Chapter one

Introduction

1
Definition

The term “research” came into English from the old French root

word cerchier, meaning to search or seek, and the prefix “re”,

meaning again.
Therefore, research is seeking again, or an intensive search with
a view to becoming certain.
Research simply seeks the answer of certain questions which have
not been answered so far and the answers depend upon human efforts.

2
Con….
Is the answer of the question in examination also research”?

The answer is ‘no’, because the answers of these questions

are available. They are available in text-books, class-notes, etc.
Research answers only those questions of which the answers
are not available in literature i.e., in human knowledge.
Thus, we can say research seeks the answer only of those
questions of which the answers can be given on the basis of
available facilities.
3
Con…
Research proccess
Research
idea
Literature
Conclusions review

Theoretical
Comparison formulation of the
with earlier research problem
research

Research cycle/processes
Theoretical
interpretation Empirical
of the results research questions
(operationalization)

Answering
the empirical Research design
research questions (planning)
Data
Data collection
analysis

4
Why research?
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this objective in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);

2. To describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or

a group (studies with this objective in view are known as descriptive research
studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies

are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
5
Basic Characteristics of Research
Controlled…. The environment

Analytical…..analytical procedure

Cyclical…. Problem to problem

Methodological/Systematic

Logical….valid and verified

Empirical…..based on direct experience/observation

Critical…..carful judgment

Repeatability…..reproducible
6
Classifications of Research
A). Based on their objective

1)Basic research: It is a fundamental, theoretical, or experimental

investigation to advance scientific knowledge,
 immediate practical application not being a direct objective.

2) Applied research: This type of research is undertaken to solve specific

problems of society and to produce knowledge and technologies that can be
used in practice.
It is directed toward using knowledge gained from basic research to make
things or to create situations that will serve a practical or utilitarian purpose.

7
Classifications of Research con,,,
3) Adaptive research: is designed to adjust new technology to a specific
set of environmental conditions.
In adaptive research, no new scientific principle may be discovered.

However, development work related to adaptation and modification to suit

the needs of a country is important.

4) Strategic research: This is an inquiry aimed at defining research

strategies and priority areas in which specific applied research project should
focus.
It is research done to provide a basic understanding of a current applied
project.
8
Classifications of Research con,,,
B) Based on the attributes to be measured and the techniques used for collection and

analysis of data

1) Quantitative research: is used to quantify the problem by way of generating

numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics.
 It uses measurable data to formulate facts and reveal patterns in research.

2) Qualitative research: It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons,

opinions, and motivations.
 It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for
potential quantitative research.
 It is based on original ideas which might have practical implications, but requires
preliminary work in order to ascertain if the idea is merit.
9
Classifications of Research con,,,
C) Based on the methods of data collection

1) Experimental research: is deals with a situation where one can conduct a

controlled experiment to observe the behavior of a variable or variables of
interest. It is of two types:-

Laboratorial and field experiments

2) Non-experimental research: data are obtained not from actual laid out
experiments, but from survey research where respondents are either interviewed,
or are provided with self-administered questionnaires to generate data.

These two techniques of data collection involve careful questionnaire construction

and sample selection supplemented by secondary data.

10
 Chapter Two
Research Process

11
Research is a process
◦ It has a beginning and an end
◦ The process is cyclical not linear
◦ As a process , it entails a number of important steps
or stages each of which linked to other
◦ This steps may also be called essential elements of
the research process.
◦ One step or stage does not necessarily lead to the
other, although generally some activities or tasks
should come before or after other tasks both in the
research proposal and the actual research report.
◦ The research proposal is the initial outline of what we
intend to do or accomplish in the future, while the
actual research is the proposal turned into the
research document.
12
Research process
Research Process: Consists of several
actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research and the decide sequencing of
these steps.
 The various steps involved in a research
process are not mutually exclusive, nor are
they separate and distinct.

13
Research process…
 The following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guideline
1) Formulating the research problem /topic/
2) Literature review
3) Developing the hypothesis
4) Preparing the research design
5) Determining sample design
6) Collecting data
7) Analysis of data
8) Hypothesis testing
9) Generalization and interpretation
10) Preparation of the report
14
2.1Formulating the research problem
(Problem identification)
There are two types of research problems:-
◦ those, which relate to the state of nature and
◦ those, which relate to relationships.
Itrequires understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing it into meaningful
terms from analytical point of view.
This could be done through discussion with
colleagues, consulting experienced person,
reviewing literature.

15
Identifying research problem or topic

Also called focus for the study

Refers to the central concepts being examined in
a scientific study
How does the focus for the study emerge? How do
we identify research topic?
 Through literature review
 Via suggestions from colleagues/researchers or
advisors,
 Via practical experiences

16
Identifying research problem or topic
 Drafting a working title for the study
◦ Focus the topic by describing it succinctly, drafting a
working title, and consider whether it is researchable.
◦ Sound research topics/projects begin with straightforward,
uncomplicated thoughts easily read and understood.
◦ Be brief, concise; avoid wasting words/eliminate
unnecessary words.
◦ Consider a title no longer than 12 words
 Eliminate most articles and prepositions
 Make sure it includes the focus or topic of the study
◦ Consider whether the topic is researchable

17
Research process…
Key questions to ponder in problem identification are:
◦ What is the problem?
◦ What is its significance?
◦ Is it an area of common concern and interest?
◦ Is it feasible (can be researched), given available
resources?
◦ Is it original, real,? On what conceptual framework to base
the study? What tentative hypothesis?
◦ Is the researcher competent to do it?
◦ Does the researcher have access to tools, equipment, lab.
money, time, data etc to conduct the study?

18
Research process…
Try to seek answers to the following questions:
 What available information and knowledge on the nature, causes
and magnitude of the problem are there?
 What are the gaps in knowledge?
 What makes the problem worth studying?
 Will the solution of the problem advance knowledge appreciably, or
of measurable practical value?
 Will the study duplicate the work already done?
 What are the reasons that the problem was not studied up to now?
 Does the solution to the problem has any practical, theoretical
significance?
 What are the social, political, economic, technical, environmental or
theoretical implications of the study?

