Topic 10.2 - Fields at Work - Teacher

Topic 10: Fields - AHL
10.2 – Fields at work

Topic 10.2 is an extension of Topics 5.1, 6.1 and 6.2.
This subtopic has a lot of stuff in it. Sometimes the IBO
organizes their stuff that way. Live with it!
Essential idea: Similar approaches can be taken in
analyzing electrical and gravitational potential
problems.
Nature of science: Communication of scientific
explanations: The ability to apply field theory to the
unobservable (charges) and the massively scaled
(motion of satellites) required scientists to develop
new ways to investigate, analyze and report
findings to a general public used to scientific
discoveries based on tangible and discernible
evidence.
Understandings:
• Potential and potential energy
• Potential gradient
• Potential difference
• Escape speed
• Orbital motion, orbital speed and orbital energy
• Forces and inverse-square law behavior
Applications and skills:
• Determining the potential energy of a point mass and
the potential energy of a point charge
• Solving problems involving potential energy
• Determining the potential inside a charged sphere
• Solving problems involving the speed required for an
object to go into orbit around a planet and for an
object to escape the gravitational field of a planet
• Solving problems involving orbital energy of charged
particles in circular orbital motion and masses in
circular orbital motion
• Solving problems involving forces on charges and
masses in radial and uniform fields
Guidance:
• Orbital motion of a satellite around a planet is
restricted to a consideration of circular orbits (links
to 6.1 and 6.2)
• Both uniform and radial fields need to be considered
• Students should recognize that lines of force can be
two-dimensional representations of three-
dimensional fields
• Students should assume that the electric field
everywhere between parallel plates is uniform with
edge effects occurring beyond the limits of the
plates.
Data booklet reference:
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
•
•
•
•
•
•
Utilization:
• The global positioning system depends on complete
understanding of satellite motion
• Geostationary / polar satellites
• The acceleration of charged particles in particle
accelerators and in many medical imaging devices
depends on the presence of electric fields (see
Physics option sub-topic C.4)
Aims:
• Aim 2: Newton’s law of gravitation and Coulomb’s law
form part of the structure known as “classical
physics”. This body of knowledge has provided the
methods and tools of analysis up to the advent of
the theory of relativity and the quantum theory.
• Aim 4: the theories of gravitation and electrostatic
interactions allows for a great synthesis in the
description of a large number of phenomena
Note that EP is negative.
Topic 10: Fields - AHL This means that EP is
10.2 – Fields at work greatest at r = , when
Potential energy – gravitational EP = 0.
Think of potential energy as the capacity to do work.
And work is a force F times a displacement d.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos ⁡ ( is angle between F and d) work definition
Recall the gravitational force from Newton:
𝐺𝑚 1 𝑚2 universal law
𝐹 𝐺=−
where G = 6.67×10−11 N m2 kg−2 of gravitation
2
𝑟
If we multiply the above force by a distance r we get
𝐺𝑀𝑚 gravitational
𝐸 𝑃 =−
𝑟 where G = 6.67×10 −11
N m2 kg−2 potential energy
FYI
The actual proof is beyond the scope of this course.
Note, in particular, the minus sign.
Use .
Topic 10: Fields - AHL Recall that a is the
10.2 – Fields at work slope of the v vs. t graph.
Potential energy – gravitational
The ship MUST slow down and reverse (v becomes – ).

