UNIT1-EMBEDDED SYSTEM

COMPONENTS
 What is an embedded system
• An embedded system is an electronic/electro-
mechanical system designed to perform a
specific function and is a combination of both
hardware and firmware (software)
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM
• To perform a specific function
• Combination of both h/w and s/w
• May or may not contain an O.S
• The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
programmed and it is non alterable by the end user
 CLASSIFICATION OF ES
• 1. Based on generation
• 2. Complexity & performance requirements
• 3. Based on deterministic behavior
• 4. Based on triggering
 1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GENERATION

• First generation : 8 bit µp like 8085- simple h/w –

f/w in assembly code
• Second generation : 16 bit µp and 8/16 bit µc –
instruction set much more complex
• Third generation : 32 bit µp and 16 bit µc – DSP
and ASIC came to picture – pipelining evolved
• Fourth generation : advent of SOC multi core
processors- making use of high performance
RTES
• What is next?
2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMPLEXITY AND
PERFORMANCE
• Small scale embedded system:
Simple
Not time critical
Low performance
Low cost
May or may not contain o.s
• Medium scale embedded system:
Slight complex in h/w and s/w
Medium performance
Low cost
Usually contain an o.s
• Large scale embedded system :
Highly complex h/w and s/w
Demanding high performance
May contain multi-core processors and co processors
Usually contain RTOS for task scheduling and prioritization management
 MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS
• Consumer electronics: Camcoders,Cameras.
• House hold appliances: Television,DVD player,Fridge.
• Security systems
• Automotive industry: ABS, Engine control, ignition system.
• Telecom: Telephones,telephone switches.
• Computer networking systems: Routers, switches,hubs.
• Healthcare: EEG, ECG machines etc.
• Measurement and instrumentation: Digital
multimeter,CRO,PLC.
• Banking & retail: ATM, currency counters.
• Card readers:Barcode, Smart card readers,hand held
devices.
 PURPOSE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Each embedded system is designed to serve the

purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks:

• Datacollection/storage/representation/analysis/
manipulation/transmission
• Data communication
• Data processing
• Monitoring
• Control
• Application specific user interface
ELEMENTS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

communication
MEMORY interface

System O/P PORTS

I/O PORTS
core (ACTUATORS)
(SENSORS)

Other
supporting
IC s and
subsystem
s
CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM
• The core of the embedded system falls in to
any one of the following categories
1. general purpose and domain specific
processors ( µp, µC, DSP )
2. ASIC(Application specific IC)
3. programmable logic devices (PLD)
4. commercial off-the-shelf components
(COTS)
 GPP vs. ASIP
• General purpose processor :
Designed for general computational tasks
E.g.. Processor in the laptop
High volume production
Unit cost for a chip is low
• ASIP instruction set and architecture
optimized to specific application
• ASIP arises when the GPP are unable to
meet the application needs
 µP Vs µC µC
µP
Representing a CPU performing Highly integrated chip that contains
ALU operations according to a pre CPU, RAM, on chip ROM , timer etc
defined set of instructions
It is a self contained unit
It is a dependent unit requires
other chips like timers , memory
chips etc
Most of the processors contain multiple
Doesn't contain built in I/O port built in I/O ports

Limited power saving options

Includes lot of power saving features
Mostly general purpose in in
Mostly application oriented or domain -
design and operation
specific
 RISC VS CISC
RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instruction Greater no. of instructions

Instruction pipeline Generally no instruction pipelining

Orthogonal instruction set(operates on any Non-orthogonal instruction set

register and any addressing mode)
Operations are performed on registers only Operations are performed on registers or
except load and store memory

Large no. of registers are available Limited no. of registers are available

Programmer needs to write more code to Programmer can achieve the same with a single
execute a task instruction

Fixed length instruction Variable length instructions

Less silicon usage More silicon usage since additional decoder
logic is used for complex instruction
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von Neumann architecture
Harvard Vs Von Neumann Architecture
Harvard Architecture Von- Neumann Architecture

Separate buses for instruction and data Single shared bus for instruction and data