19
2.2 Literature survey/review
Reviewing is examining the published literature
in the area of inquiry to understand the current
state of knowledge in that area to:
◦ know what have been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers
◦ know the state of knowledge, the advances and gaps
as well as current controversies/debates on an issue
Itis all available relevant literature, published
and unpublished incl. books, articles and others

20
2.3 Development of working hypothesis/ Formulation of
statement of the problem or research questions
 Correct formulation of the statement of the problem is the heart of any
research proposal and one of its challenging tasks.
 It is a concise description of the issues that need to be investigated.
 It is descriptive, informative and climate building statement about the
problem to be investigated.
 a good statement of the problem should satisfactorily answer the
questions, ‘what is the problem?’ and, ‘why is it worth attention?’
 Research question: The specific purpose stated in the form of a
question.
 Hypothesis: A tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship
between two or more variables. A prediction of the answer to the
research question.

21
2.4 Preparing the research design
A) Meaning of research design
Research design is the decision regarding what,
where, when, how much, by what means concerning
an inquiry or a research study.
It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure
The overall plan for obtaining an answer to the
research question or for testing the research
hypothesis
22
research design
Res design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted;
Res design constitutes the blue print for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design is needed because it
facilitates the smooth running (sailing) of the
various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible

23
Research design
Will have been chosen based on:
Research question/hypothesis.
Strengths and weaknesses of alternative
designs.
Feasibility, resources, time frame, ethics.

24
research design
Use a diagram
Must be consistent with
objectives/hypotheses.
Must justify choice of design
appropriate choice to answer question
lack of bias/validity

25
research design
B) Important concepts relating to research
design
Dependent variable is a variable, which depends
up on or is a consequence of other variable.
DV is a variable that is casually influenced by
another variable (i.e. independent variable)
◦ It is a variable which is the consequence of other variable
◦ It is a condition that appears or disappears as the
researcher applies or varies an independent variable
◦ A condition that the researcher is trying to explain
◦ It is the desired outcome
26
research design
Independent variable is the variable, which is
antecedent to the dependent variable.
◦ For example, if we say height depends up on age, then
height is dependent variable and age is an independent
variable.
IV is a variable which has a casual impact on
another variable (i.e. on dependent variable)
It is a presumed cause of change in observed
phenomena
It is a condition that the researcher applies to
examine the behavior of phenomenon under study
27
research design
Continuous variables: Phenomena, which
can take any quantitatively different values,
even in decimal points.
◦ Age is an example of continuous variable.
 Discrete variables (non-continuous) –
those phenomena, which are, expressed only
on the basis of integer (whole numbers),
◦ e.g. number of children

28
research design
Extraneous variable: Independent variable
that is not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the dependent variable,
is termed as extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on DV as a result
of EV is technically described as an ‘
experimental error’.

29
research design
An important aspect of a good research
design is to ‘control’ or minimize the effect of
extraneous variable.
If dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable, the
relationship between dependent and
independent variables is said to be
‘confounded’ by an extraneous variable.

30
research design
e.g.time as an extraneous variable in the
evaluation of professors’ performance by
students
◦ If survey was made early in the semester – higher
evaluation
◦ If survey was made late in the semester – lower
evaluation
◦ Here time is a confounding variable.

31
research design
C) Different research designs
Commonly Used Research Designs are:
1) Experimental design
2) Surveys design
◦ Cross-sectional design
◦ Longitudinal design
3) Case research design

32
research design
1) Experimental design
It is used in natural science – in lab experiments.
Its use not common in social studies
it is often seen as a benchmark because it
engenders considerable confidence in the
robustness and trustworthiness of causal
findings.
it is considered to be very strong in internal
validity

33
research design
2) Survey design
Field surveys are non-experimental designs that do
not control for or manipulate independent variables
or treatments, but measure these variables and
test their effects using statistical methods.
2a) Cross-sectional surveys design:
"captures" information at one moment in time from
a single group of respondents at a single point in
time without any attempt to follow-up over time”

34
research design
Limitations of cross-sectional:
Anytime we are pursuing an analysis of
change, we want to know if situations or
conditions have changed over time.
2b) Longitudinal Research Designs
collects data at two or more points in time. In
so doing, longitudinal research is better
equipped than cross-sectional research to
address the question of change.
35
research design
Ina longitudinal design the researcher has
several options to consider:
◦ the fixed-sample panel design,
◦ repeated cross-sectional design (trend analysis),
and
◦ an event-based design

36
research design
3) Case Research Design
Case research is an in-depth investigation of
a problem in one or more real-life settings
(case sites) over an extended period of time.
It is a detailed and intense analysis of a
single case.
It is concerned with the complexity and
particular nature of a case under study
e.g. observation of - single community
37
research design

d) Common concerns of research designs

i. Reliability
ii. Validity

38
research design
Three key issues are raised under validity
How can we trust statements or claims of
measurements? i.e. the question of
measurement validity
How can we trust causal statements about
the world? i.e. the question of internal validity
How can we trust that our findings can be
applicable beyond the study that produced
them? i.e. the issue of external validity
39
2.5 Sampling Methods and Procedures
Who will be studied?
How will they be recruited?
How will they be allocated to study groups?

1. Who Will be Studied

A. Specify eligible subjects
Target population: demographic characteristics
Accessible population: Geographic
characteristics
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

40
Examples

1. Adherence on Antiretroviral treatment among adult

HIV positive people at the woldia hospital between
January 1 and March 30, 2016.

Inclusion Criteria:
Age > 16
Amharic-speaking
Registered patients

Exclusion Criteria:
Age <16
41
 Cont…
B. How will they be selected

Sampling: the process of selecting a portion of the

population to represent the entire population.

Keys to Success
Clear description of study population.
Appropriate inclusion/exclusion criteria.
Justification of study population and sampling method
(bias).
Clear description of sampling methods.

42
 Cont…
2. How Will They Be Recruited?

Describe what methods will be used to recruit

subjects. Important to document that the
study will be feasible and that there will be no
ethical problems.