The force varies as so that a is NOT linear.
Topic 10: Fields - AHL Note also that EP = 0
10.2 – Fields at work when r = .
𝐸 𝑃 =−
𝑟 where G = 6.67×10 −11
EXAMPLE: Find the gravitational potential energy
stored in the Earth-Moon system.
M = 5.981024 kg
m = 7.361022 kg
d = 3.82108 m
SOLUTION: Use .
J.
The previous formula is for large-scale
gravitational fields (say, some distance from a planet).
Recall the “local” formula for
gravitational potential energy:
∆ 𝐸 𝑃 =𝑚𝑔 ∆ 𝑦 where ms-2 local ∆EP
The local formula treats y0 as the arbitrary “zero value”
of potential energy. The general formula treats r =  as
the “zero value”.
FYI The local formula works only for g = CONST,
which is true as long as ∆y is relatively small (say, sea
level to the top of Mt. Everest). For larger distances use
Topic 10: Fields - AHL Note also that EP = 0
10.2 – Fields at work when r = .
Potential – gravitational
𝐸 𝑃 =−
𝑟 where G = 6.67×10 −11
We now define gravitational potential as gravitational
potential energy per unit mass:
∆ 𝐸𝑃 𝐺𝑀 gravitational
∆ 𝑉 𝑔= 𝑉 𝑔 =−
𝑚 𝑟 potential
This is why it is called “potential”.
FYI
The units of and are J kg-1.
Gravitational potential is the work done per unit mass
in moving a small mass from infinity to . (Note that
at .)
Why was the change in
Topic 10: Fields - AHL potential positive?
Potential – gravitational
∆ 𝐸𝑃 𝐺𝑀 gravitational
∆ 𝑉 𝑔= 𝑉 𝑔 =−
𝑚 𝑟 potential
EXAMPLE: Find the change in gravitational potential in
moving from Earth’s surface to 5 Earth radii (from
Earth’s center).
SOLUTION: kg and m.
But then m. Thus r2
J kg-1. r1
Potential and potential energy – gravitational
FYI
A few words clarifying the gravitational potential energy
and gravitational potential formulas are in order.
gravitational potential energy
gravitational potential
Be aware of the difference in name. Both have
“gravitational potential” in them and can be confused
during problem solving.
Be aware of the minus sign in both formulas.
The minus sign is there so that as you separate two
masses, or move farther out in space, their values
increase (as in the last example).
Both values are zero when r becomes infinitely large.
Be sure to know this definition.

By the way, answer C is the official definition of the
gravitational potential energy at a point P.
Try not to mix up potential and potential energy.
From we have .
Thus kJ.
Gravitational potential is derived from gravitational
potential energy and is thus a scalar. There is no need
to worry about vectors.
EXAMPLE: Find the gravitational potential
at the midpoint of the 2750-m radius circle r
of 125-kg masses shown.
SOLUTION: Potential is a scalar so it doesn’t
matter how the masses are arranged on the circle. Only
the distance matters.
For each mass m. Each mass contributes J kg-1.
Thus J kg-1.
Does it matter what path
Topic 10: Fields - AHL the mass follows as it is
10.2 – Fields at work brought in? NO. Why?
Gravitational potential is derived from gravitational
potential energy and is thus a scalar. There is no need
to worry about vectors.
EXAMPLE: If a 365-kg mass is brought in from
 to the center of the circle of masses, how r
much potential energy will it have lost?
SOLUTION: .
J.
Potential gradient – gravitational
The gravitational potential gradient (GPG) is the
change in gravitational potential per unit distance. Thus
the GPG .
EXAMPLE: Find the GPG in moving from Earth’s
surface to 5 radii from Earth’s center.
SOLUTION: In a previous slide we showed that
r2
J kg-1.
m.
m.
m.
r1
GPG J kg-1 m-1.
The gravitational potential gradient (GPG) is the
change in gravitational potential per unit distance. Thus
the GPG .
PRACTICE: Show that the units for the gravitational
potential gradient are the units for acceleration.
SOLUTION:
The units for are .
The units for work are J, but since work is force times
distance we have .
The units of are or []
Then the units of the GPG are
[ GPG ] = = .
In Topic 10.1 we found that near Earth, .
The following potential gradient (which we will not
prove) works at the planetary scale:
∆𝑉 𝑔
𝑔 =− gravitational potential gradient
∆𝑟
EXAMPLE: The gravitational potential in the vicinity of a
planet changes from -6.16×107 J kg-1 to -6.12×107 J kg-1
in moving from 1.80×108 m to 2.85×108 m. What is the
gravitational field strength in that region?
SOLUTION:
m s-2.
Equipotential surfaces revisited – gravitational
Recall that equipotential surfaces are imaginary
surfaces at which the potential is the same.
Since the gravitational potential for a
point mass is given by it is clear
m that
the equipotential surfaces are at fixed
radii and hence are concentric spheres:
equipotential
surfaces
FYI
Generally equipotential surfaces are drawn so that the
s for consecutive surfaces are equal.
Because is inversely proportional to r, the
consecutive rings get farther apart as we get farther
from the mass.
Equipotential surfaces revisited – gravitational
We know that for a point mass the gravitational field
lines point inward.
Thus the gravitational field lines are
perpendicular to the equipotential m
surfaces.
A 3D image of the same picture looks
like this:
Equipotential surfaces and the potential gradient
EXAMPLE: Use the 3D view of the equipotential surface
to interpret the gravitational potential gradient
.
SOLUTION: We can ∆r
choose any direction ∆Vg
for our value, say
the red line:
Then .
This is just the gradient
(slope) of the surface.
Thus g is the (–) gradient of the equipotential surface.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the
gravitational field lines
around two point masses.
SOLUTION: Remember
that the gravitational field m
lines point inward, and
that they are
perpendicular to the
equipotential surfaces.
m
EXAMPLE: Use a 3D view
of the equipotential surface saddle point
of two point masses to
illustrate that the gravitational
potential gradient is zero
somewhere in between the
two masses.
SOLUTION:
Remember that the
gravitational potential gradient is just the slope of the
surface.
The saddle point’s slope is zero. Thus there.
Escape speed
We define the escape speed to be the minimum
speed an object needs to escape a planet’s gravitational
pull.
We can further define escape speed vesc to be that
minimum speed which will carry an object to infinity and
bring it to rest there.
Thus we see as r   then v  0.
M
m
R r=R r=
u = vesc v=0
Note that escape speed is
Topic 10: Fields - AHL independent of the mass
10.2 – Fields at work that is actually escaping!
Escape speed
From the conservation of mechanical energy we have .
Then
0 0
𝑣 𝑒𝑠𝑐 =
√ 2 𝐺𝑀
𝑅
escape
speed
PRACTICE: Find the escape speed from Earth.
SOLUTION:
kg and m.
ms-1 (= 40300 km/h!)

