Conditional Monitoring and

Diagnostic Testing of
Transformers
- LOHIT GUPTA

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 DIAGNOSTIC TESTING OF
TRANSFORMERS
• To identify faults in a transformer (or weaknesses that might
lead to them) and their causes.

• To manage the life of transformer, to reduce failures and to

extend the life of the transformer (CM is a predictive method
making use of the fact that most equipment will have a useful
life before maintenance is required).

• They offer an efficient, cost-effective way of assessing the

overall condition of a transformer fleet so that areas of
potential concern can be flagged and action taken well before
a potential failure develops into a serious fault.
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Conditional Monitoring Techniques
• Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) provides an early warning of various faults in
transformer winding or core.
• Oil parameters Testing: Low BDV indicates moisture or particulate contaminants in
the oil. High moisture content varying with temperature indicates wet winding.
Acidity, resistivity and interfacial tension (IFT) indicate oil condition.
• Capacitance & Tan d measurement of bushing and winding to assess the condition
of insulation, bushing and winding
• Winding resistance measurement to detect problem of broken sub-conductors,
winding contact joints and OLTC connections
• Impedance measurements with precision instruments to check for dynamic
movements of winding due to system short-circuit faults
• Turn ratio test indicates problem in winding and verifies correct tap changer
connections
• Excitation/ magnetization current tests to locate faults in the magnetic core
structure
• IR measurement to indicate the presence or absence of harmful contamination
(dirt, moisture etc.) and stress degradation of insulation. 4
 Latest Trends
• Frequency response analysis (FRA) to check for system resonance condition and
dynamic movements and detection of winding mechanical distortion during
transportation and through fault.

• PD measurement and acoustic localization of faults

• Furfuraldehyde (FFA) analysis in oil (HPLC chromatography) to detect ageing in

cellulosic material without taking paper samples

• On-line dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) monitoring of H. V. bushings:

• Recovery voltage measurement (RVM) giving general indication of moisture in

insulation and possible paper ageing and oil condition

• On-line Gas Monitors, PD Detection, Temperature Monitoring

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 DGA
• Insulating oils under abnormal electrical or thermal stresses
break down to liberate small quantities of gases.
• The composition of these gases is dependent upon the type
of fault.
• In this method a sample of the oil is taken from the unit and
the dissolved gases are extracted.
• Then the extracted gases are separated, identified, and
quantitatively determined.
• The relative ratios and the amount of gas detected in the
sample are used to detect problems with the insulation
structure.

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 TDCG Limits
The severity of an incipient fault can be further evaluated by the total dissolved
combustible gas (TDCG)

Action based on TDCG limits (IEEE standard C:57.104-1991)

[TDCG Limits, PPM -> Action]

< or = 720 -> Satisfactory operation, Unless individual gas acceptance values are exceeded
721-1920 -> Normal ageing/ slight decomposition, Trend to be established to see if any
evolving incipient fault is present.
1921-4630 -> Significant decomposition, Immediate action to establish trend to see if
fault is progressively becoming worse.
> 4630 -> Substantial decomposition, Gassing rate and cause of gassing should be
identified and appropriate action such as removal from service may be taken.

Note : TDCG value includes all hydrocarbons, CO & H2 and does not include CO2 which is not a combustible gas.

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 3 FAULT GROUPS

• The causes of fault gases can be divided into three categories;

• Corona or Partial Discharge,
• Pyrolysis or thermal heating,
• Arcing.

• Their distribution will be effected by the nature of the

insulating materials involved in the fault and the nature of the
fault itself.

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 INDICATIVE GASES
1. Corona/Partial Discharge
a. Oil: H2
b. Cellulose: H2, CO, CO2

2. Pyrolysis
a. Oil - Low temperature CH4, C2H6
- High temperature C2H4, H2 (CH4, C2H6)
b. Cellulose - Low temperature CO2 (CO)
- High temperature CO (CO2)

3. Arcing
H2, C2H2 (CH4, C2H6, C2H4)

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• In-service transformers always have some fault gases dissolved in their oil. Only
when these levels exceed some threshold value is a fault suspected.

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 Fault Identification Analysis
• Once key gas concentrations have exceeded normal limits, other
analysis techniques should be considered for determining the
potential problem within the transformer.

• The techniques involve calculating key gas ratios and comparing these
ratios to suggested limits.

• There are broadly 2 methods:

– IEC 60599 method
• Duval’s Triangle Model.
– IEEE method – C57-104/1991 :
• Doernenburg ratios,
• Rogers ratios.

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 Duval Triangle Method
• Duval’s Triangle Model is recognized in the IEC Guidelines.
The Duval Triangle Model (IEC 60599) combined field service
evidence with laboratory experiments.

• Once a potential problem has been determined using the key

gas concentration, calculate the total accumulated amount of
3 of the key gases, methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2), and
ethylene (C2H4), and divide each gas by the total of the 3
gases to find the percentage associated with each gas.

• These values are then plotted on the triangle to arrive at a

diagnosis.

