Chapter Two

Data Communication Layer

 Chapter Outline

 Architectures

 Protocol standards

 OSI 7-layer reference model and concepts of open standards

 Motivations for standards

 ISO reference model

 Open standard

 Internetworking with TCP/IP Structure

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 Communication Architecture
 Network architecture is a design of communication networks for specification
of a network’s physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operation principles and procedures as well as data formats use.
 Network architecture is predominantly expressed by its use of the internet
protocol suits.
Data Communication Architecture:
Network Line Configuration: defines the attachment of communication devices to a
link
 Or both point to point and multipoint connection are line configuration to connect
two or more devices in link.
 Link : a physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to
another.
 point-to-point:- a line configuration where two and only two devices are connected
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Multipoint – a line configuration in which more than two specific devices
share a single link
 In multipoint connection a single link can be shared between multiple
devices.
 Single channel shared
 Single transmitter but multiple receiver
 No dedicated line
 Network Design Models
Flat model:- it is single collision domain and not hierarchical divided.

It has some advantage:

 Easy to design
 Easy to implement
 It good for small network
 East to maintain and diagnosis
It has some disadvantage:
 Poor security
 No redundancy
 Less speed
 No scalability
 No networks layers

fig.1 Flat switch network

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 Hierarchical Model:– it is a network model that has three network layers or
divisions and each layers has their own specific functions.

The three layers are:

 Access layer: used for service availably port
security on layer 2 switch
 Distribution layer: aggregate data received
from access layer and switches from sending to
core layer, redundancy and load balancing,
control broadcast domain
 Core layer control: it is a network backbone,
it is fast speed layer it connect multiple campus
network and data center
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It has some advantage of hierarchical model:
 more security
 Better speed or performances
 Facilitate scalable performance of network
 Good for big network
 Easy to troubleshoot

It has some disadvantage of hierarchical model:

 Difficult to design
 Difficult to implement
 Network Protocols and Standards
 a protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications
 a protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated.
E.g. When one computer sends a message to another computer, the sender must
perform the following general steps
 break the data into small sections called packets
 add addressing information to the packets identifying the destination computer
 deliver the data to the network card for transmission over the network

 the receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order
 accept the data from the NIC
 remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting computer
 reassemble the packets of data in to the original message
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 the key elements of a protocol are:
 syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data or signal level
 semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits
 timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

 Some important characteristics of a protocol are:

 Direct /indirect:
• If two systems share a point-to-point link - direct
• systems connect through a switched communication network – indirect

 Monolithic/structured
• Communications is a complex task for a single unit
• One big protocol vs. many structured protocols function as one.

 Symmetric/asymmetric: Communication between peer entities Vs

 Standard /nonstandard
Standard are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for
exchange of information among devices.
 Standards which are created by various Standard Organization like IEEE
, ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards :
1. De Facto Standard - by Fact or Convention which have not been
approved by organization e.g. Apple and Google
2. De Jure Standard – by Law or Regulations which have been approved
by officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc.
Non-standard protocols built for specific computers and tasks
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Standard /nonstandard …

5
 Motivations for standards
 Promote and maintain an open and competitive market for network
hardware and software.
 The overwhelming need for interoperability both nationally and
internationally,
 Increased the set of choices in terms of vendor and capability for
each aspect of data communications
 buy hardware and software from any vendor whose equipment meets
the standard
 help to promote more competition and hold down prices.