Easier to pipeline Low performance compared to Harvard

Comparatively high cost Cheaper

No memory alignment problem Allows self modifying codes( modifies while

execution)
Since data memory and program
memory are stored physically in Since data memory and program memory
different locations no chances for are stored physically in same chip chances
corruption of program memory for corruption of program memory
 Big endian Vs Little endian
• Specifies the order in which the data is stored
in the memory in multi byte system
• If word length is 2 byte then data can be
stored in 2 ways
– Higher order of data byte at higher memory and
lower order just below that
– Lower order of data byte at higher memory and
higher order just below that
Byte 0 Base address + 0
Byte 1 Base address +1 Little endian – lower order byte of data at
Base address+2 lowest address
Byte 2 Base address+3
Byte 3

Big endian
Byte 3
Base address + 0 Big endian – higher order
Base address +1 Byte 2 byte of data at lowest
Base address+2 Byte 1 address
Base address+3
Byte 0
 Load and store operation
• Load – content of memory location loaded to a register
• Stored- stores the content of data from the specified
register to specified memory
• E.g.. Add contents of memory locations x,y and store
the result in location z

load R1,x
load R2,y
add R3,R1,R2
store R3,z
 Instruction pipelining
• conventional instruction execution –fetch-
decode-execute
• Instruction pipelining refers to the
overlapped execution of instructions
• Processing speed can be increased
 ASIC
• A micro chip designed to perform a unique
application
• It integrates several functions to a single chip
and there by reduces the cost
• Consumes a very small area and there by
helps in the design of smaller systems
• Can be pre-fabricated or custom fabricated
• Profitable only for large volume productions
 Programmable logic devices
• Logic devices can be classified into two (fixed and
programmable)
• Circuits in fixed logic device are permanent- (for one
function or set of functions) –they can not be changed
• PLD offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed etc.
• final design is completed much faster than that of fixed
logic device
• During design phase customers can change the circuitry as
often as they want
• PLDs are based on re-writable memory
• Once design is final customers can go into many PLDs as
they need
 CPLD AND FPGA
• Two major types of PLDs are field programmable gate
arrays and complex programmable logic devices
• FPGA – highest logic density, most features, highest
performance
• Offers built in h/w processors, clk management
systems, device to device signaling
• Used in wide range of applications telecom, DSP etc
• CPLD - Small amount of logic density
• Offer very predictable timing characteristics and so ideal
for critical control applications
• Usually requires low amount of power
• Very inexpensive
• Ideal for cost-sensitive, battery operated
• Ideal of portable applications such as mobile phones
 Advantages of PLD
• Offer customers much more flexibility during
design cycle
• Do not require long lead time for production
part
• Allows customers to orders just number of
parts they need, when they need them
• Can be reprogrammed. To add new feature
simply upload a new programming file to the
PLD via internet
 Commercial off-the-shelf components-
COTS
• Provides easy integration and interoperability with
existing system components.
• May be developed around a general purpose/domain
specific processor/application specific processor
• E.g.- remote controlled toy car control units like RF
circuitry part, ADC , UV detectors etc.
• Readily available in the market
• Cheap
• Developer can cut down development time
• since no operational and manufacturing standards end
user should stick to a particular vendor for a particular
COTs
• Manufacturer of the COTS component may withdraw
the product at any time
 Memory
• On-chip and off-chip memory
• Program storage memory-nonvolatile

FLASH ROM NVRAM

PROM EPROM EEPROM

MROM
 MASKED ROM
• One time programmable
• Pre programmed by the manufacturer
• Make use of hardwired technology for storing
data
• Least expensive
• MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is
not possible to alter the bit information
 PROM (OTP)
• Not pre- programmed by the manufacturer
• End user is responsible for programming
• Programmed by PROM programmer which
selectively burns the fuses
• Fuses which are burned represents 0 and not
burned represents 1
• Can not be reprogrammed
• Not useful for development
 EPROM
• Gives flexibility to reprogram the same chip
• Stores information by changing the floating
gate of an FET
• Quartz crystal window is used to erase
information
• It needs to be taken out and put in UV eraser
for 20 to 30 min which is time consuming
• Tedious & time consuming
 EEPROM
• Information can be altered by using electrical
signals
• Can be reprogrammed in circuit
• Can be erased in few milliseconds
• Capacity is limited compared with standard
ROM
 FLASH
• Latest and most popular
• Combines re programmability of EEPROM and
high capacity of standard ROM
• Stores information in array of MOSFET
• Erasing can be done at sector /page level
 RAM
•It is data memory
•Read from it & write to it
•RAM is volatile – power turned off,
content destroyed
•Direct access memory
 RAM
• SRAM, DRAM AND NVRAM
• SRAM- stores data in the form of voltage
• Made up of flip flop
• Fast .Typical access time is 10ns
• Low capacity
• High cost
• Minimum of 6 transistors are used to build a
memory cell
• Does not require refreshing
 DRAM
• Made up of MOSFET and a capacitor
• Requires refreshing
• High capacity
• Less expensive
• Slow . Typical access time is 60ns
• NVRAM
• Its RAM with battery backup
• Contains SRAM and a minute battery
• Life span is around 10 years
 Memory shadowing
• Execution of ROM is very slow compared to RAM
• RAM access is three times as fast as ROM
• This is to solve the execution speed problem in
processor based system
• ROM BIOS is read and the system is configured
according to it during system boot up( its time
consuming)
• During boot up copy the BIOS to the shadowed RAM
and write protect the RAM then disable the BIOS
reading
 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
Sensors : that converts energy from one form to
another for any measurement or control
purpose
E.g. Smart running shoe

