Electric and Hybrid Vehicles – 1

INTRODUCTION
20ME5DE EV1

13/02/2024 Department of Mechanical Engineering,B.M.S.C.E 1

 Course Credits : 03 Marks
Name Electric and Hybrid Vehicles – 1 L T P CIE SEE
Code 20ME5DE EV1 3 0 0 50 50

SYLLABUS:

UNIT – 1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles: Historical background, benefits of using EVs; Gravitational Energy
Density, Volumetric Energy Density, Energy Efficiency, overview of types of EVs and its challenges, motor drive
technologies, Energy source technologies: Battery Electric Vehicles, The IC Engine/Electric Hybrid Vehicle,
Fuelled EVs, EVs using Supply Lines, EVs which use Flywheels or Supercapacitors, Solar-Powered Vehicles,
Vehicles using Linear Motors, EVs for the Future.

Capital Cost of EV Battery, Operational Cost of EV Battery, Battery cost reduction strategy, Swapped battery,
Vehicle Weight, Range Anxiety, battery charging technologies, Fast charge, Slow charge, Range-Extender
batteries. EV systems and configurations, HEVs systems and configurations, EV Subsystems, ICE Drive train, EV
Drive train Overview of Electric Vehicles in India: India’s vehicles and affordability, India’s EV Strategy, EV Costs
in India.
08 Hours
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UNIT – 2 Vehicle Dynamics and EV Subsystems: Tractive Force, Gross Vehicle Weight, Rolling resistance, Aerodynamic drag,
Gradient Resistance, Acceleration, Aerodynamic Drag, Typical values of Rolling Resistance, Power Required to climb. Power
required for acceleration, Pickup, E-rickshaw, Comparing Force and Power, 2- wheeler,E-rickshaw. Comparing Force and Power,
Sedan, Drive trail design, Drive cycle, Energy Efficiency, Speed, Acceleration, Idling, Deceleration Standard Drive Cycle, India
Drive Cycle, Regeneration Efficiency E-Auto Velocity, E-Auto Acceleration, Energy per km, E-Auto Energy Efficiency, Modified
Indian Drive Cycle, Electric Compact Sedan, Compact Sedan Energy Efficiency, Low-End Electric Trucks, Delivery Truck
Specifications, Truck MIDC, Traction Energy for Drive Cycle, Summary of impact of various parameters EV Subsystems, EV
Drive Train, Vehicle Performance Parameters, Multi-gear, Changeable gear
06 Hours
UNIT – 3 Storage for EVs: EV Batteries, Rechargeable batteries, State of Charge, Charging at C-Rate of battery, Discharging at
C-Rate of battery, EV Battery Life, Energy Capacity, Depth of Discharge, Useable Capacity, Charge-Discharge cycle, Fixed
Storage, Recycling, Factors affecting Battery cell life cycles Chemical battery history, Parameters for EV battery selection,
Battery Chemistry, Gravimetric ED, Cost Driver, Li-Ion battery chemistries, Specific Energy Density, Charge discharge rates,
Life-cycles, Safety, Cell costs per kwh, Eight Asks of a battery, Six parameters of Six chemistry, LCO, NMC, LMO, LFP, LTO, NCA
Nickel rich cathode, Silica in anode, Li-Polymer, Lithium-air, Li-metal, Solid state Lithium, Lithium-Sulphur, Sodium-ion,
Lithium-Manganese-iron-phosphate, Alternative to Lithium batteries Li-Ion battery cell construction, Container, Cylindrical
cells, Pouch cells, Prismatic Cells, Failure of individual cells State of Charge, Voltage vs SoC curves, Implication of SoC curves,
Measuring SoC accurately, Open Voltage method, Coulumb counting, Estimation of remaining cycles/lifetime, Self discharge
09 Hours
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 UNIT – 4
Battery Pack Design: Battery Pack Design, Safety Issues, Cell Balancing, Equal Charge, Equal Discharge, Design considerations
for pack, Battery Management System, Electrical Design of battery pack, mPnS, nSmP, Building mSnP battery pack, Building
nPmS battery pack, Passive balancing, Active balancing, Cell equalization, Failures in battery pack, Capital Costs, Operational
Costs, Cost per cell, BMS costs, Packaging cost, Cooling costs Usable Lifecycles, Usage-cycles per day, Impact of Interest
Pulse and Burp Charging, Constant Voltage, Constant Current, Taper Current, Pulsed Charge, Negative Pulse Charge, IUI
Charging, Trickle Charge, Float Charge, Random Charging
05 Hours