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Michael Duval of Hydro Quebec developed Duval triangle utilizing a
data base of thousands of DGAS and transformers problem diagnosis

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 Why DGA?
Data from DGA can provide:

• Advanced warning of developing faults

• Monitoring the rate of fault development
• Confirm the presence of faults
• Means for conveniently scheduling repairs
• Monitoring of condition during overload

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 FRA
Purpose of FRA testing :
Determining
Transformer Winding
Deformation (coils,
layers, turns, HV
leads) due to:

-Through-faults
- Transportation
- Aging

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SWEEP FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS (SFRA)
• SFRA measures the frequency response of passive element (RLC) of the apparatus: it
measures the impedance of the winding over a wide range of frequencies.
• The result is a transfer function which produces a fingerprint related to the mechanical
geometry of the transformer.

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 Methodology
• Standard Network/Spectrum Analyser, consisting of one main unit and one
measurement unit can be used for FRA measurement. Connections are shown.

• It can be seen from the diagram that the swept frequency sinusoidal signal output
(S) of approximately 2 V rms from the measurement unit of Analyser and one
measuring input (R) are connected to the one end of a winding. While other end of
the winding is connected to the other measuring input (T). The voltage are applied
and measured with respect to the earthed transformer tank.

• It should be ensured that winding not being tested, are terminated in open
condition in order to avoid the introduction of differences between the responses
of three phases.

• The voltage transfer function T1/R1 is measured for each winding for four
standard frequency scans from 5 Hz to 2 MHz and amplitude and phase shift
results are recorded for subsequent analysis.

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 Analysis of measured FR
• Frequency responses recorded as above are analyzed as:
– Shift in the response of the winding
– Differences between the responses of all the phases of the same transformer.
– Differences between the responses of transformers of the same design.
• In all the above cases major frequency shifts especially in low frequency range is
cause for concern.

• As per EuroDoble Client Committee, the traces in general will change shape and be
distorted in the low frequency range (below 5 kHz) if there is a core problem. The
traces will be distorted and change shape in higher frequencies (above 10 kHz), if
there is winding problem.

• Changes of less than 3 decibels (dB) compared to baseline traces are normal and
within tolerances.

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In general, changes of +/- 3 dB (or more) in following frequency
ranges may indicate:

Frequency Range Probable Fault

5 Hz to 2kHz Shorted turns, open circuit,
residual magnetism or core
movement
50 Hz to 20 kHz Bulk movement of windings
relative to each other
500 Hz to 2 MHz Deformation within a winding
25 Hz to 10 MHz Problems with winding leads
and/or test lead placement

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 WHY FRA?
• The main advantage of this method is its ability to find fault
especially mechanical damage to the windings that cannot
always be detected by other means

• This test is sensitive, immune to electromagnetic interference

and very repeatable and not influenced by weather.

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 MOISTURE CONTENT DETECTION
• Water content influences the life of a transformer in many
ways. The obvious and generally known aspect is its direct
influence on the dielectric strength of the insulating medium
– oil and solid insulation and the mechanical strength.

• Furthermore, the accelerated aging of the solid insulation

through hydrolysis processes and the resulting loss of
mechanical properties, as well as the much feared “bubbling”,
i.e. the risk of bubble formation in case of dynamic load
changes, are of primary concern.

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 Water in Oil
• Water can exist in transformer oil in three states :
– Dissolved state
– Tightly bound to oil molecules : Chemically bound water
results from reactions between oxidised oil components in
strongly aged oils at high temperatures.
– Free water precipitated from the oil in suspension or
drops (when the moisture level exceeds the saturation
value) : When the absorption limit is exceeded, free water
separates from the oil. This can happen when a
transformer with moist solid insulation cools down and
may affect the cold start behaviour of the transformer.

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 Water in Paper
• Adsorbed to surfaces
• As Vapour
• As free water in capillaries
• Imbibed free water

Paper can contain much more moisture than oil

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 Effect of the water content on
paper aging
• Aging of the paper is directly proportional to the water
content.
• Water decomposes the cellulose structure hydrolytically,
whereby the long cellulose molecule (degree of
polymerisation – DP approximately 1000) is separated into
smaller sections as if cut with scissors.
• At a degree of polymerisation of 200, cellulose has almost no
mechanical resistance, i.e. the transformer is no longer short-
circuit-proof.
• It must be noted that this effect is auto-catalytic, i.e. during
the aging of cellulose more water is formed, which thus
accelerates the decomposition.

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 Moisture Equilibrium Curves
When the transformer is in equilibrium
operation, these moisture partitioning
curves provide a quick way of
examining the moisture content in
paper, to predict future failure by
measuring the moisture in oil.

Based on the value, the Residual Life

of the transformer can be assessed
(method not included here).

e.g. :
The moisture in oil is obtained
from oil analysis = 6 ppm,
Temperature of oil at bottom of
The dashed lines indicate desorption curves (diffusion of
tank = 160C
moisture out of cellulose), whereas the solid lines indicate Moisture in paper = 3.656%
the adsorption curves (diffusion of moisture into cellulose).
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 References
• CBIP Manual on Transformers
• IEEE Std. C57.104-1991, “IEEE Guide for the
Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-
Immersed Transformers.”
• http://www.omicron.at/
• Papers - T:\ELEC\LOHIT\diagnostic testing of
transformers

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THANK YOU

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