Actuators:
Which converts signals to corresponding
physical action.
Acts as o/p device
 i/o subsystems
• Facilitates the interaction o the embedded system with the
external world
LED:
• o/p device
• Pn junction diode
• Anode to +ve terminal and cathode to –ve terminal
• A resistor in series to limit the current
7 segment LED display
• o/p device to display alphanumeric characters
• 8 LEDs
• a- g segments
• Two configurations- common anode and common cathode
• Used for low cost application
 Optocoupler
• To isolate two parts or a circuit (for suppressing
interference in data communication, high voltage
separation etc)
• Combines a LED and a photo-transistor in a single
package
• Can be used in i/p and o/p circuits
Stepper motor
• Electro- mechanical device which generates
discrete displacement in response to dc electrical
signals
• Dc motor gives continuous rotation
• Consumer electronic products, robotics control,
paper feed mechanism of a printer
• Two phase stepper motor is classified into
two.
• Uni polar and bi polar
• Unipolar: contains two winding per phase
• Direction of rotation is controlled by changing
direction of current
• Current in one direction flows through one
coil and in opposite direction through the
other coil
• Bipolar:
• Contains single winding per phase for
reversing the motor rotation the current flow
through the winding is reversed.
• The stepping of stepper motor can be
implemented by changing sequence of
activation of the stator windings
 Different stepping modes
• Full step: both phases are energized simultaneously
Step Coil a Coil b Coil c Coil d
1 H H L L
2 L H H L
3l L L H H
4 H L L H

• Wave step: only one phase energized at a time

step Coil a Coil b Coil c Coil d
1 H L L L
2 L H L L
3 L L H L
4 L L L H
• HALF STEP: Combination of wave and full step
• Highest torque and stability
step Coil a Coil b Coil c Coil d
1 H L L L
2 H H L L
3 L H L L
4 L H H L
5 L L H L
6 L L H H
7 L L L H
8 H L L H
 RELAY
• Electro-mechanical device
• Contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire
on a metal core and a metal armature with one
or more contacts
• When voltage is applied to relay coil , current
flows and generates magnetic field which attracts
armature core and moves the contact point
• Widely used configurations are single pole single
throw normally open, single pole single throw
normally closed, single pole double throw
• Piezo buzzer: is a piezoelectric device for generating
audio indications in embedded application
• Contains piezo electric diaphragm which produces
sound in response to the voltage
• Self driving and external driving (predefined tone and
different tone)
• Push button switch:It is an input device.
• Push to make and push to break (normally closed and
normally opened)
• In the pushed state it breaks/makes circuit connection
• Used for generating a momentary pulse
• Used as reset and start in embedded application
• Depending on the way in which push button interfaced
to the controller it can generate either a HIGH or LOW
pulse
• Key board: input device of user interfacing
• Can use push button switches , but it is a wastage of
port pins
• So matrix key board which reduces the number of
interface connections
• For detecting a key press uses scanning technique.
• To prevent de-bounce issue a technique should be
applied
• s/w technique and h/w technique
• s/w easy to implement and the key is read after de-
bounc e delay
• PPI: To extend i/o capabilities of processors
• 8255 is popular
• Supports 24 i/o pins which ca be grouped in to 8 bit
parallel ports (port A, port B, port C)
 Communication interface
• For communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system and with external world
On boards communication interfaces
• for interconnecting the various ICs and other peripherals
within embedded system
I2C bus (inter integrated circuit bus)
• Synchronous bidirectional half duplex two wire serial
interface bus
• Comprise of two bus lines, serial clock and serial data (SCL
and SDA)
• Many number of I2C devices can be connected
• Devices connected to I2C can act as master or slave device
• I2C bus three different data rates
(100kbps,400kbps,3.4mbps)
 Serial peripheral interface SPI bus:
• Synchronous, bidirectional, full duplex four wire serial
interface bus
• It’s a single master multi-slave system
• Requires four signal lines for communication (master out
slave in, master in slave out, serial clock, slave select)
• Master device is responsible for generating the clock signal
• Master selects the required slave device
• SPI works on the principle of shift register. Master and
slave devices contain a special shift register for the data to
transmit or receive.
• Size of SR is device dependent. Normally it is a multiple of 8
• Compared to I2C ,SPI is most suitable for transfer of data in
streams
• Limitation is , it doesn’t support an acknowledgement
mechanism
 UART (universal asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
• Asynchronous form of data transmission
• Serial data transmission doesn’t require a clock signal
to synchronize the end of transmission
• It relies upon the pre defined agreement between the
devices
• For proper communication the transmit line of the
sending device should be connected to the receiving
device
• It also provides h/w handshaking signal support for
controlling the serial data flow
• Nowadays most the microprocessors are available with
integrate UART functionality
1-wire interface