43
 Cont…
Key terms and concepts
Population
a universe of units from which a sample is drawn
– such a universe can be made of persons or
group of persons, things, events, or phenomena
Census
An enumeration of the entire population. Data
that is collected from all units in the population
is treated as a census

44
 Cont…
 Sample
a segment or a part or a subset of a population that is selected
for investigation
 The method of selection can be based on probability or non-
probability approach
 A sample is drawn with the aim of making inference concerning
certain facts about the population called statistical inference
 The quality of estimates about the population depends on the
sample procedure employed
 Sampling frame
 The list of all units in the population from which a sample is
selected

45
 Representative Sample
 A sample that reflects the population accurately such that it
is a microcosm of the population
 Probability sample
 A sample that is selected using a random selection method
such that each unit in the population has an equal chance of
being selected. The method keeps the sampling error to a
minimum
 Non-probability sample
 Sample that has not been selected using a random selection
method. In this method some units in the population have
more chances of being selected than the other members
46
 Cont…
 Sampling error
◦ The difference between the sample and the population regardless of the use of probability
sampling method
◦ Use of probability sampling can reduce sampling error but cannot eliminate it.
 Non-sampling error
 The difference between the population and the sample that arises either from deficiencies in
the sampling approach (e.g. inadequate sampling frame) or from non-response, poor
question wording, poor interviewing or flawed data processing of data
 Non-response
 happens when some members of the sample refuse to cooperate, or
cannot be contacted, or for some reasons cannot supply the required
information

47
 Cont…
Confidence level and significance level
The confidence level or reliability is the expected
percentage of times that the actual value will fall
within the stated precision limits.
Thus, if we take a confidence level of 95%, then
we mean that there are 95 chances in 100 (or
0.95 in 1) that the sample results represent
the true condition of the population within a
specified precision range against 5 chances in 100
(or 0.05 in 1) that it does not.
48
Sampling methods
Two categories:
A. Probability sampling
- every sampling unit in a population has an
equal chance of being included
There are different types of probability sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Systematic sampling

49
 Cont…
Probability sampling
provides the best method for selecting a sample that
reflects variations in a population
Avoids conscious and unconscious biases in the selection
process
Enables to estimate the sampling error or the degree of
expected error
Sampling error is the extent to which the sample mean is
different from the population mean

50
 Cont…
Key steps
- Define the population
- Devise a comprehensive sample frame excluding those who do not meet the
criteria
- Decide sample size (n)
 For example sample size (n) can be determined based on Yamane (1967)
sample size determination formula which is presented as follows:
 n= Where: n=Sample size
 N= total population
 e=Sampling Error

- OR list all the households (items) in the population and assign them
consecutive numbers from 1 to N
- Using a table of random numbers or a computer program, select n
number of households (items) that is between 1 and N
51
B. Non-probability sampling techniques
Types
of non-probability
Consecutive sampling
◦ a sampling method where the first subject that
meets the inclusion criteria will be selected for the
study. If the second subject also meets that criteria,
he or she will also be included, and so forth
Convenience sampling
◦ Sample that is simply available to the researcher
due to its accessibility or being close at hand
Judgmental sampling
the researcher selects units to be sampled based on his own
existing knowledge, or his professional judgment
52
In short, consider the following when
deciding sample size
Cost in terms of money, time, materials,
expertise, etc
Level of precision expected of the sample
estimates (i.e. margin of error acceptable for
the estimate)
Level of variations or heterogeneity in the
population on variables of interest

53 53
 2.6 Data Collection
Methods of Data Collection
Before embarking on data collection, the researcher has to
decide on a number of issues such as:
a) what type of data to use
i) Primary data
ii) Secondary data, or
iii) Combination of both
And whether it is:
iv) Qualitative data
v) Quantitative data, or
vi) Combination of both

54
b) The sources of data
- Places, people, communities, records, books, journals,
official statistics, libraries, organizations, etc
- Is the required data available? Can it be
obtained/accessed?
c) How to acquire data
- What method (tools, techniques) to use to collect data
- Technique used to collect data depends on how the
researcher wants to approach the process of data
generation

55
 Cont…
Important to note that:
- If the researcher uses secondary data, s/he has no control
over the accuracy of the data
- The researcher can control the accuracy of data that is
collected by herself/himself (i.e. original, primary research)
as the methods of collecting data is under her/his control
- As qualitative data is verbal explanations of phenomena, it
is not amenable to statistical manipulation
- Qualitative data is difficult to analyze
- Quantitative data allows the use of statistical techniques
and manipulations
- The use of combined qualitative and quantitative research
is assumed to provide a better insight/picture of reality

56
Methods (tools, techniques) of data collectio
There are several methods for data collection
• The researcher decides which method or combinations of
methods is appropriate to her/his study based on
• The type and nature of problem to be investigated
• The level of variations/heterogeneity in the population
• The level of accuracy sought, and
• Availability of resource (money, time, manpower, materials,
facilities, etc.)

57
 Cont…
The different methods of data collection
methods in use are:
Questionnaire and interview schedule
Observation
Key informant interview
Focus group discussion
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

58
Issues to consider when designing a
questionnaire
Important to note that:
- the quality of data collected is only as good as the quality of
questions formulated and asked
- In the formulation of questions, attention must be given to the
wording of the questions, the structure of the questions, the way
the questions are sequenced & formatted.
- Short, simple and less complex questions (one question at a time)
are preferable
- Survey questions can yield reliable results when it asks people
matters they do not find too private or threatening.
- A survey is not the best method for gathering information about
private or sensitive matters
- Asking questions and taking notes may be very sensitive where
people are fearful of authorities, and certain groups
- Questions to be asked should be tailored to the cultural norms or
perceptions of groups and communities
59
 Cont…
Constructing a questionnaire is a serious
matter/step
- As mentioned already the quality of data, the results
and conclusion depend on the types of questions
asked and how they are asked
 Always bear in mind year research questions. What or
which information do you need to answer those
questions? What do you want to know to answer the
research questions?
 Hence, be clear on the problem of the study - have a clear
view of what things to do or need to do to answer the
research question (s)
60
Before you start questionnaire preparation:
- Identify and select ideas or topics for questions
- Make literature review and talk to other people in
developing ideas for the questions
- Make a thorough preparation and think seriously on
what questions to ask and how to ask them to
get the best results i.e. quality information
- Note that the length and scope of the
questionnaire matter. Note that long questionnaire
is tiring and takes too much of the respondent’s
time, affecting the quality of information and the
respondent’s willingness to cooperate

61
Specific guidelines for questionnaire
formulation
- Questions should be clear in meaning and free from
ambiguity. Avoid ambiguous terms or phrases from
your questions (such as how often, regularly – as
means of frequency)
e.g. what is your total financial worth? Does this
mean all income – earned and unearned? Does it
mean less debt or not? Does it mean personal
income or family income? Note that ambiguous
questions generate ambiguous answers
- Ask questions that are short, simple, clearly stated
and easy for respondents to answer
- Use simple, neutral and common everyday
language
- Avoid using specialized and technical terms,
jargons, abbreviations, or acronyms 62
Cont…
- Avoid leading questions. Questions should not imply
answers.
e.g. why do you think hitting children is wrong
Avoid double-barreled questions that ask more than
one question at a time
e.g.. How satisfied are you with you pay and
conditions in your job. Ask one question containing
one major idea at a time
- Avoid very general question. e.g. how satisfied
are you with your work. Focus your questions to the
central problem of the research
- Avoid the use of negative questions
63
Guidelines for interviewing

-Start with simple questions

- If asking sensitive question is a requirement, do not start the
interview by asking such questions first.
- First build some trust or rapport with the respondent and then give
some idea of what kind of question that are coming
- Pay attention about the placement of questions. Order the
questions in such away that the respondent does not lose interest
Consider these questions???
- Does the answer may be influenced by prior question?
- Does the question come too early or too late to arouse the
interest of the respondent?
- Does the question receive sufficient attention of the respondent
if placed here?