Orbital motion, orbital speed and orbital energy
Consider a baseball in circular orbit about Earth.
Clearly the only force that is causing the
ball to move in a circle is the gravitational
force.
Thus the gravitational force is the
centripetal force for circular orbital motion.
EXAMPLE: A centripetal force causes a
centripetal acceleration ac. What are the two forms for ac?
SOLUTION: Recall from Topic 6 that .
Then from the relationship we see that
.
centripetal
acceleration
EXAMPLE: Suppose a 0.500-kg baseball is
placed in a circular orbit around the earth
at slightly higher than the tallest point,
Mount Everest (8850 m). Given that the
earth has a radius of RE = 6400000 m,
find the speed of the ball.
SOLUTION: m.
 is caused by the weight of the ball so that
N.
But so that
FYI
ms-1! We assumed that g = 9.8 ms-2
at the top of Everest.
PRACTICE: Find the period T of one
complete orbit of the ball.
SOLUTION:
m.
N.
so that .
But so that
s min h.
EXAMPLE: Show that for an object in a circular orbit
about a body of mass M that .
SOLUTION: In circular orbit and
But . Then
FYI The IBO expects you to be able to derive this relationship. It

is known as Kepler’s 3rd law.
PRACTICE: Using Kepler’s third law find
the period T of one complete orbit of the
baseball from the previous example.
SOLUTION: Use .
m., kg.
s min h.
FYI
Note the slight discrepancy in the period (it was 5081 s
before). How do you account for it?
An orbiting satellite has both kinetic energy and
potential energy.
The gravitational potential energy of an object of mass
m in the gravitational field of Earth is , where M is the
mass of the earth.
As we learned in Topic 2, the kinetic energy of an
object of mass m moving at speed v is .
Thus the total mechanical energy of an orbiting satellite
of mass m is
𝐸=𝐸 𝐾 + 𝐸 P total energy of an