UNIT – 5
EV Charger: Introduction, Charger Architecture, Additional Interfaces, On-board and Offboard chargers, Slow and Fast
Charge, Slow Charge, Fast Charge, Typical Battery Size and Fast Charge, Battery Size and Currents at 1C, Heat generated
during Fast Charge, Capability of Fast Charge, Time for full charge, Partial Charging, Grid Readiness Battery Swapping, Energy
Operator, Battery Leasing Charges, Investments by EO, Locked Smart Swappable batteries, Standardization, Items that need
standardization, Standardization Efforts in the world, Standardization in India, Bulk Charger Standardization, Swappable
battery standardization, Chargers at Public Places Chargers, Charging Infrastructure, Charging Protocols, EV Chargers Types,
Charging Standards, AC Chargers, Protocol Standards, Charging States, Charger Protocol Comparison, AC001:IEC60309,
DC001, GB/T, IS 17017, Bharat Charger AC001, Low Voltage DC Fast Charger DC001, Authorization flow, IEC Standards. SAE
Standards 06 Hours
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REFERENCES:
Text Books
1. “Electric and Hybrid Vehicles - Design Fundamentals”, Iqbal Husain, CRC Press, 2005
2. “Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles”, M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. Longo and K.
Ebrahimi, 3rd Ed., 2018

Reference Books
3. “Electric Vehicle Technology Explained”, James Larminie, John Lowry, Wiley Publications, 2nd
Ed., 2012

2. ”Electric Powertrain - Energy Systems, Power electronics and drives for Hybrid, electric and fuel
cell vehicles” John G. Hayes and A. Goodarzi, Wiley Publication, Print ISBN:9781119063643 |
Online ISBN:9781119063681 |DOI:10.1002/9781119063681,© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Scheme of Examination (SEE):
Answer five full questions selecting one from each unit.
Two questions each to be set from Units 3 and 4 and one question from
units 1, 2, and 5.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, student will be able to:

CO 1 Explain types & architectures of various electric vehicles.

CO 2 Analyse vehicle mechanics, propulsion & braking

CO 3 Evaluate electric vehicle performance as compared to I.C Engines

CO 4 Perform battery modelling for various requirements

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MOOCs
1. Electric Cars: Introduction - edX [
https://courses.edx.org/courses/course-v1:DelftX+eCARS1x+3T2019/
course/
]
2. Electric Vehicles - Part 1 - SWAYAM [
https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc20_ee18/announcements

3. NPTEL Course on Fundamentals of Electric vehicles: Technology & Economics

https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc20_ee99/course

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Electric vehicles (EVs), depending on their source of electric energy, have the potential
to be zero emission vehicles and have potential as a future alternative to internal
combustion vehicles. However, despite considerable improvements, electric vehicles still
have a limited driving range due to the limitations of the current electrical storage
technologies.

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 Benefits of using EVs
• Why EV?
Global population with current trend may increase from 6 Billions to 10
Billions by 2050
Vehicle in use may increase from 700 millions to 2.5 Billions by 2050
If all vehicles are ICEVs, then all cities may be covered with permanent
smog with extreme air pollution
• ARB report(2011) around 9000 people die/year due to fine particle
matters in California.
• Sustainable Transport
Low or Zero emission Vehicles
Promotion of Public Transport
Renewable energy sources

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 Comparison of efficiency

BEV

FCEV

ICEV

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 Capital/operation cost and performance

• BEV has advantage of higher fuel economy than ICEV

• BEV is much more expensive than the ICEV

• BEV requires less maintenance and is more reliable

• Can recover energy during braking, less noisy

• Allows high performance & smooth control

• Requires charging & has limited range per charge

• Can be charged by renewable sources

• For same energy requirement, BEV requires more space and is heavy

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 Overview on EVs and its challenges

Classified Based on Propulsion devices, Energy sources, Energy carriers

Propulsion Energy Energy

Systems Sources Carriers

• Pure Electric • BEV (Only • HEV

Vehicles (only Battery) ( Liquid
Electric motor) • HEV (Battery fuels,
• Hybrid Electric & Liquid electricity)
Vehicles (Both Fuels) • BEV
Motor & IC • FCEV (Fuel ( Electricit
Engine) cell & y)
Battery)
• FCEV
(Electricity
&
Hydrogen)