asynchronous half duplex communication protocol

• It makes use of only a single signal line called DQ for
communication and follows master-slave
communication model
• It allows power to be sent along the signal wire as well.
(I2C uses internal capacitor to power the device)
• Supports a single master and one or more slave
devices
• Every 1-wire device contains a globally unique 64 bit id
no stored within it for addressing
• Communication over the 1-wire bus is divided into
timeslots of 60micro sec
Parallel interface:

• Used for communicating with peripheral device

which are memory mapped to the host of the
system
• Device which supports parallel bus can directly
connect to this bus
• Controlled by the control signal interface
between the device and the host(rd/wr,select)
• Always initiated by host processor, if device
wants to initiate then it should use interrupts
• Direction of data is controlled by rd/wr
• Decoder circuit activates the chip select line to
activate the device
 External communication interface
• Channels/buses use by the embedded system to communicate with the
external world
RS 232/ RS 422/RS485:
full duplex, wired, asynchronous serial communication interface
• Developed by EIA( electronics industries association ) during 1960
• Logic 0 is represented with voltage between +3 and + 25,
• logic 1 using voltage between -3 and -25
• Logic 0 is known as space and logic 1 as mark
• Supports baud rates up to 20 kbps
• still popular in industrial applications
• Supports two different types of connectors- DB-9 and DB-25
• Supports only point to point communication
• Not suitable for multi- drop communication
• More susceptible to noise and reduced operating distance
 Universal serial bus:Wired high speed serial bus for data
communication
• Follows star topology with a USB host at the centre and one or more
USB peripheral devices connected to it.
• Transmits data in packet format
• Improves the noise immunity
• Has the ability to supply power to the connecting devices
• Mini and micro USB connectors are available for small form factor
devices like portable media player
• Supports four different types of data transfers
1 control: s/w to query, configure and issue commands to the USB
device
2 Bulk: for sending block of data to a device,
3 Isochronous data: for real time data communication (data transmitted
as streams in real time. Does not support error checking and
retransmission. Audio devices and medical equipment)
IEEE 1394( Firewire):
wired, isochronous high speed serial communication bus
• Supports peer to peer connection and point to multipoint
communication
• Allowing 63 devices to be connected on the bus in a tree
topology
• Can support a cable length of up to 15ft
• Supports data rate of 400 to 3200 Mbits/sec
• Supports 3 types of connectors (4pin, 6pin, 9pin)
• Used of devices like digital camera, camcorder for data
transfer and storage
• Unlike USB doesn’t require a host for communicating
between devices (directly connect a scanner with a printer)
• Data rate is far higher than USB
• h/w implementation costlier than USB
 Infrared( IrDA):
• serial, half duplex, line of sight based wireless technology
for data( remote control of TV)
• Supports point to point and point to multipoint
communication
• Communication range 10cm to 1m
• IR supports data rates ranging from 9600 bits/s to 16 Mbps
• Infrared light emitting diode is the IR source and
photodiode acts as receiver
• Has two parts , physical link part and a protocol part
• Popular for file exchange and data transfer in low cost
devices
• Even now most of the mobile phones supports IrDA
 Blue tooth(BT):