64
2Observation

2Most commonly employed method of data collection

- Is used to ascertain what the thing or event or phenomenon is
by observing it
- The researcher in a research setting
- observes behavior or changes in a research item at various
stages
- listen to what is being said
- ask questions and get answers on issues that need further
explanations, and
- keeps records (recording data and interpretation of
observation separately)
- The researcher has to be ever attentive and alert, and takes
notes as soon as observation made
- It is noticing changes which is being produced in things,
events or phenomena
65
Observation is divided into:
a) Structured or systematic observation
- Under this method, the researcher employs explicitly
or clearly formulated rules for observation and
recording of phenomenon
b) Unstructured observation
- The researcher does not follow explicitly formulated
rules for the observation and recording of behaviors
 Both structured and unstructured observations are
believed to generate the record of the actual or
the reality
66
3. Focus group discussion
- A form of group interview where emphasis is on group
interaction and joint construction of meaning on a research
issue
- Group is composed of 6-8 ‘typical’ people
- The researcher uses a Check list (on areas of focus issues) for
the discussion, s/he serves as facilitator and observer (not direct
participant or questioner)
- The method encourages debate and discussions on key issues of
research ultimately providing data on consensus
- The method can be used in feasibility studies
However,
- In focus group discussion, there is always a possibility that some
participants may dominate the other members
- Problems to fix meeting times, of punctuality, and absence of
some members from meeting at one time or the other
67
4. Key Informant Interview
-Interview of individuals having specialized
knowledge on a research issue or subject
Eg – elders, community leaders,
administrators, subject area specialists, etc
- Researcher uses check list of issues for the
interview

68
 Cont..
Data Measurement
- Measurement is qualitative or quantitative information
taken on certain characteristics
- It is a process of assigning symbols to dimensions of
phenomena as precisely as possible
- More specifically, measurement is the assignment of
numbers to objects, phenomena or events according
to accepted rules
- important to be aware that errors can occur in
measurement and that care should be taken to avoid
or minimize them
69
- Errors of measurement have significant
consequences on the quality of the data
(and consequently on the results and
conclusion that will be drawn from it)
- Sources of errors in measurement can be
- The respondent
- The situation
- The measurer, data collector
- The instrument (faulty)

70 70
Types of measurement scales
i) Counting and enumeration
- Involves simple counting and recording. It is
counting an object, a phenomenon, or an event,
and then assigning a numerical value to them
- The objects, or phenomena, or events should be
uniform and possess a set of common
characteristics which define the unit
ii) Ranking
- Measurement type often done in ranking objects in
terms of some order from
- Largest to smallest
- Tallest to shortest
- Highest to lowest
- Brightest to darkest
- Oldest to youngest, etc.

71 71
iii. Scoring
- A form of counting by classifying the phenomena
that are being measured by
- tallying, marking with lines, grooves, scratches
or notches
Levels of Measurement
- Levels of measurement refers to the relationship
among the values that are assigned to the
attributes for a variable
- For example, in a study of religious affiliation in a
certain area, assigning numbers 1, 2, and 3 to
Christian, Muslim and Jew respectively. The role of
the numbers is to serve as short codes for
lengthier text terms. No other meaning is
attached to the numbers other than representing
the corresponding terms or phrases

72 72
There are 4 levels of measurement
i) Nominal scale measurement
- Under this method objects are grouped in to
classes so that all of those in a single group are
equivalent with respect to some property e.g.
assigning 0 to male and 1 to female
- The assignment is purely arbitrary i.e. no
ordering of the cases implied. 0 and 1 are
measures at nominal level and do not imply
that 0 is less than 1 or vise versa
- Statistically we may count the number of cases
(i.e. how many 0’s or 1’s) in each class to get
frequency distribution. The numbers are mainly
used for labeling, identification or classification

73 73
ii) Ordinal scale measurement
- Is about measurements or data which are made
of ranked values or that can be rank-ordered
- e.g. grouping students in a class by height into
3 and assigning numbers 1, 2, and 3 to
represent tall, taller and tallest respectively.
The number surely indicate differences in
height but do not tell how much. Distance
between attributes do not have any meaning
- Only indicate relative magnitude and not exact
values. For example, military ranks, student
standings in class, etc. tell us the level
differences but not the extent of differences
between adjacent ranks

74 74
iii) Interval scale measurement
- In interval measurement, the distance between
attributes has meaning. e.g. when we measure
temperature (°C), the distance from 20-30 is same
as the distance from 50-60.
- data which contains a constant interval but not
true zero, for, example, when we say 0°C, it does
not mean that there is no temp. at zero level. The
interval between values is interpretable which
makes it possible to compute an average of an
interval variable. But interval measurement ratios
do not make any sense. e.g. 80 degrees is not
twice as hot as 40 degrees although the attribute
value is twice as large.
75 75
iv) Ratio scale measurement
- A measurement scale which has constant and a
true zero point. Meaningful fraction (or ratio)
with a ratio variable can be constructed. Most
count variables are ratio; e.g. weight, number of
clients in last six months – we can have zero
clients, twice as many clients, etc
- Constant interval means the difference between
two adjacent units is the same with differences
of any other adjacent units
- Important to know that zero point exists on the
measurement scale and there is significance to
its presence – weights, lengths, volumes, rates,
capacities, etc

76 76
Problems of Measurement
- After assigning numbers to events, phenomena or
objects according to rules, the researcher faces
two major problems (see previous notes on
validity & reliability)
i) Validity
- The degree to which a technique or method
measures what it claims to measure
- focuses around the question, ‘are we measuring
what we think we are measuring?’
- Validity is dependent on the quality of data
gathering techniques or procedures that enables
to determine what it was designed to determine
- Attaining validity is not a problem when
measuring certain physical properties such as
length, weight, etc. but becomes a problem in
behavioral studies