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 Pure Electric Vehicles

Pure electric
Vehicles

FCEV UCEV UFEV

BEV [Battery] [Battery+ Fuel [Battery + Ultra [Battery + Ultra
Cell] Capacitor] Flywheel]

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Classification of HEV

Propulsion Energy carriers Energy sources

Micro Hybrid Engine Liquid Fuels Liquid Fuels
Mild Hybrid
Full Hybrid
PHEV
Electric Electric Battery
REV

BEV MOTOR Battery

UCEV UC
UFEV UF
FCEV Hydrogen Fuel cell

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HEV Levels
The term hybrid refers to a type of vehicle. There are different levels of “hybridization”
among hybrids on the market including micro, mild, full, and plug-in.

Note that most mild and all full and plug-in hybrids have the function of regenerative
braking. Regenerative braking is a technology that converts kinetic energy (car
movement) into chemical energy stored in the battery when the driver’s foot pushes on
the brake.

This is done by the car's momentum turning a generator connected to the wheels that
charges the battery.
For a variety of visualizations of hybrid levels (and types), visit
http://autocaat.org/Technologies/Hybrid_and_Battery_Electric_Vehicles/HEV_Levels/

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 Micro
 A micro HEV is a vehicle with an integrated alternator/starter that uses start/stop technology.
 Start/stop technology is where the vehicle shuts down the engine at a complete stop and then restarts
when the driver releases the brake pedal.
 During cruising, the vehicle is propelled only by the internal combustion engine.
 Typical fuel efficiency increase is around 10% compared to a non-hybrid.
 Examples of micro hybrids on the road today are the BMW 1 and 3 series, Fiat 500, SMART car, Peugeot
Citroen C3, Ford Focus and Transit, and Mercedes-Benz A-class.
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Mild
 A mild HEV is very similar to a micro HEV with the exception that the integrated alternator/starter is
upgraded with stronger electric components that assist in vehicle propulsion.
 Compared to a micro HEV, the electric motor, alternator, and battery pack are larger and play a greater role
in the operation of the vehicle.
 Typical fuel efficiency increase is around 20-25% compared to a non-hybrid.
 Examples of mild HEVs on the market include the BMW 7 Series ActiveHybrid, Buick LaCrosse with eAssist,
Chevrolet Malibu w/ eAssist, Honda Civic and Insight Hybrid, and the Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid.

Full (Strong)
 A full HEV is similar to a mild HEV because it utilizes the same electric components such as an electric motor,
alternator, and battery pack, but they’re much larger in size.
 The differences between a mild and full HEV are a full HEV typically uses a smaller engine, has the ability to
propel the vehicle solely off the electric motor, and utilizes a more sophisticated control system to optimize
efficiency.
 Typical fuel efficiency increase is around 40-45% compared to a non-hybrid.
 Examples of full hybrids on the road today are the Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid, Toyota Prius and Camry Hybrid,
Ford C-Max, Honda CR-Z, and Kia Optima Hybrid.

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 The degree of fuel consumption or vehicle dynamics improvement depend on the level of
hybridisation.
 A hybrid electric vehicle is a mix between a internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and a battery
electric vehicle (BEV).
 The level of energy contained in the battery and the power of the electric machine decide the level
(type) of the hybrid electric vehicle.

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES ON WELL TO WHEEL BASIS
First it starts with fuel extraction then it is transported to the oil refineries , where there is number of emissions
occurring then there is distribution to the refueling station then finally we are driving the vehicle which
produces emissions.

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EV ON WELL TO WHEEL ANALYSIS
It starts with fuel extraction then it is transported to the power generation plant , where emissions are
produced if coal is used as fuel and then distribution to the charging stations and finally we are driving
the vehicles which doesn’t produce any type of emission .

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Different parameter definitions quantify the performance of energy sources on a BEV.