• low cost, low power, short range wireless technology for

data and voice
• Supports a data rate of up to 1Mbps
• Range approximately 30ft
• Like IrDA it has two parts
• Each BT device has a 48 bit unique identification number
• Supports point to point and point to multipoint
communication
• A device can act as master or slave
• Popular in mobile phones
 Wi-Fi:
• wireless fidelity is popular for wireless
communication for networked
communication
• Supports IP protocol
• Each device is addressed by IP address
• An intermediate agent called wi-fi router
• Supports data rate 1Mbps- 150 Mbps
• Offers range of 100- 300ft
 ZigBee:
• low power, low cost, wireless n/w protocol
• Supports distance upto 100m
• Supports Data rate of 250Kbps
• 3 device category ( coordinator, router, end device)
• Coordinator- acts as the root of the n/w. responsible of
initiating the n/w and can store information about the
n/w
• Router-for passing information from one device to
other
• End device-for data communication
• Eg: smoke detector, heating control , lighting control
 General packet radio service(GPRS):
• for transferring data over a mobile communication
n/w like GSM
• Data is sent as packets
• At receiving end re constructed by combining packets
• The radio channel is shared between several users
instead of dedicating to a cell phone user
• Supports IP protocol and PP protocol
• Mainly for mobile enabled embedded devices
 Embedded firmware
• Refers to the control algorithm and or the configuration
settings that an embedded system developer dumps into
the memory of the embedded system
• Various methods-
• Write program in high level languages like embedded C
• Write the program in assembly language using the
instructions supported by your application’s target
processor
• These should be converted to machine code before loading
to the memory which is called ‘ HEX file creation’
• For a beginner it is better to use HLL.(writing code is easy,
highly portable, not developer dependent )
• Assembly language is tedious , time consuming and highly
dependent on developer
 Other system components
• Circuits/IC s necessary for the proper functioning
of the embedded system

Reset circuit: to ensure that the device is not

operating at a voltage level when the device is
not guaranteed to operate when power ON
• Reset signal starts the execution from the reset
vector from the address 0x0000
• Either active H or active L
• Some micro processors/controllers contains built
in reset circuitry
 Brown-out protection circuit :
• protection circuit prevents the processor/controller
from unexpected program execution behavior
when the supply voltage falls below a specified
voltage
• May lead to data corruption
• Essential for battery powered devices
• This holds the processor in reset state until it rises
above the threshold voltage
• Oscillator unit: is responsible for generating
the clock for the processor
• Certain processors integrate built in oscillator
and simply require an external quartz crystal
for producing the clock
• Speed of the processor depends on clock
frequency
• Power consumption increases with increase in
clock frequency
• Accuracy of the program execution depends
on accuracy of clock signal
• Real time clock: for keeping track of time
• Holds information like current time, date, month, year
and day of the week etc.
• Should function even in the absence of power. So
contains a battery back up
• Available in the form of IC s
• Essential for synchronizing the operations of the OS
kernel
• Can interrupt the OS by asserting the interrupt line
• OS kernel identifies the interrupt ( IRQ no)
• The kernel can perform necessary operations like
system date time updation , managing s/w timers etc
Watchdog timer:
To monitor the firmware execution and reset the system
processor when the program execution hangs up.
( alt+ctl+del)
It’s a h/w timer
It inc/dec a counter with each clock pulse and generates
a reset signal when reaches 0
Most processors implement as built in or using an
external IC
When watchdog timeout occurs an interrupt is generated
instead of resetting in modern systems and interrupt
handler handles the situation in an appropriate fashion
 PCB and passive components