orbiting satellite
EXAMPLE: Show that the speed of an orbiting satellite
having mass m at a distance r from the center of Earth
(mass M) is vorbit =
SOLUTION:
In circular orbit and .
But = . Then
=
=
𝐺𝑀
= speed of
= an
𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡= orbiting
satellite
EXAMPLE: Show that the kinetic energy of an orbiting
satellite having mass m at a distance r from the center
of Earth (mass M) is .
SOLUTION:
In circular orbit and
But . Then
kinetic
2 energy of
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 = an
2 2𝑟
orbiting
satellite
EXAMPLE: Show that the total energy of an orbiting
satellite at a distance r from the center of Earth is
E=.
SOLUTION: From E = EK + EP and the expressions for
EK and EP we have
E = EK + EP E= total
energy of
E = an
EK =
E = orbiting
satellite
E = EP =
FYI
The IBO expects you to derive these relationships.
total energy of an
orbiting satellite
EXAMPLE: Graph the kinetic energy vs. the radius of
orbit for a satellite of mass m about a planet of mass M
and radius R.
SOLUTION: Use . Note that EK decreases with radius. It
has a maximum value of .
EK
GMm
2R
r
R 2R 3R 4R 5R
total energy of an
orbiting satellite
EXAMPLE: Graph the potential energy vs. the radius of
orbit for a satellite of mass m about a planet of mass M
and radius R.
SOLUTION: Use . Note that EP increases with radius. It
becomes less negative.
R 2R 3R 4R 5R
r
- GMm
R
EP
Thus a spacecraft must
Topic 10: Fields - AHL SLOW DOWN in order to
10.2 – Fields at work reach a higher orbit!
total energy of an
orbiting satellite
EXAMPLE: Graph the total energy E vs. the radius of
orbit and include both EK and EP.
SOLUTION:
+ GMm
2R R 2R 3R 4R 5R EK
r E
EP
- GMm
2R
- GMm
R
FYI
Kinetic energy (thus v) DECREASES with radius.
Orbital motion and weightlessness
Consider Dobson inside an elevator which is
not moving…
If he drops a ball, it will accelerate downward
at 10 ms-2 as expected.
PRACTICE: If the elevator is accelerating
upward at 2 ms-2, what does Dobson observe
the dropped ball’s acceleration to be?
SOLUTION:
Since the elevator is accelerating upward at 2 ms-2 to
meet the ball, and the ball is accelerating downward at
10 ms-2, Dobson observes an acceleration of 12 ms-2.
If the elevator is accelerating downward at 2, he
observes an acceleration of 8 ms-2.
PRACTICE: If the elevator is accelerating
downward at 10 ms-2, what does Dobson
observe the dropped ball’s acceleration to be?
SOLUTION:
He observes the acceleration of the ball to
be zero!
He thinks that the ball is “weightless!”
FYI
The ball is NOT weightless, obviously. It is
merely accelerating at the same rate as
Dobson!
This is what we mean by weightlessness in
an orbiting spacecraft
The “Vo
mit Comet”
PRACTICE: We have all seen astronauts experiencing
“weightlessness.” Explain why it only appears that they
are weightless.
SOLUTION: The astronaut, the spacecraft, and the
tomatoes, are all accelerating at ac = g.
They all fall together and appear to be weightless.
International Space Station

Only in deep space – which is defined to be far, far
away from all masses – will a mass be truly weightless.
In deep space, the in is so large for
every that ,
the force of
gravity, is
for all intents
and
purposes,
zero.
KE is POSITIVE and decreasing.

GPE is NEGATIVE and increasing (becoming less
negative).
From Kepler’s 3rd law, .
Thus .
That is to say, .
From Kepler’s 3rd law . Then


.
From Kepler’s 3rd law
.
𝑇 2𝑋
=
(𝐺𝑀 )
4 𝜋2 3
𝑟𝑋
( 𝐺𝑀 ) 𝑟
2
𝑇𝑌 4𝜋
2
3
𝑌
Since the satellite is in uniform circular motion at a

radius and a speed , it must be undergoing a
centripetal acceleration.
Since gravitational field strength g is the acceleration,
.
x
R
.
Thus .
Finally .
x
R
From (a), .
Thus
and . So,
x
R

 [ from (b)(i) ]
.
x
R
The satellite will begin to lose some of its

mechanical energy in the form of heat.
Refer to [ from (b)
Topic 10: Fields - AHL (ii) ].
x
R
If E , then x  (to make E more negative).

If r  the atmosphere gets thicker and more resistive.
Clearly the orbit will continue to decay (shrink).
𝐸 𝐾=
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚total energy of an
2𝑟 𝐸 𝑃=−
𝑟 orbiting satellite
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=−
2𝑟
If r decreases EK gets bigger.
If r decreases E gets more negative (smaller).
Escape speed is the minimum speed needed

to travel from the surface of a planet to infinity.
It has the formula .

