Chapter 2: Modeling Mechanical Systems

• Mechanical systems are perhaps the most intuitive

systems to model, since models are derived from
applying Newton’s 2nd law (F = ma) to each mass (or
inertia) element in a mechanical system

• A mechanical system possesses the following

fundamental characteristics:
– Inertia (a force or torque is required to accelerate the body)
– Stiffness (any deformation is met with a resisting force or torque)
– Energy dissipation (motion in a resistive medium will cause
energy loss)

• Therefore, a mechanical system can be modeled by

using three basic elements:
– Inertia elements
– Stiffness elements
– Friction elements
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 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Inertia Elements
• Inertia elements include masses m (translational
systems) and moments of inertia J (rotational systems)

J   r 2 dm Moment of inertia (general)

1
J  mR 2 Moment of inertia (uniform disk with radius R)
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• Inertia elements can store potential energy (PE) due to
position in a gravity field and kinetic energy (KE) due to
motion 1
mx 2 translational system KE
2
PE = mgh KE = 1 2
J rotational system KE 2
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 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Stiffness Elements
• When a mechanical element stores energy due to a
deformation, it can be modeled by a stiffness element, such a
linear spring constant for translational systems, or a torsional
spring constant for rotational systems

• For a linear or ideal spring (below) the force-displacement

relationship is F = kx, where F = force (N), x = displacement
from equilibrium, k = “spring constant” (N/m)

F  kx
spring
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 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Stiffness Elements (2)
• When both ends of a spring are free to move, then the
force required to stretch or compress a spring depends
on the relative displacement

spring
F  k ( x2  x1 )

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 Torsional Stiffness Elements
• For an ideal torsional spring, the torque-displacement
relationship is T = kq, where T = torque (N-m), q = angular
displacement from the untwisted position (rad), and k =
“torsional spring constant” (N-m/rad)

T  k Torsional
spring, k

• It should be noted that spring elements can be used to model

stiffness in a mechanical system; they do not necessarily
have to represent physical springs

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 Translational Spring Constants:
Examples
• Coiled, round-wire spring:
d 4G
k
64 R 3 N

G = shear modulus of elasticity, N = number of coils,

R = coil radius, d = wire diameter

• Rod or shaft in tension/compression:

EA
k
L
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity, A = cross-sectional area, L = length
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 Torsional Spring Constants: Examples
• Coiled, round-wire spring in torsion:
d 4E
k
128RN
G = shear modulus of elasticity, N = number of coils,
R = coil radius, d = wire diameter

• Rod or shaft in torsion:

d 4 G d = diameter of rod
k
32 L
• Coiled, square-wire spring in torsion:

a4E
k a = length of square cross-section of wire
24RN
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 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Friction Elements
• When a mechanical element dissipates energy due to friction,
it can be modeled by a damper (or dashpot) element
– Friction or damper elements (below) provide energy-dissipative
forces when relative motion exists between two bodies
– For a linear or ideal damper (below) the force-velocity
relationship is
F  b( x 2  x 1 )
where F = friction force (N), x 2  x 1 is the velocity of the piston
relative to the cylinder (m/s) and b = “viscous friction coefficient”
(N-s/m)

x 2

F  bx 2  x 1 
Damper Friction
force 8
x 1
 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Friction Elements (2)
• For an ideal torsional (rotational) damper, the resistive
torque is proportional to the relative angular velocity

T  b  b(2  1 )  b(2  1 )

• As with the spring element, a damper element is a
generic method for modeling friction in a mechanical
system; it does not have to represent a physical piston-
cylinder dashpot

Generic symbols for damper elements: (a) translational, (b) rotational 9

 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Friction Elements (3)
• It should be noted that an ideal spring has no mass or
friction, and an ideal damper has no mass or stiffness
– Therefore, the inertia, stiffness, and friction characteristics of a
mechanical system are lumped into their respective elements

• Friction can involve a nonlinear relationship between

force and velocity
– Coulomb (dry) friction
– Square-law friction (e.g., aerodynamic drag)

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 Mechanical Dampers/Dashpots

Adjustable linear
pneumatic dashpot/dampers

Rotary fluid dampers

Heavy-duty
shock absorber

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 Modeling Mechanical Systems:
Mechanical Transformers
• Mechanical transformers: mechanical devices that
transform motion or force
• Ideal lever (no inertia):

Zero moment about the pivot:

f1 L1 cos   f 2 L2 cos 

For small q f1 L1  f 2 L2
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 Modeling Mechanical Systems:
Mechanical Transformers (2)
• Ideal gear train:

r2 n2
  N = “gear ratio”
r1 n1
(equally spaced teeth)

1 r2
Vmesh  r11  r22   N
 2 r1
Equating input power = output power: T11  T2 2

T1  2
 Therefore, “speed reducer” (as in diagram)
T2 1 has larger torque output, T2 > T1 13
 2.3 Translational Mechanical Systems:
Two-Step Process
• Mathematical models of translational mechanical
systems can be derived by a simple two-step process:
– Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) with all forces on each inertia
element (remember to apply Newton’s 3rd law of equal and
opposite forces)
– Apply Newton’s 2nd law to each inertia element (watch signs!)