77
ii) Reliability
- Refers to the consistency of results; the
ability to get same results again
- Depends on the accuracy and precision of
measuring instruments

78 78
2.7 Methods of Data Analysis
 Data analysis requires critical thinking. Important
to start from the research objectives and the
types of data collected for the study
 Focusing on the research problem, the hypothesis
and the research questions helps to organize the
data for analysis
 Data analysis is divided into two: Quantitative and
qualitative
 The quantitative one further divided in to
descriptive /Single variable (Univariate) analysis and Correlation
(Bivariate) analysis/ and inferential /GLM and proc mixed/

79
Data preparation

Before embarking on the process of data analysis there is a

need to check and prepare the collected data. Data
preparation involves:
◦ checking or logging the data in
◦ checking the data for accuracy
◦ entering the data into the computer
◦ transforming the data; and
◦ developing and documenting a database structure that
integrates the various measures

80
 A) Logging (classification, cataloguing, sorting) Data

 to set up a procedure for logging the information and

keeping track of it until you are ready to do a
comprehensive data analysis
 Different ways in how to keep track of incoming data
 you have to set up a database that enables you to assess,
at any time, which data is already entered and which still
needs to be entered.
 You can use any standard statistical programs (eg, SPSS,
SAS, Minitab, or Datadesk) and run simple descriptive
analyses to get reports on data status.
 Retaining the original data records such as the
questionnaire, field notes, and so on—for a reasonable
period of time is critical
81
 b) Checking the Data for Accuracy

you should screen the data you collected for

accuracy right away. This allows you to go back
to the sample to clarify any problems or errors.
You should ask the following questions as part of
this initial data screening
 Are the responses legible/readable?
 Are all important questions answered?
 Are the responses complete?
 Is all relevant contextual information included (for example, data,
time, place, and researcher)?
In research quality of measurement is a major
issue. Ensuring that the data collection process
does not contribute inaccuracies helps ensure
the overall quality of subsequent analyses

82
 c) Developing a Database Structure
 database structure is the manner in which you intend to
store the data for the study so that it can be accessed in
subsequent data analyses
 To store data, you may use the same structure you used for
logging in the data; or in large complex studies, you might
have one structure for logging data and another for storing
it.
 two options for storing data on computer: database
programs and statistical programs. Data base is more
complex but flexible in manipulating data
 you should generate a printed codebook that describes the
data and indicates where and how it can be accessed. The
codebook should include the following items for each
variable:
◦ Variable name, Variable description, Variable format
(number, data, text)
◦ Instrument/method of collection, Date collected
◦ Respondent or group, Variable location (in database), Notes

83
d) Entering the Data into the Computer
◦ Typing the data in directly, preferably using a
procedure called double entry to ensure high level of
data accuracy
◦ double-entry procedure significantly reduces entry
errors
◦ In double entry procedure, data is entered once.
 Then, using a special program the data is entered a second time.
 This enables to check the second entries against the first.
 If there is a discrepancy, the program notifies and enables to determine which
is the correct entry.
◦ After data entry is complete, various programs can be
used to summarize the data that enable to check that
all the data falls within acceptable limits and
boundaries
84
e) Data Transformations
◦ This is about transforming the original data into a form that is
more useful or usable
◦ Some of the more common transformations are:
 Missing values: Many analysis programs automatically treat
blank values as missing. In others, you need to designate
specific values to represent missing values. For instance, you
might use a value of -99 to indicate that the item is missing
 Item reversals: When analyzing data, you want all scores for
scale items to be in the same direction where high scores
mean the same thing and low scores mean the same thing. In
these cases, you have to reverse the ratings for some
of the scale items.
 For instance, let's say you had a 5 point response scale for a
self-esteem measure where 1 meant strongly disagree and
5 meant Strongly agree, on an item "I generally feel good
about myself." If respondents strongly agree with this item,
they will put a 5, and this value would be indicative of
higher self-esteem. Alternatively, consider an item like
"Sometimes I feel like I'm not worth much as a person.“
 Here, if a respondent strongly agrees by rating this a 5, it
would indicate low self-esteem.
 To Compare these two items, you need to reverse the
scores
85
 Scale totals: After you transform any individual scale
items, you will often want to add or average across
individual items to get a total score for the scale
 Categories: You will want to collapse many variables into
categories. For instance, you may want to collapse
income estimates (in dollar amounts) into income ranges.

86
Types of Data Analysis
 Depending on the types of data, data analysis can be divided into
Quantitative Data Analysis and Qualitative Data Analysis

Data Analysis

Data
Preparation
1. Quantitative Data 2. Qualitative Data
Analysis Analysis

• Grounded
a) Descriptive Data b) Inferential Data theory
Analysis Analysis Content
Analysis
• Hermeneutic
Analysis
•Single variable •General
(Univariate) analysis Linear Model
•Correlation (Bivariate)
(GLM)
analysis • Others

87
2.8 Hypothesis testing
 Hypothesis testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, generalizations established on the basis
of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researchers in times to
come.

88
Con…
Any decision we make based on a hypothesis
test may be incorrect because we have used
partial information obtained from a sample to
draw conclusions about the entire population.
There are two types of incorrect decisions —
Type I error and Type II error

89
2.1.9 Generalization and
interpretation
 If hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e. to build a theory.
If a researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.

90
 Chapter Three
Research proposal Writing

91
Definition
Proposal lexically means a course of action,
activity etc. proposed.
a research proposal may be defined as a
written document requesting both
authorization and funds to undertake a
specific project in laboratory, library, field etc.
It specifies what you will do, why it should be
done, how you will do it and what you will
expect from the result.
92
Techniques and Formats of Research
Proposals
The theoretical setting of research has
consequences for scientific proposal writing.
It establishes a universe of discourse, which
mandates accuracy and clarity, and an objective-
oriented point of view.
There is no a hard and fast format in scientific
research proposal writing.
It varies from one organization to another, from
one country to another.
Though the format varies, the essence expressed
in different formats remains the same.
93
Con…
The different types of research use almost a
similar research proposal writing format.

