183, f(0.1) ~ 2.000,
f(0.01) ~ 3.333 and f(0.001) = undefined.
1
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Elusive Limit (2)
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
sin tan tan sin
Let f .
arcsin arctan arctan arcsin
x x
x
x x

Problem
( )
0
This graph suggests that limf 1. The
erratic behavour of the graph at 0 may be
just a combination of rounding errors.
x
x
x

=
=
Solution (contd)
2. Plot the graph of the function f. What does the graph suggest about the
limit of f(x) as x 0?
3. Using Taylor series at x = 0, compute the above limit.
The graph of the function f is seen on the
right. Clearly this plot is not reliable at x = 0.
2
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Elusive Limit (3)
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
sin tan tan sin
Let f .
arcsin arctan arctan arcsin
x x
x
x x

Problem
4
0
4
1 29
30 756
1.
1 13
30 756
x
x
x

+
=
+ +
Solution (contd)
3. Using Taylor series at x = 0, compute the above limit.
3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
14 18
2 2
2 2
14 18
1 29
sin tan tan sin
30 756
1 13
arcsin arctan arctan arcsin
30 756
x x
x x
x x
x x
+

+ +
To understand the limit, we need to compute Taylor series for
the numerator and the denominator. We use a computer
mathematics system here.
This limit can be computed by Maples command
limit. The problems with the graph and with
computing actual values of f arise from the fact
that the Taylor series starts with order 14 terms.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Other Types of Limits (1)
( )
Assume that 0. Compute lim 1 2 3 .
n
a b c a n b n c n

+ + = + + + + +
Problem
( )
( )
0
1
f
Since 1 2 3 ,
1/
f
lim 1 2 3 lim .
n x
n
a n b n c n
n
x
a n b n c n
x
+
| |
|
\ .
+ + + + + =
+ + + + + =
( )
1 2 3
Write 1 2 3 1 1 1 ,
and consider the function f 1 1 2 1 3 .
a n b n c n n a b c
n n n
x a x b x c x
| |
+ + + + + = + + + + +
|
|
\ .
= + + + + +
Solution
The simpler version of the above where c = 0 is a familiar
problem that we have already solved by a rewriting. Here the
same trick will not work.
The equation is true provided
that this limit exists.
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series
Other Types of Limits (2)
( )
Assume that 0. Compute lim 1 2 3 .
n
a b c a n b n c n

+ + = + + + + +
Problem
( )
( )
0
f
We have now lim 1 2 3 lim .
n x
x
a n b n c n
x
+
+ + + + + =
( ) ( )
3
We get f 1 1 2 1 3 .
2 2
a c
x a x b x c x a b c b x
| |
= + + + + + = + + + + + +
|
\ .
Solution
( )
0
f
To compute lim we need to use Taylor series for f at 0.
x
x
x
x
+
=
( )
( )
3
f
2 2
Hence
a c
a b c b x
x
x x
| |
+ + + + + +
|
\ .
=
Now we use the
assumption a + b + c = 0.
0
3
0.
2 2
x
a c
b x

| |
= + + +
|
\ .
( )
Let f 1 1 2 1 3 . x a x b x c x = + + + + +
Index FAQ
Mika Seppl: Taylor Series