 F  mx Translational system

• Each inertia element ( m ) will result in a 2nd-order ODE

because acceleration is the 2nd derivative of position

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 Modeling Mechanical Systems
Example 2.1
• A high-speed solenoid actuator-valve system is shown
below; derive the mathematical model of the mechanical
system.
– Displacement is positive to the right, measured from seated position
– The electromagnetic force (Fem) pulls the armature toward the center of
the coil and closes the air gap
– The return spring is undeflected when the armature-valve is seated

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 Solenoid Actuator-Valve Example (2)
• A mechanical model of the solenoid system is below

– The armature + spool valve mass is lumped into m

– The return spring is modeled by ideal spring k

– The friction due to hydraulic fluid is modeled by ideal damper with

viscous friction b
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 Solenoid Actuator-Valve Example (3)
• Free-body diagram of the mechanical model:

– It may help to imagine a positive displacement (x > 0) which in turn

compresses the spring and hence spring force acts to the left

Summing forces (positive to the right) on the FBD results in

+  F  kx  bx  F em  mx

Re-arranging, we get the mathematical model of the solenoid system:

mx  bx  kx  Fem 1 inertia element  2nd-order model

(i.e., 2nd-order ODE)
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 Vertical Translational Systems
Example 2.2
• Derive the mathematical model of the mechanical system.
– Displacement is positive downward, measured from the undeflected
position of the spring

Free-body diagram

• Using the free-body diagram (above and right) and

summing forces we obtain the mathematical model

   F  kx  bx  mg  mx mx  bx  kx  mg Model

(2nd-order 18
ODE)
 Vertical Translational Systems
Example 2.2 (without mg term)
• First, assume that the mechanical system is in static
equilibrium where x  x  0
0 0
mx  bx  kx  mg  kx = mg
• Define the “static deflection” d = mg/k

• Define new position variable z relative to the static

(equilibrium) position: x = d + z (when z = 0, x = d )
0 0

Note that x  d  z and x  d  z

Model
mz  bz  k d  z   mg  mz  bz  kz  0 (2nd-order 19
ODE)
 Mechanical Systems with Nonlinearities
Example 2.4
• Solenoid-valve model with Coulomb (dry) friction:

• Coulomb or dry friction has magnitude Fdry = mkN, where mk

is the coefficient of kinetic friction; N = normal force

Dry friction force always opposes motion: Fdry sgn( x )

sgn = signum or sign function (+1 or -1) 20

 Mechanical Systems with Nonlinearities
Example 2.4 (2)
• Free-body diagram with dry friction force included

• Summing all forces (positive is to the right)

   F  Fem  kx  bx  Fdry sgn( x )  mx

Re-arranging, we
mx  bx  Fdry sgn( x )  kx  Fem
obtain the model:
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 2.4 Rotational Mechanical Systems:
Two-Step Process
• Mathematical models of rotational mechanical systems
can be derived by a simple two-step process:
– Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) with all torques on each
moment of inertia (remember to apply Newton’s 3rd law of equal
and opposite torques)
– Apply Newton’s 2nd law to each inertia element (watch signs!)

 T  J Rotational system

• Each inertia element ( J ) will result in a 2nd-order ODE

because acceleration is the 2nd derivative of position

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 Dual-Disk Mechanical System
Example 2.9

• Toroidal-segment piston (disk J1 ) is matched with a toroidal-

segment cylinder (disk J2 ); both rotate about a common axis

• Positive angular displacements are measured clockwise from

their untwisted (equilibrium) positions

• A diesel engine provides external torques T (t) that appear as

in
equal-and-opposite pairs on both disks
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 Dual-Disk Mechanical System
Example 2.9 (2)

Free-body diagram
Positive rotation is clockwise
Note equal-and-opposite torques

• Summing torques on each disk (positive is clockwise):

Disk1:+↻ ∑ 𝑇=−𝑘 ( 𝜃1 −𝜃 2 ) −𝑏 𝜃˙ 1 −𝑇 in ( 𝑡 )= 𝐽 1 𝜃¨1

Disk2:+↻∑ 𝑇=𝑘 ( θ1 −θ 2 ) −𝑏 θ̇2 +𝑇 in ( 𝑡 ) = 𝐽 2 θ¨2
Mathematical model
J 11  b1  k 1   2   Tin (t ) of
dual-disk system:
J 22  b2  k  2  1   Tin (t ) Two 2nd-order ODEs
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 Chapter 2: Summary
• We introduced a systematic approach for developing the
mathematical model of mechanical systems

• First, we presented the physical laws for inertia, stiffness, and

energy-dissipation elements

• Next, we began the modeling process by drawing all forces

(or torques) on a free-body diagram for each inertia element
– Newton’s third law is used to draw the equal-and-opposite
reaction forces that exist between inertia elements
– The summation of all forces in the assumed positive direction is
equated to the product of mass and acceleration (Newton’s
second law, F = ma )
– Each inertia element in a mechanical system will require a
second-order ODE because acceleration is the second time-
derivative of position

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