Energy and coulometric capacities: The theoretical energy capacity of an energy source refers
to the total amount of energy that can be stored in the device measured by watt-hours (Wh).
Another measurement of electric energy source capacity is coulometric capacity (Ah), which
represents the total Amp-hours available when the energy source discharges, and is a
measure of the size of the device. When assessing the suitability of a BEV energy source, the
energy capacity is a more important factor than the coulometric capacity because the total
available amount of energy is important in a BEV driving range. The theoretical and
coulometric capacities represent the actual energy content and size of the energy sources.
However, it is not applicable to electrochemical batteries.

State-of-charge (SoC) and depth-of-discharge (DoD) are two measures of the energy capacity
available from energy sources. As a percentage of the maximum energy capacity, the SoC
denotes the amount of remaining energy capacity in a BEV energy source. In other words,
the function of the SoC in a BEV is the equivalent to that of a fuel gauge in ICE vehicles.
Alternatively, DoD, measured as a percentage of maximum capacity, is the amount of
discharged energy capacity from the BEV energy source. DoD is the inverse of SoC; as one
increases,
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the other decreases. Department of Mechanical Engineering,B.M.S.C.E 21
Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), also called All-Electric Vehicle (AEV), runs entirely on a battery and electric drive train.
This types of electric cars do not have an ICE. Electricity is stored in a large battery pack that is charged by plugging into
the electricity grid. The battery pack, in turn, provides power to one or more electric motors to run the electric car.

Components of BEV
 Electric motor
 Inverter
 Battery
 Control Module
 Drive train

Working Principles of BEV

 Power is converted from the DC battery to AC for the electric motor
 The accelerator pedal sends a signal to the controller which adjusts
the vehicle’s speed by changing the frequency of the AC power from
the inverter to the motor
 The motor connects and turns the wheels through a cog
 When the brakes are pressed or the electric car is decelerating, the
motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent back
to the battery

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Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

This type of hybrid cars is often called as standard hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEV has both an ICE and an electric motor.
In this types of electric cars, internal combustion engine gets energy from fuel (gasoline and others type of fuels), while
the motor gets electricity from batteries. The gasoline engine and electric motor simultaneously rotate the transmission,
which drives the wheels.
The difference between HEV compared to BEV and PHEV is where the batteries in HEV can only charged by the ICE,
the motion of the wheels or a combination of both. There is no charging port, so that the battery cannot be recharged
from outside of the system, for example from the electricity grid

Working Principles of HEV

 Has a fuel tank that supplies gas to the engine like a regular
car
 It also has a set of batteries that run an electric motor
 Both the engine and electric motor can turn the transmission
at the same time

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Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
PHEV is a type of hybrid vehicle that both an ICE and a motor, often called as series hybrid. This types of electric cars offers
a choice of fuels. This type of electric cars is powered by a conventional fuel (such as gasoline) or an alternative fuel (such
bio-diesel) and by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be charged up with electricity by plugging into an electrical
outlet or electric vehicle charging station (EVCS).

Components of PHEV
 Electric motor
 Engine
 Inverter
 Battery
 Fuel tank
 Control module
 Battery Charger (if onboard model)

Working Principles of PHEV

PHEVs typically start up in all-electric mode and operate on electricity
until their battery pack is depleted. Some models shift to hybrid mode
when they reach highway cruising speed, generally above 60 or 70 miles
per hour. Once the battery is empty, the engine takes over and the vehicle
operates as a conventional, non-plug-in hybrid.
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Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), also known as fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) or Zero Emission Vehicle, are types of electric
cars that employ ‘fuel cell technology’ to generate the electricity required to run the vehicle. In this type of vehicles, the
chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into electric energy.

Components of FCEV
 Electric motor
 Fuel-cell stack
 Hydrogen storage tank
 Battery with converter and controller

Working Principles of FCEV

The working principle of a ‘fuel cell’ electric car is different

compared to that of a ‘plug-in’ electric car. This types of electric cars
is because the FCEV generates the electricity required to run this
vehicle on the vehicle itself.

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Energy densities: There are two measures of energy density: volumetric energy density and
gravimetric energy density. The volumetric energy density refers to the amount of usable
energy capacity per unit volume in watt-hours/liter (Wh/L), known as energy density. On
the other hand, the gravimetric energy density is the amount of usable energy capacity
per unit mass in watt-hours/kilogram (Wh/kg), known as specific density. Despite
commonly using these terms interchangeably, the latter is more important than the former
in the quantification of a BEV energy source because the performance and the desired
driving range of each BEV are limited to its maximum weight.