• Backbone is PCB
• After finalizing the components and the
connection a schematic design is created and
PCB is fabricated
• Apart from subsystems You can have resistor,
capacitor, diodes etc on your board
 Characteristics of an embedded
system
• Unlike general purpose computing system, embedded system
posses certain specific characteristics and these are unique.
Application and domain specific: embedded systems are developed
to do the intended functions only
• They can not be used for any purpose
• You can not replace an embedded control unit developed for a
particular domain say telecom with another control unit designed
to sey another domain like consumer electronics
Reactive and real time: emb.sys. are in constant interaction to the
real world
• Any changes happening in the real world (event)are captured by
the sensors or i/p devices
• The event may be periodic or unpredicted one(should not miss)
• So emb.sys. are generally reactive
• Timing behavior or the system should be deterministic
• Should not miss deadlines
Operates in harsh environment: the environment in which the
emb.sys. deployed may be a dusty one or high temperature
zone
• System placed in such areas should be capable to with stand
all operating conditions
• Distributed: emb.sys. may be a part of larger system
• Automatic vending m/c contains card reader, vending unit
etc.
• They are independent but work together to achieve a
common goal
Small size and weight: size, weight, shape etc will be one of the
deciding factors to choose a product
• Most applications demands small sized and low weight
products
Power concerns: designed in such a way as to minimize the heat
dissipation
• May require cooling fan which occupies additional space
• Even it’s a critical constraint battery operated systems, more
the power consumption the less the battery life
 Quality attributes of ES
• QA are the non-functional requirements that
need to be documented properly in any
system design.
• If the quality attributes are more concrete and
measurable it will give a positive impact on
the end product
• Operational QA
• Non-operational QA
 Operational quality attributes
• Attributes related to e.s when it is in the operational mode or online
mode
Response: quickness of the system
• How fast the system is tracking the changes in input variables
• In flight control application any response delay in the system will create
potential damages to the safety of the flight
• Response time for a toy is not time critical
Throughput: efficiency of the system
• Rate of production or operation of a defined process
• Rates can be expressed in terms of units of products , batched
produced, or any other meaningful measurements.
• Generally measured in terms of benchmark (reference point)
Reliability: how much % you can rely upon the proper functioning of sys.
Mean time between failure MTBF (frq of failure in hr/wk/mon) & mean
time to repair MTTR ( how long the system is allowed to be out of order
Maintainability: deals with the support and
maintenance to the end user in the case of
technical issues and failures or on the basis of a
routine checkup
• As reliability increases maintainability reduced
• Two types (preventive or corrective maintenance)
• User should replace the cartridge after n number of
printouts (scheduled / periodic /preventive)
• If paper feeding part of the printer fails required
immediate repairs (maintenance to unexpected
failure/ corrective)
• Ideal value for availability is expressed
Security : confidentiality( from
unauthorized disclosure), integrity ( from
unauthorized modification) , availability
( from unauthorized users)

Safety: deals with the possible damages

that can happen to the operators or
public
• Eg. Due to breakdown or emission of
radioactive
 Non operational quality attributes
• Attributes that needs to addressed for the product not on
the basis of operational aspects
Testability: & debug ability: how easily one can test her design
and by which mean she can test it.
• h/w testing( peripherals and total h/w function) and
firmware testing
• Debugging the product as such for figuring out the probable
sources that create unexpected behavior in the system
• h/w level debugging ( issues created by h/w problems) and
firmware debugging ( errors that appear as a result of flaws
in the firmware)
Evolvability: related to biology.
• Ease with which the embedded product can be modified to
take advantage of new f/w or h/w technologies
Portability : measure of system independence
• If the product is capable of functioning as such
in various environments
processors/controllers/os
• Product can be ported to a new platform
• Should be flexible and portable
• Assembly language portability is poor
 Time to prototype and market
Time to market: time elapsed between the
conceptualization of a product and time at which
the product is ready for selling
• It’s a critical factor because embedded
technology is one where rapid technology change
is happening
Time to prototype: its an informal kind of rapid
product development in which the important
features of the product under consideration are
developed
• If prototype is developed faster, the actual
development time can be brought down
significantly.
Per unit cost and revenue : cost will be closely monitored
by both end users
• Proper market study should be carried out before
deciding per unit cost
• During design and development only investment no
returns
• Once the product is ready to sell and its introduced to
the market – product introduction stage
• In growth phase product grabs high market share
• During maturity phase the growth and sales will be
steady and revenue reaches at its peak
• Product retirement/decline phase starts with the drop
in sales volume, market share and revenue
• At some point of decline stage the manufacturer
announces discontinuing of the product
• Unit cost is very high during the introductory stage