To escape we need .
The kinetic energy alone must then be .
This is to say, to escape

Since we only have the probe will not make it
into deep space.
Recall that .
Thus
The probe is in circular motion so .

But .
Thus or .
Finally
The energy given to the probe is

stored in potential and kinetic energy. Thus
∆ 𝐸 𝐾 +∆ 𝐸 𝑃=𝐸
.
It is the work done per unit mass by the

gravitational field in bringing a small mass from
infinity to that point.
COMPARE: The work done by the gravitational
field in bringing a small mass from infinity to that
point is called the gravitational potential energy.
The phrase only differs by omission of “per unit
mass”.
so that .
But ¿𝑉0.
Thus .
At clearly .
From previous problem
ms-2.
This solution assumes probe
Topic 10: Fields - AHL is not in orbit but merely
10.2 – Fields at work reaches altitude (and returns).
∆ 𝑉 𝑔 =( − 0.8− ( − 4.0 ) ) 107=3.210

7
∆ 𝐸 𝐾 =− 𝐸 P
𝐸 𝐾 0− 𝐸 𝐾 0 =− 𝐸 𝑃
( ½ ) 𝑚 𝑣 2 =∆ 𝐸 P
2 ∆ 𝐸𝑃
2
𝑣 =
𝑚
2
𝑣 =2 ∆¿𝑉
2(𝑔3.2  10 )
7
ms-1.
Potential and potential energy – electrostatic
You are probably asking
yourself why we are spending
so much time on fields.
The reason is simple:
Gravitational and electrostatic
fields expose the symmetries
in the physical world that are
so intriguing to scientists.
FYI
Both forces are governed by an inverse square law.
Mass and charge are the corresponding physical
quantities that create their fields in space.
Potential and potential gradient are symmetric also.
Think of potential energy as the capacity to do work.
And work is a force times a displacement.
𝑊 =𝐹𝑑 cos ⁡ ( is angle between F and d) work definition
Recall the electrostatic force from Coulomb:
𝑘𝑞 1 𝑞 2 Coulombs
𝐹 𝐸=
𝑟
2
where k = 8.99×109 N m2 C−2 law
If we multiply the above force by a distance r we get
𝑘 𝑞1 𝑞2 electrostatic
𝐸𝑃=
𝑟where k = 8.99×109 N m2 C−2 potential energy
FYI
The actual proof is beyond the scope of this course.
You need integral calculus…
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 electrostatic
𝐸𝑃=
𝑟 where k = 8.99×109 N m2 C−2 potential energy
Since at =  the force is zero, we can dispense with
the ∆EP, just as we did with the gravitational force, and
consider the potential energy EP at each point in space
as absolute.
EXAMPLE: Find the electric potential energy between
two protons located 3.010-10 meters apart.
SOLUTION: Use C. Then
J.
Note that electrostatic EP and the Ve
don’t have (-) signs, as did the
Topic 10: Fields - AHL gravitational forms. Instead, they
10.2 – Fields at work “inherit” their signs from the charges.
The technical definition is: The work done by the
electrostatic field in bringing a small charge from infinity
to that point is called the electrostatic potential
energy.
We now define electrostatic potential Ve as
electrostatic potential energy per unit charge:
∆ 𝐸𝑃 𝑘𝑞 electrostatic
∆ 𝑉 𝑒= 𝑉 𝑒=
𝑞 𝑟 potential
FYI
As we noted in the gravitational potential section of this
slide show, you can now see why the potential is called
that - it is derived from potential energy.
PRACTICE: Find the electric potential at a point P
located 4.510-10 m from a proton.
SOLUTION: C so that
J C-1 (which is V)
PRACTICE: If we place an electron at P what will be the
electric potential energy stored in the proton-electron
combo?
SOLUTION: From we see that
J (which is eV)
Since electric potential is a scalar, finding the electric
potential due to more than one point charge is a simple
additive process.
EXAMPLE: Find the electric potential at the r
center of the circle of protons shown. The
radius of the circle is the size of a small
nucleus, or 3.010-15 m.
SOLUTION: Because potential is a scalar, it doesn’t
matter how the charges are arranged on the circle.
For each proton m. Then each charge contributes so
that
NC-1 (or 1.9106 V)
Since electric potential is a scalar, finding the electric
potential due to more than one point charge is a simple
additive process.
EXAMPLE: Find the change in electric potential r
energy (in MeV) in moving a proton from infinity
to the center of the previous nucleus.
SOLUTION: Use and :
J.
Converting to eV we have
J
eV MeV.
Potential gradient – electrostatic
The electric potential gradient is the change in electric
potential per unit distance. Thus the EPG .
Recall the relationship between the gravitational
potential gradient and the gravitational field strength g:
gravitational potential gradient
Without proof we state that the relationship between
the electric potential gradient and the electric field
strength is the same:
electrostatic potential gradient
FYI
In the gradient is also known as the slope.
In IB we use the term gradient exclusively.
Potential gradient – electrostatic
electrostatic potential gradient
PRACTICE: The electric potential in the vicinity of a
charge changes from -3.75 V to -3.63 V in moving from r
= 1.80×10-10 m to r = 2.85×10-10 m. What is the electric
field strength in that region?
SOLUTION:
Vm-1 (or NC-1).
FYI
Maybe it is a bit late for this reminder but be careful not to confuse
the E for electric field strength for the E for energy!
Equipotential surfaces revisited – electrostatic
Equipotential surfaces are imaginary surfaces at which
the potential is the same.
Since the electric potential for a point
mass is given by it is clear that
q the
equipotential surfaces are at fixed
radii and hence are concentric equipotential
spheres: surfaces
FYI
Generally equipotential surfaces are drawn so that the
s for consecutive surfaces are equal.
Because is inversely proportional to the consecutive
rings get farther apart as we get farther from the mass.
EXAMPLE: Use the 3D view of the equipotential surface
surrounding a positive charge to interpret the electric
potential gradient .
SOLUTION: We can choose
any direction for our r value,
say the y-direction:
Then .
y
This is just the gradient
(slope) of the surface. Ve
Thus E is the (–) gradient of
the equipotential surface.
The E-field points from