Power densities: The energy rate (in watts) available to deliver per unit mass or volume is
the power density. The gravimetric power density (W/kg) and the volumetric power
density (W/L) are two possible definitions. Similar to energy densities, the terms for
gravimetric power and volumetric power densities are specific power and power density,
respectively. Again, the former is more important than the latter in BEV applications
because specific power plays an important role in the evaluation of a BEV power source to
achieve the desired amount of acceleration and hill-climbing capability.
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Energy efficiency: Typically, the definition of the energy efficiency of a BEV energy source,
providing that it additionally acts as energy storage, is the ratio of the output between the
electrical energy during discharging to the input electrical energy during charging. This
efficiency is different from the charge efficiency, the definition of which is the ratio of
discharge coulometric energy (Ah) to the charge coulometric energy (Ah).

C-rate: This parameter denotes the rate at which an energy source discharges or charges
relative to its maximum capacity. Its definition point normalizes the discharge current
against energy source capacity, which may be different between types of specific power
sources. 1C (nC) is the capacity rating (Ah) of an energy source, meaning that the discharge
current will discharge the entire device in one hour (1/n h).

Cost: The cost is another key factor in making energy sources of BEVs capable of competing
with their ICE counterparts. Two terms associated with the power/energy sources are the
initial manufacturing cost and the maintenance (running) cost, where the former is
generally
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dominant than the latter. Department of Mechanical Engineering,B.M.S.C.E 27
 The frequent start/stop operation of BEVs adversely affects the life cycle of
Ultra-capacitors:-
batteries due to the high variation of the battery discharge profile. Typically, BEV batteries
have high specific energy that is suitable for a reasonable driving range and cruising at a
reasonable speed. However, they have significant difficulty providing sudden bursts of power
for rapid acceleration and hill-climbing, due to their relatively low specific power density as
the high peak power demand deteriorates the battery life.

Ultra-capacitors are an energy (storage) source device with a high specific power density,
high efficiency, and long cycle life, with the disadvantage of having low specific energy
density. They can provide high output power within a short period of time, thereby making
them suitable for high power demand conditions. Furthermore, their high specific power
density makes them an excellent candidate for braking energy recovery. it is possible to take
advantage of both the ultra-capacitor’s high specific power density and the battery’s high
energy storage capability by using a combination of the battery and the ultra-capacitor.

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This combination significantly improves the vehicle performance, and helps reduce the
battery cycling duty, extends the battery life, downsizes the battery, and provides higher
energy recovery. However, the integration of ultra-capacitors and batteries (often
referred to as a hybrid energy system) requires additional power electronics, thus
resulting in an increase in initial vehicle costs.

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13/02/2024 Department of Mechanical Engineering,B.M.S.C.E 30
 Traditionally, the flywheel consisted of a large steel rotor. This
Flywheels in Electric Vehicles:-
rotor weighed hundreds of kilograms and collectively spun at the order of ten hundreds
of rpm. This traditional design is quite a contrast to the design and development of
modern flywheels, which consist of a lightweight composite rotor weighing only tens of
kilograms but rotate at the order of ten thousands of rpm.

Flywheels can achieve the potential energy storage requirements for EV applications.
Specifically, these devices can feasibly satisfy the requirements regarding high specific
energy, high specific power, long cycle life, high energy efficiency, quick recharging,
limited maintenance, and cost effectiveness. If flywheels are used in a hybrid
configuration (with the primary source in a BEV) as an auxiliary energy source, they
function to store energy in a mechanical form. This storage occurs during periods of
cruising or regenerative braking. Additionally, the flywheel also simultaneously generates
electrical energy during this period in an effort to satisfy the power demands that occur
when the vehicle is starting, accelerating, or climbing a hill. Ultimately, the flywheel is
unique in that in addition to providing load leveling for the primary source of energy in a
BEV,13/02/2024
it can also feasibly function asDepartment
the sole energy
of Mechanical source.
Engineering,B.M.S.C.E 31
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There are numerous benefits to using flywheels as an auxiliary energy source in hybrid
configurations with the battery for BEVs. Many of these benefits are quite similar to that
of ultra-capacitors. These benefits include:

• the ability to decouple the requirements regarding specific energy and specific power of
the battery, thus optimizing the battery’s specific energy density (i.e., the cycle life);
• the ability to increase usable energy, in addition to the endurance and cycle life of the
battery; this is possible because the high-rate power demand and high-current
discharge are drastically reduced by the load leveling effect of the flywheel;
• rapid short-term recharges with high efficiency during periods of low power demand or
regenerative braking;
• extended vehicle range, which occurs due to a combination of load leveling the primary
energy source, and improved energy recovery during regenerative braking;
• the ability to know the exact amount of energy stored, with a simple measurement of
the rotation speed.