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 Layered architecture
 It is to divide the design into small pieces
 Each layer in the model has specific sets of procedures, functions, and
protocols.
 One layer can communicate with an adjacent layer by using its interface.
 It provides modularity and clear interfaces

the basic elements of layered architecture are:

 Service: is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
 Protocol: a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with
peer entity (concern both contents and order of the messages used)
 Interface: is a way in which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
 Layered Architecture …
 Why Layered architecture required
 It provides more modular design (different teams work on different
modules)
 Easy to troubleshoot and modify
 reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)
 standardizes interfaces (between layers)
 assures interoperable technology
 accelerates evolution of networking technology
 simplifies teaching and learning
 There are two network models which use layering.
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
 was developed by International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1970
 It is conceptual framework describes functions of networking or
telecommunication system independently from the underlying
technology infrastructure.
 The OSI model was originally developed to facilitate interoperability
between vendors and to define clear standards for network
communication.
 To ensure interoperability within the communication system regardless
of the technology type, vendor, and model.
 It divides data communication into seven abstraction layers and
standardizes protocols into appropriate groups of networking
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
 Advantage of OSI model
 It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network
model.
 It support layered model.
 It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols (flexible in
nature)
 It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless
services.
 Disadvantage
 It is purely a theoretical model does not consider the availability of
appropriate technology( bad technology)
 Session and presentation almost empty
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

 Why OSI important

 Network communication is broken into smaller, more manageable parts.
 Allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate with each other.
 All layers are independent and changes does not affect other layers.
 Easier to understand network communication.
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model …
OSI Model has seven layers
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model …

 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it and gets service from
below it in the protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on
other computers.
 Each layer should perform a well-defined function
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical : Layers 4, 3,
2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the
network.
 The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and
session: Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the
applications.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference
Model …

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference
Model …
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 Encapsulation :- is a process in which protocol information is added
to the data.

 de-encapsulation:-is a process in which information added through the

encapsulation process is removed

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Functions of the seven layer of OSI model
Layer 7: Application

 The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
 It provides network services to the user’s applications.
 contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly needed by
users
Layer 6: Presentation

 The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application
layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of
another system.

 Dara conversion , character code translation between multiple data

formats by using a common format.
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 Provides encryption , decryption and compression of data.
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Layer 5: Session
 the session layer manages sessions between servers to coordinate
communication.
 responsible for a range of functions including opening, closing, and re-
establishing session activities, authentication and authorization of
communication between specific apps and servers, Identifying full-duplex
or half-duplex operations
 synchronizing data streams between two hosts' presentation layers and
manages their data exchange.
 preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the
same time
 The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
 Check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from
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Layer 4: Transport
It ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are
sent and no duplication of data

It receives the data from upper layer and converts into smaller units
known as segments.

Services include:
 Service point addressing
Port number
 Segmentation /reassembly
 Connection control
.Connectionless or connection oriented
 Flow and error control
 (Transport layer )Cntd…
Segmentation and reassembly
 the message receives from the upper layer, it divides the message into
multiple segments and each segment is assigned with a sequence
number that uniquely identifies each segment.
 When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
 reasons for segmentation:
 the communication network may only accept blocks of data up to a
certain size
 error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame size; fewer
bits need to be retransmitted when a frame gets corrupted
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 facilitates more equitable access to shared transmission
 (Transport layer ) Cntd…
 disadvantages
 If one segmented packet is missing , then the overall file cannot
be read
 Needs a queuing and rebuilding system for segmented packets
 Time it takes to Processing
 More Bandwidth of Overhead
 Service-point addressing:- adds the header that contains the address
known as a service-point address or port address
 It is to transmit the message to the correct process( process to
process)
 Transport layer ) Cntd…
Connection control: two types of protocols (services)
1. Connection-oriented service :- a logical association or connection is
established between the communicating computers (devices).

 Three phases are involved

 connection establishment (agreement to exchange data)
 data transfer (data and control information exchanged)
 connection termination (termination request) - by any of the
two parties

 TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is connection-oriented

 The key characteristics of connection-oriented data transfer is that
 Transport layer ) Cntd…
Sequencing supports three main functions
1. Ordered delivery: frames may not arrive in the order in which they were
sent, because they may traverse different paths
2. flow control: a receiving station has to limit the amount or rate of data
that is sent by a transmitting station
 the simplest form of flow control is stop-and-wait procedure in which
each frame must be acknowledged before the next can be sent
 more efficient protocols involve some form of credit provided to the
transmitter, which is the amount of frames that can be transmitted
without an acknowledgement; e.g. sliding window technique
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3. Error control: is implemented as two separate functions; error
detection and retransmission

 error detection and error correction

 if an error is detected, the receiver discards the frame
 upon failing to receive an acknowledgement to the frame in a
specified reasonable time, the sender retransmits the frame

 some protocols also employ error correction which enables the

receiver not only to detect errors but, in some cases, to correct them
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2. connectionless service
 no need for connection establishment or connection release to
sent packet
 each segment treats as an individual packet, and travel in
different routes to reach the destination.
 the packets are not numbered, they may be delayed, lost, or
arrive out of sequence, no acknowledgement
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol), one of the transport layer
protocols, is connectionless
 good for one time transaction; e.g., email
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 Multiplexing:

occurs when multiple connections share a single connection (multiple

access)
Transmission services
 a variety of additional services can be provided
 Quality of services(priority:) control traffic and ensure the
performance of critical applications with limited network capacity.
 It enables organizations to adjust the overall network traffic by
prioritizing specific high-performance applications
 security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be invoked
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Layer 3: Network
 It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.
 Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
 Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the
packets can be delivered.
 The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller
packets to accommodate different media.
 Examples :- IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
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Layer 2: Data Link

 data transmission between the nodes within a network and manages the
connections between physically connected devices such as switches.
 The raw data received from physical layer is synchronized and pack-
aged into data frames.
 The data link layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer is responsible for flow controls
and error controls that ensure error-free and accurate data transmission
between the network nodes.
 Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer is responsible for managing ac-
cess and permissions to transmit data between the network nodes.
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Layer 2: Data Link ...

 The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical
link by using the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
 The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data
link address in order to uniquely identify multiple stations to locally.
 Examples :- Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.
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Layer 1: Physical
 the layer that actually interacts with the transmission media
 the physical part of the network that connects network components to-
gether
 involved in physically carrying information from one node in the network
to the next
 The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmis-
sion medium.
 It defines
 mechanical: the size and shape of the network connector, how many
pins does the network connector has and what each pin is used for
 electrical: how many volts represent a 1 and how many a 0
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a. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical
data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and
other similar attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.
Examples :- EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, BNC
 TCP/IP Reference Model

 used in the grandparent of all wide

area computer networks, the
ARPANET
 Developed by Department of De-
fense (DoD) to ensure and preserve
data integrity as well as maintain
communication in the even of cata-
strophic war
 Condensed version of OSI model –
contains four layers instead of
 Functions of layer
 The Process/Application : protocols for node-to-node application
communication and also controls user-interface specifications.
 The Host-to-Host
 parallels the functions of the OSI’s Transport layer, defining proto-
cols for setting up the level of transmission service for applications.
 The Internet layer
 corresponds to the OSI’s Network layer, designating the protocols re-
lating to the logical transmission of packets over the entire network.
 Network Access layer
 The equivalent of the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model
 Oversees hardware addressing and defines protocols for physical trans-
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Shortcomings of TCP/IP
 the model does not clearly separate the concepts of service, inter-
face, and protocol
 It is not generic in nature which fails to represent any protocol stack
other than the TCP/IP suite e.g. cannot describe the Bluetooth con-
nection.
 the host-to-network layer is not really a layer at all
 does not distinguish (or even mention) the physical and data link
layers
 OSI vs. TCP/IP

In OSI:
 Network –Connectionless/ Connection oriented
 Transport –Only Connection oriented
In TCP/IP:
 Transport - Connectionless/ Connection oriented
 Very useful for simple request reply
 Network – Only Connectionless
OSI:
 Difficult to Implement
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OSI: Service, Interfaces and protocols

 Layers Interface: How layer above it access it, what parameter and results
to expect
 Peer protocols: Used in a layer’s business
 Layer is equivalent to an Object
 Set of methods

TCP/ IP–no distinction between protocol and service

IP :- Send IP packet and Receive IP packet
Host - to - network (TCP/IP)
 Not really a layer. Interface between network and data link layer
 No distinction between physical and data link layer
 Adhoc application layer protocols
TCP/IP protocol suits
 Application/ process layer protocols