What matter for medium and short term

research proposal is that there will be
different stages/phases in which the
preceding phase output will have an impact
for the subsequent phases

94
Con…
The purpose, structure and format of a
proposal will depend on the disciplinary
area in which the proposed research is
located.
While a proposal format is fairly standard
for quantitative studies, for qualitative
studies there is no one set format.
However, some basic principles guiding
preparation of a good research proposal
are worth noting.
95
 3.1.Developing your topic
 It must be interesting to you
 It must be feasible in the time allocated
 It must fit within financial and other resource constraints
 It must be within your competence
 It must be sufficiently delimited
 It must be manageable in size
 It must have the potential to make an original contribution
to knowledge or practice in the appropriate area
 It must be able to meet all ethical, legal and risk
assessment requirements

96
3.2. Quality of Research Proposal
a good research proposal should fulfill the
following requirements:
Have clear statement of research aims, which
defines the research question.
The methodology should be appropriate to the
research question.
The research proposal should have appropriate and
sufficient resources in terms of people, time,
transport, money, etc. allocated to it.
A research proposal should be ethical and not
harmful in any way.
97
Cont…
 Whilewriting research proposal, the following points
should be considered critically:
Anything that is history should be written in the past
tense. This will be applied when you write the
introduction/background and literature review parts.
 Methodology should be described in future tense.
Do not use personal pronouns (we, I, our, me, etc.). For
instance, you would not need to write “I will collect data
for---------, ---------, --------- and ---------- parameters”. Rather,
you should write in a way “data will be collected for ---------,
---------, --------- and ---------- parameters”.
 Avoid contracting words (don’t, can’t, couldn’t, etc.), and
miss spellings. For example, the spell checker will not alert
you to ‘trials’ being incorrectly spelled as ‘trails’.
98
Components of Research Proposal
 The major components of a scientific research proposal
are:
Title
Introduction (Background and Justification)
Statement of the problem
Objectives
Literature review
Materials and methods
Expected outcome
Work plan
Logistics
Reference
Appendix
99
title
 The title should be as explicit as possible
 Should be descriptive, clear and short
 Should capture and reflect the content of research
proposal
 Should enable the readers to understand the
concepts, methodologies and out puts of the study
 It should include the subject (i.e crop, pest, soil,
animal, disease, etc.)
 It should include the line of investigation (breeding
for resistance, evaluation of agronomic
characteristics, selection for adaptability,
100
Introduction

 The background and justification section in a

research proposal should give the general
background information about the subject to
be studied, and the need for undertaking the
research activity.
 This is possible by reviewing related previous
works (studies) to reveal what is known about
the subject (gaps in knowledge and current
trends).
 An introduction should follow a general-to-
specific writing pattern.
101
cont…
 Some questions to be addressed here may include:-
 What are current and previous studies have been made on
the issues to be studied?
 What is the available information on the magnitude, nature
and causes of the problem?
 What are the present gaps in knowledge?
 What makes the problem worth studying?
 Why has the problem not been tackled yet?
 What do you intend to fill the gaps or solve the problem?
 What is the conceptual framework?
 The expected impact of the results of the research activity
must also be stated.
102
Objectives
 This section should state unambiguously and concisely
the purpose of the research
 What is to be achieved by the proposed investigation has
to be stated plainly and concisely
 Should be cohesive and logically arranged
 Should be specified in short-term and long-term
parameter
 Should be relevant to the problem statement
 Should be stated in a form which shows the relations
between the variables
 Must clearly state the target of the research activity
 Not too many
103
 Literature review
 We can identify dimensions of the problem, the potential
difficulties in the area of investigation and know the unique
context and potential contribution of the research project.
 Demonstrate to your readers that you have read enough to
show that you are aware of who the most significant writers or
researchers are in your area of research
 Specify which issues or concepts you will concentrate on in your
review (this may well change as you read more widely and
deeply)
 Show that you can exercise critical judgment in selecting which
issues to focus on and which to ignore
 Show that you can take a critical approach to your area of
research
 Argue for the validity of your area of research in terms of its
need to address a ‘gap’
 Establish the theoretical orientation you are planning to take
104
Methodology
 Give full details to show with what , where, when and
how the research activity is to be carried out
 Contents of materials and methods normally include
Site (location) characterization,
Designs to be used,
Equipment and tools,
Replication number over sites,
Procedure of investigation,
Methodological data,
Data to be collected,
Data analysis methods,
Number of farmers participating,
Duration
105
Expected out put
 This part is a part from where a
researcher/reader simply understands what
will expected after successful
accomplishment of the research.
 This section should provide: the
anticipated/expected outcomes and a series
of paragraphs predicting of the significance of
the research.

106
Work plan
 This section will describe the sequence of activities
necessary to conduct the research.
 It includes the time necessary to complete each
activity.
 After reading this section, the reader will have a clear
understanding of what steps will be taken, the order
in which they will occur, and the time each step will
require.
 There are three steps in the formulation of work plan:
Analysis of tasks, time estimates of each tasks and
synthesis of the plan.
107
Logistics
 Indicate total budget break down each
activities in the research.
 It is the steps in preparation of budget.
 The steps in presentation of budget should
proceed in the following manner
Study the sequence of research activities or work plan,
Estimate the cost of each activity,
Group similar expenditure items together,
Allow for inflation, /contingency
Present a detailed periodic budget; and
Present a budget summary covering all years of the project.

108
Reference /bibliography
 isan alphabetical or numerical list with complete
source of relevant information about a given
subject.
 This section should provide a list of the sources
or academic works that have been found and
consulted up to the present.
 Whether writing an essay or project, or writing
an article or book for publication, you should
always quote, reference, or cite, the source from
which any assertions are made or from which
factual information or direct quotations come
109
Cont…
Failure to credit someone else’s work is to
plagiarise... to “take and use (the thoughts,
writings, inventions, etc. of another person)
as one’s own”.
Plagiarism is the act of presenting the words,
ideas, images, sounds, or the creative
expression of others as your own.
Plagiarism is therefore a form of theft and will
be taken seriously in the academic setting.
We will look more on research?????
110
Appendix/annex
This section should provide: Relevant
documents which are best not seen in the
main proposal text (because they affect
readability).
These may be source documents, pilot study
data, interview questions, surveys
questionnaires, photos, ANOVA results,
instruments, etc.