more (+) to less (+).
Use and ignore the sign because we have already
established direction:
 Vcm-1.
Electric potential at a point P in space is the

amount of work done per unit charge in bringing a
charge from infinity to the point P.
CONTRAST: Electric potential energy at a point P
in space is the amount of work done in bringing a
charge from infinity to the point P.
The E-field points toward (-) charges.

The E-field is ZERO inside a conductor.
Perpendicular to E-field, and spreading.

From we see that the bigger the separation

between consecutive circles, the weaker the E-field.
You can also tell directly from the concentration

of the E-field lines.
Ve is ZERO inside

a conductor. 𝑘𝑞
𝑎
 is biggest (–) when . Thus .

From we see that is negative and it drops off
as .

V.
It will accelerate away from the surface

along a straight radial line.
Its acceleration will drop off as as it

moves away from the sphere.
.  C. V.
V.
J
 J.
 J. 0
.
.
ms-1.

At any point on the y-axis
Topic 10: Fields - AHL since r is same and paired
10.2 – Fields at work Qs are OPPOSITE.
On the x-axis since is

DIFFERENT for the paired Qs.

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Topic 10: Fields - AHL

10.2 – Fields at work

The ship MUST slow down and reverse (v becomes – ).

Be sure to know this definition.

ms-1 (= 40300 km/h!)

FYI The IBO expects you to be able to derive this relationship. It

𝐸=𝐸 𝐾 + 𝐸 P total energy of an

International Space Station

KE is POSITIVE and decreasing.

From Kepler’s 3rd law, .

From Kepler’s 3rd law . Then

From Kepler’s 3rd law

Since the satellite is in uniform circular motion at a

The satellite will begin to lose some of its

If E , then x  (to make E more negative).

Escape speed is the minimum speed needed

It has the formula .

To escape we need .

The kinetic energy alone must then be .

This is to say, to escape

The probe is in circular motion so .

The energy given to the probe is

It is the work done per unit mass by the

From previous problem

∆ 𝑉 𝑔 =( − 0.8− ( − 4.0 ) ) 107=3.210

Vm-1 (or NC-1).

The E-field points from

Electric potential at a point P in space is the

The E-field points toward (-) charges.

Perpendicular to E-field, and spreading.

From we see that the bigger the separation

You can also tell directly from the concentration

Ve is ZERO inside

 is biggest (–) when . Thus .

It will accelerate away from the surface

Its acceleration will drop off as as it

On the x-axis since is

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