 Telnet - allows a user on a remote client machine, called the Telnet

client, to access the resources of another machine, the Telnet server.
 Telnet makes client machine appear as though it were a terminal
directly attached to the server.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is the protocol that actually lets us
transfer files, and it can accomplish this between any two machines using
it.
 Usually users are subjected to authentication
 Network File System (NFS) – is distributed file system protocol allows
a user on a client computer to access files over a network in the same
way as access a local storage file. it is an open standard, anyone can
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 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - uses a spooled, or queued,
method of mail delivery.
 POP3 is used to receive mail.
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) - collects and
manipulates valuable network information.
 This protocol stands as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying
managers of any sudden turn off events.
 Domain Name Service (DNS) – resolves hostnames—specifically, Internet
names, such as www.amu.edu.et to the IP address 10.144.5.30
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - gives IP addresses to
hosts.
 It allows easier administration and works well in small-to-even-very
large network environments.
 Host-to-Host layer
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - takes large blocks of information
from an application and breaks them into segments.
 It numbers and sequences each segment so that the destination’s TCP
protocol can put the segments back into the order the application intended.
 Uses three way handshaking
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - does not sequence the segments and does
not care in which order the segments arrive at the destination. But after that,
UDP sends the segments off and forgets about them. It doesn’t follow
through, check up on them, or even allow for an acknowledgment of safe
arrival — complete abandonment.
 TCP for reliability and UDP for faster transfers.
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 TCP and UDP must use port numbers to communicate with the upper layers,
because they’re what keeps track of different conversations crossing the network
simultaneously.
 These port numbers identify the source and destination application or process in
the TCP segment.
 There are 2^16 = 65536 ports available.
 Well-known ports - The port numbers range from 0 to 1023.
 Registered ports - The port numbers range from 1024 to 49151.
 Registered ports are used by applications or services that need to have
consistent port assignments.
 Dynamic or private ports - The port numbers range from 49152 to 65535.
These ports are not assigned to any protocol or service in particular and can be
used for any service or application.
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 If a port is closed/blocked, you cannot communicate with the computer by
the protocol using that port.
Eg. If port 25 is blocked you cannot send mail.
Firewalls by default block all ports.
You should know the port numbers of different protocols!!
 Internet Layer
 Internet Protocol (IP) essentially is the Internet layer.
 The other protocols found here merely exist to support it.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works at the Network layer
and is used by IP for many different services.
 used for management and messaging purposes in IP networks.
 provides feedback and error reporting mechanisms, as well as supporting
various network diagnostic functions.
 Destination host Unreachable:- ocure when the packet does not reach the
destination. Suppose the sender sends the message, but the message does not reach
the destination
 Buffer Full If a router’s memory buffer for receiving incoming datagrams is full, it
will use ICMP to send out this message until the congestion abates.
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Time exceeded: router decreases a datagram with a time-to-live value to zero, then the
router discards a datagram and sends the time exceeded message to the original source.
• The executioner router then uses ICMP to send a message, informing the sending
machine of the end of its datagram.
• Ping (Packet Internet Groper) uses ICMP echo messages to check the physical and
logical connectivity of machines on a network.
• Trace route Using ICMP timeouts, Traceroute is used to discover the path a packet
takes as it traverses an internetwork.
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the hardware address of a host from a
known IP address.
• ARP interrogates the local network by sending out a broadcast asking the
machine with the specified IP address to reply with its hardware address.
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Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines by sending out
a packet that includes its MAC address and a request for the IP address
assigned to that MAC address.
 A designated machine, called a RARP server, responds with the answer, and
the identity crisis is over.
 Network Access

 Wi-Fi(wireless fidelity)

 ATM

 PPP

 Ethernet

 Fast Ethernet

 FDDI

 Token ring

 Network Access technology detail explanation is reading assignment

End of chapter Two
Any question??