111
 Chapter Four
RESEARCH REPORT
PREPARATION AND
PRESENTATION

112
 Research report is considered a major
component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the
report has been presented and/or written.
 The purpose of research is not well served
unless the findings are made known to
others.
 Research results have no value unless they
are summarized in a form in which others can
use them.
113
Con…
 Knowledge of the rules and principles
involved in scientific paper writing will help
the researcher to write better thesis,
dissertation and journal articles as well as
periodic reports.
 The purpose of report guideline is, therefore,
to strengthen scientific communication
capabilities of research scientists and
encourage and promote a culture of scientific
publication among researchers.
114
Con…
 Writing of report is the last step in a research
study and requires a set of skills somewhat
different from those research proposal
writing.
 Research reports should be complete, well
organized and carefully drafted if their
contents are to contribute to fields in which
the research efforts are made.

115
The IMRAD form of Presenting Research
Papers

 One common question researchers often ask

is, ‘Why should scientists write research
papers?’
Helping advance knowledge in a particular field
Supporting the progression of a professional career
Satisfying the donor who provided the founding for
research
Becoming famous

116
Con…

 The most important reason to write research

papers and reports is to communicate.
Why????-b/s effective communication is vital
for science to progress.
 Before starting to write a scientific paper or
report, ask yourself the following questions:
Has the research work advanced enough to be reported?
Is this to be a progress report, a final report of the research
or a paper for publication?
Is the paper or report to be submitted to a donor, to an
institution of higher learning for a degree or as an
organizational annual report?
117
Characteristics of a good Scientific
Paper
A good scientific paper should:-
Present an accurate account of the research
investigation
Be clearly written and easily understood
Follow the particular style of the scientific discipline
Be free of jargon and local slang
Have appropriate and adequate illustrative material, all
of which should be relevant to the subject of the report
Not contain any plagiarized material (plagiarism is a
serious offence and is a serious charge against an
author)
118
Con…
A research report (presentations) may be
divided into
the following type’s even in the form of oral
presentation
technical report
popular report
interim reports
summary report
article
monograph

119
A) Technical report
 Itis essentially technical in nature and written
in technical language
 A technical report is used whenever a full
written report of the study is required whether
for recordkeeping or for public dissemination
 In the technical report the main emphasis is on
the methods employed,
assumptions made in the course of the study,
the detailed presentation of findings including their
limitations and supporting data.

120
Con…
A general outline of a technical report can be
as follows:
Summary of results
Nature of the study
Methods employed
Data
Analysis of data and presentation
Conclusions
Bibliography
Technical appendices
121
B) Popular reports
 Itis used if the research results have policy implications.
 This type of report is for audience like
executives/administrators and other non-technical users.
 Table, graphical and pictorial representations can be
used.
 A general outline of a popular report;-
The findings and their implications
Recommendations for action
Objective of the study
Methods employed
Results
Technical appendices

122
C) Interim reports
It is a suitable kind of a report to present data when
the phase of the project work gets completed.
The interim report contains a narration of what has
been done so far and what was the outcome.
It presents a summary of the findings of that part if
analysis which has been completed.
D) Summary report:
It is generally prepared for the consumption of lay
audience.
It is written in non-technical, simple language with a
liberal use of pictorial charts.
It just contains brief reference to the objectives of
the study and major findings and their implications. 123
E) Article
Is a written composition in prose/non-poem, usually
non-fiction on a specific topic forming an
independent form of publication
A collections of different articles become a journal.

F) monograph
A detailed written study of a single specialized
subject or an aspect of it.
By one author on one volume/ #not series

124
General Format of A research
Report
Title
 Abstract
 Introduction
 objectives
 Literature review
 Materials and methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 Appendix
What makes differ from proposal components?
Methodology/must be past form/
Omitted….hypothesis
Expected out put
Work plan
Logistics

125
 Abstract
 It is a short summary of the report.
 It should contain a brief description of methodology,
results and discussion sections.
 The abstract should be definitive rather than
descriptive; that is, it should give facts rather than
say the paper is ‘about’ something.
 Avoid fine details such as numbers and the names of
statistical tests here.
 A useful rule of thumb is to try to write four concise
sentences describing: (1) Why you did it, (2) What you
did, (3) What results you found, and (4) What you
concluded.
126
Con…
Abstract should not contain:-
References to tables or figures, as these appear
only in the paper
Abbreviations or acronyms unless they are
standard or explained
References to literature cited
Any information or conclusion not in the paper
itself
General statements or abstracts; findings should
be given as hard facts

127
 Results
 Follow the description of the treatment of the data
with a clear, concise summary of the data using
descriptive statistics.
 In a simple experiment, this will often take the form of
putting means and standard deviations
 Sometimes it will be better to use a graph instead of
putting the descriptive in a table or in the text.
 This is the core of the paper, presenting the data that
you have found.
 It is usually easiest to follow the results if you present
them in the same order as you gave the objectives in
the introduction.
128
 Discussion
 This is the section in which you interpret the results of
the study and discuss their meaning.
 It is important that your discussion relates to the issues
raised in the introduction, since this presented the
reasons for conducting the study and the results should
provide more details about these issues.
 You should link the arguments made in this section with
the issues and research hypotheses raised in your
introduction section with;-
 (1) How do your results compare with your research questions and/or
predictions?
 (2) How do your results compare with relevant previously published
results?
 (3) What are the implications for future research?

129
A good discussion:
Does not repeat what has already been said in the
review of literature
Relates the results to the questions that were set
out in the introduction
Shows how the results and interpretations agree,
or do not agree, with previously published work
Discusses theoretical implications of the work
States conclusions, with evidence for each
Indicates the significance of the results
Suggests future research that is planned or is
needed to follow up the results
130
 References
Rules for writing reference
 It is important (morally & legally) to acknowledge
someone else’s ideas or words you have used or
 Paraphrasing;- means re-wording something you
have read in to your own words.
 Everything that is cited in the text should be written
in the reference and vice versa.
 Citation: - A reference to a source of information or
quotation given in a text or body of the writing.
This is usually in abbreviated
 Reference: -The full writing of the citation
It include authors full name, tittle of material used, and all other
necessary information.
131
How do you reference?
 There are three things to remember when referencing:
1. The "elements" to include in the citation
name of the author, title of the book or article, date of publication,
volume (if any) and name of publisher.
2. House style (of publisher or course of study)
underlining, highlighting or using "quotation marks" are all acceptable
alternatives for indicating journal titles. You must find out which house
style to use on each occasion you present your work
3. Choice of referencing system (styles);- three common
types
A. The Harvard (author-date) system (the name-year system)
B. The Vancouver (numerical) system (numbered alphabetical system)
and
C. Footnotes system (the citation sequence system most frequently
used in medicine)
132
Cont…
Guidelinefor Scientific Writting - WldU
CoA - Approved 2008 EC.pdf