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Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)

The Fuel-cell vehicles use fuel-cells to generate electricity from hydrogen fuel though
gasoline-like liquids and methanol have fueled some fuel-cells. Unlike batteries, ultra-
capacitors, and flywheels, a fuel-cell is not a storage device. It is an energy source unit
where generated electricity either provides direct power to the traction motors or remains
stored in the on-board energy storage for future use. In electric vehicles, the use of fuel-
cells is superior to the use of batteries for a number of reasons such as shorter reactant
feeding time, longer lifetime, and less maintenance requirements.

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Fuel-cell running on pure hydrogen emits no carbon dioxide; the only by-products are heat
and water. As a result of the electrochemical reaction that converts energy stored in
hydrogen to electrical energy, the efficiency of fuel-cell electric vehicles is inherently
greater than that of combustion-based propulsion systems. The most prominent advantage
of FCEVs is their driving range, which is similar to that of a vehicle operating with an ICE.
This is because what determines the FCEV range is the amount of hydrogen fuel available in
the fuel tank, independent of the fuel-cell size.

Operating at temperatures below freezing is a concern in the scheme of mobile fuel-cell

applications. The solidification of the water-based internal components of the cell would
render it inoperable, and most cell designs are not robust enough to endure storage in sub-
zero conditions. During operation, however, the fuel-cell generates enough heat as a by-
product of the chemical processes to keep itself running at an acceptable temperature.

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13/02/2024 Department of Mechanical Engineering,B.M.S.C.E 36
Battery in EV’s:-
There is no clear choice for the best battery technology that is suitable for all
BEVs. Lead-acid batteries, nickel-metal hybrid (NiMH) batteries, lithium-ion batteries,
nickel zinc (Ni-Zn) batteries, and nickel-cadmium (Ni-Ca) batteries are used in BEVs.

Lead-acid battery: So-called VRLA, the invention of this battery dates back to more than
two centuries ago. Currently, lead-acid batteries are available in production volumes due
to their mature technology and low cost. This battery technology is an attractive
candidate in BEV applications due to its many advantages, which include low cost, fast
recharge capability, high specific power, robustness against severe temperature variation,
and its availability in a variety of sizes and design. However, they suffer from low specific
energy due to the weight of its lead collectors, low energy density, limited cycle life, high
cut-off voltage, and lack of long-term storage.

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Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) battery: The Ni-MH, available on the market since 1992,
continues to develop and gain repute as the near-term choice for BEV applications. The main
advantages of the Ni-MH battery include its high specific energy and energy density, which are
twice that of lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, these batteries also offer fast recharge
capability, long cycle life, wide operation temperature ranges, and environmental friendliness
due to their recyclability. The main drawback of this technology is its high initial cost.

Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn) battery: This type of battery is suitable for BEV applications due to its high
specific energy and power densities, low cost materials, deep cycle capability, and relatively
wide operating temperature range (10 °C–50 °C). However, its short cycle life limits its use for
BEV applications.

Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery: Regardless of its high initial cost and low specific energy, this
battery has the advantage of a long cycle life, as well as rapid recharge capability a wide
operating temperature range (40 °C–85 °C), low self-discharge rate, excellent long term
storage, and a variety of sizes and designs. Despite the recyclability, cadmium in the battery
can pollute the environment if not properly disposed of.
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Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery: Since its introduction in 1991, it has garnered much attention
for its ability to be used in BEV applications and is considered to be the most promising
type of rechargeable battery, despite being still in a stage of development. Li-ion battery
technology offers very high energy density, good high-temperature performance, high
specific power, high specific energy, and long cycle life. Additionally, the Li-ion battery is
recyclable, and thus an environmental-friendly technology. The high costs and high self
discharge rates are two disadvantages of Li-ion batteries. Currently, Li-ion batteries are
superior to other battery technologies in terms of applications to BEVs.

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