133
 Presentation of a research report
 Scientificpresentation can be given in two ways: Oral
presentation and written presentation.
 In academia, the ability to clearly convey scientific
information in an oral presentation is critical to both
teaching and research.
 Merit;- better understanding by audience
 Demerit;-lack of any permanent record and it may
fade away from people’s memory before an action is
taken
 In order to overcome this difficulty, a written report
may be circulated before the oral presentation and
referred to frequently during the discussion.
134
Con…
 Oral presentation is effective when
supplemented by various visual devices.
 Use of slides, wall charts and blackboards is
quite helpful in contributing to clarity and in
reducing the boredom
 Distributing a board outline, with a few
important tables and charts concerning the
research results, makes the listeners
attentive who have a ready outline on which
to focus their thinking
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Con…
 Although there are no strict rules about how to give
an effective presentation, there are some guiding
principles
Know the audience/ heterogeneous
Clarity/ no any thing mysterious
Make practice/ monk presentation
People might be sleeping/ due to boredom
Omit jargon words
Allocate your presentation time/I-35%, M- 40%, RD- 25%.
If possible, complete 2 minutes before time is up
At the end, do not forget to thank the chair and the
audience for their attention.
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 How to prepare slide?
 Use 7*7 rule
 Prepare your illustrative material such as slides or
overhead transparencies very carefully
 To make easily readable double space the text, or
use large letters
 Put your illustrations in the order you will use them
and number them accordingly
 If you are using slides, mark them so you know
which way they go into the projector tray
 Speaking at a normal speed, speakers can deliver
about 400 words in 5 minutes
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 Chapter Five
RESEARCH ETHICS

138
Research ethics refers to what is possible,
and is not possible to do when conducting
research
Research assumes that researchers have
professional and moral obligations to act
responsibly in their activities
Observing research ethics is a key factor to
earn credibility and respect both from
research participants and the public at large

139
 However, ambiguities abound as to what is
ethical or not ethical in research
 Nevertheless, literature highlights a number
of key considerations which the researcher
should observe in the course of research
activities
 there are a number of expected codes of
conduct and general guidelines that should
be duly observed by researchers in their
activities

140
Ethical considerations in research revolve
around issues concerning:
1. The responsibility shown towards research
participants
2. The consequences and/or usage of the
research outcomes,
3. The accuracy, validity and honesty of
research findings
Often ethical transgressions occur in the
course of data collection, interpretation
and the way of using findings. 141
Some of the key questions to ask in this regard are:
 Is data collection based on voluntary participation?
 Has any harm been done to participants?
 Is there invasion of privacy?
 Are participants agreed?
 Are participants forced or duped to provide information?
 Are confidentiality and anonymity of participant kept?
 Is some kind of deception involved in data collection?
 have others’ work been properly acknowledged?

 Are findings used for beneficial purposes?

 Is data interpreted for individual or group benefit?

 Is data genuinely interpreted?

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A. Responsibility towards research participants
 Refers to respect of the rights of those cooperating with the
research
This includes:
1.The need to get informed consent of
participants;
This means:
- To get consent from the participants on whether or
not they are willing to participate or provide
information based on their freewill
- Respect for voluntary participation i.e. individuals
determine for themselves whether or not to be part
of a research project
143
Con…
Participants are informed about all aspects of
a research project which might influence their
decision to participate - such as
information on the goals of the research,
what is expected of them,
potential risks and benefits of participation, incl. the right
to withdraw
Avoid forcing or duping subjects to provide
information

144
Con…
Avoiding disguised and covert observation
Informed consent assume that participants
are able, competent, mature, responsible
and willing to provide the required
information, and fully comprehend its
consequences
However, it is important to note that the right
to informed consent is often violated

145
2. Respect for privacy of subjects
Refersto the right of subjects to provide
information under the conditions they want. i.e..
where they want to provide the information
when they want to provide it, and
under what condition (s) e.g. level of secrecy, they want to
provide it
The right to privacy is about paying attention to:
The sensitivity of the information being solicited
The location or setting of the research, and
Disclosure of the study findings

146
3. Confidentiality and anonymity
Confidentiality refers to:
 protection of the participants identity i.e. removing all
identifying information about individuals from research
records and reports.
 It is an assurance that the information will never be linked to
individual participants in public.
 It means not going public with personal information
espcially, keeping sensitive information secret
 Confidentiality encourages honest responses from
participants
 However, there is limit to confidentiality if the legal system
becomes involved
147
Anonymity
 ensures that there is no link at all between
individual data and the participant
 The difference between confidentiality and
anonymity is that in the first case the
researcher actually knows which name is
linked to which specific information while in
the second s/he does not

148
B. Consequences and/or how research outcomes used

Relates to damages that could be done to

subjects both during the research process
and after the results are obtained
i.e. physical, social, psychological, health
damages, etc:
Side effects, and short and long term
damages such as disability, pain, distress,
loss of self-esteem, etc.
Use of results for destructive purposes

149
Con…
Research should
◦not cause harm to subjects
◦refrain from activities that cause
damage to the physical, psychological
and emotional well-being of
participants
◦Research that harms or poses risks to
subjects is incompatible with the
fundamental ethical principles 150
 C. Accuracy, validity, and honesty

This refers to reporting nothing but the truth: Fair and

accurate reporting of findings is the whole mark of
good research
Avoiding conflict of interest – the researcher should
not be influenced by personal gains in interpreting
findings
Plagiarism and theft – stealing and using others works
without properly acknowledging is not allowed
Data manipulation (also known as data doctoring),
data falsification, and data fabrication are illegal in
research
151
Con…
Traitsof a researcher
Directness
Truthfulness
Humbleness (not being arrogant)
Modesty (be reserved)
Politeness
Respectfulness
Avoiding bias (prejudice, partiality, favoritism,
preconceived notion, foregone conclusion)
152
Con…
Measures to ensure research ethics
The presence of ethical committees – the existence
of bodies entrusted with the responsibility to oversee
whether ethical rules are observed or not is vital
The presence of peer validation- research findings
should always be reviewed by peer groups
The need to view research findings with care and
measured skepticism
The presence of the practice of continuous evaluation
of results – checking and rechecking of previous
findings is essential to correct possible wrong
conclusions

153