LIMITS

CHAPTER 4
 1
INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS
What is Limit?
A Geometric Example
■ Look at a polygon inscribed in a circle

As the number of sides of the polygon

increases, the polygon is getting closer to
becoming a circle.
If we refer to the polygon as an n-gon, where n is the
number of sides we can make some mathematical
statements:

■ As n gets larger, the n-gon gets closer to being a circle

■ As n approaches infinity, the n-gon approaches the
circle
■ The limit of the n-gon, as n goes to infinity is the
circle
 The symbolic statement is:

lim(n  gon)  circle

n 

The n-gon never really gets to be the circle,

but it gets close - really, really close, and for
all practical purposes, it may as well be the
circle. That is what limits are all about!
TRIVIA
Archimedes used this method WAY before
calculus to find the area of a circle.
The Limit Process
THE LIMIT PROCESS (AN INTUITIVE INTRODUCTION)
We could begin by saying that limits are important in calculus, but that would
be a major understatement. Without limits, calculus would not exist. Every
single notion of calculus is a limit in one sense or another.

For example:

What is the slope of a curve? It is the limit of

slopes of secant lines.

What is the length of a curve? It is the limit of

the lengths of polygonal paths inscribed in the
curve.
The Limit Process
What is the area of a region bounded by a curve? It is the limit of the sum of areas
of approximating rectangles.
An Informal Description
If f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number L
as x approaches c from either side, the limit of f(x)
as x approaches c, is L.
This limit is written as

lim f ( x)  L
x c
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
 Numerical Example 1

Let’s look at a sequence whose nth term is given

by:
n
n 1
What will the sequence look like?

½ , 2/3, ¾, 4/5,….99/100,...99999/100000…
What is happening to the terms of
the sequence?
½ , 2/3, ¾, 4/5, ….99/100,….99999/100000…

Will they ever get to 1?

n
lim 1
n  n  1
 Numerical Example 2
Let’s look at the sequence whose
nth term is given by 1
n

1, ½, 1/3, ¼, …..1/10000,....1/10000000000000…
As n is getting bigger, what are these
terms approaching?
 1
lim  0
n  n
Numerical Example 3
Estimating a Limit Numerically
■1.) USING A TABLE TO ESTIMATE A LIMIT.
■Solution:
■Let f (x) = 3x – 2.
■Construct a table that shows values of f (x) for two
sets of x-values—one set that approaches 2 from the
left and one that approaches 2 from the right.
Numerical Example 3
Estimating a Limit Numerically

■From the table, it appears that the closer x gets to 2,

the closer f (x) gets to 4. So, you can estimate the limit
to be 4.
■The graph adds further support to this conclusion.
GRAPHICAL EXAMPLES
Graphical Example 1

1
f ( x) 
x

As x gets really, really big, what is

happening to the height, f(x)?
 1
lim  0
x  x
As x gets really, really small, what is
happening to the height, f(x)?

Does the height, or f(x) ever get to 0?

 1
lim  0
x  x
Graphical Example 2

3
f ( x)  x

As x gets really, really close to 2, what is

happening to the height, f(x)?

3
lim x  8
x2
 Graphical Example 3
6

-7

-4

Find lim f ( x)
x  7 lim f ( x)  4
x  7

not 6!
lim f ( x) ZOOM Decimal
x2

lim f ( x)  0.5
x2
 Limits that
Fail to Exist
 Nonexistence Example 1: Behavior that
Differs from the Right and Left

What happens as x
approaches zero?

The limit as x approaches zero does not exist.

1
lim  does not exist
x 0 x
 Nonexistence Example 2: Unbounded
Behavior
Discuss the existence of
the limit

1
lim 2
x 0 x

1
lim  does not exist
x 0 x
 Nonexistence Example 3: Oscillating
Behavior
Discuss the existence of the limit

1
lim sin
x 0 x
Put this into your calc
set table to start at -.003 with increments of .001

X -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 0 0.001 0.01 X 0

Sin(1/x) -1.17 -0.98 0.98 undef -0.98 0.98 Limit does

not exist
 Nonexistence Example 3: Oscillating
Behavior
1
Discuss the existence of the limit lim sin
x 0 x
 Common Types of Behavior
Associated with Nonexistence of a
Limit
 2
LIMIT THEOREMS AND
LAWS
One-Sided Limits
One-Sided Limits
Numbers x near c fall into two natural categories: those that lie to
the left of c and those that lie to the right of c. We write

lim f  x   L [The left-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]

x c
to indicate that
as x approaches c from the left, f(x) approaches L.
We write
lim f  x   L [The right-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]
x c

to indicate that
as x approaches c from the right, f(x) approaches L
Left & Right Hand Limits
 Theorem

10 50

40
5

The limit does

30

-10 -5 0 5 10
x 20 not exist for
-5 The limit exists 10 this function.
for this function.
-10
0 5 10 15 20
x
 Example
Take the function indicated in Figure 2.1.7. As x approaches
5 from the left, f (x) approaches 2; therefore

lim f  x   2
x  5

As x approaches 5 from the right, f (x) approaches 4;

therefore
lim f  x   4
x 5

The full limit, lim f  x  , does not exist: consideration of x < 5 would
x 5
force the limit to be 2, but consideration of x > 5 would force the limit
to be 4.

For a full limit to exist, both one-sided limits have to exist and they have to be equal.
 lim f ( x)  2 lim f ( x)  2 lim f ( x)  2
x 1 x 1 x 1

The limit is The limit can exist even when

a number the function is not defined at a
point or has a value different
from the limit.
 2
If f(x)  x , what is lim f(x)?
x2

2
lim x  4
x 2

lim x 2  4
x2 2

 lim x 2  4 -5
x2
 lim f ( x)  DNE
x 4

lim f ( x)  DNE
x 1 lim f ( x)  2
x 3

lim f ( x)  1
x2
lim f ( x)  DNE lim f ( x)  5 lim f ( x)  3
x  2 x4 x 8

lim f ( x)  2 lim f ( x)  DNE lim f ( x)  5

x 0 x 5
x 10

lim f ( x)  DNE lim f ( x)  DNE lim f ( x)  DNE

x2 x 6 x 11
Note: The Limit of a Function is unique.
 Calculating Limits
Using the Limit Laws

In this section, we will:

Use the Limit Laws to calculate limits.
THE LIMIT LAWS

Suppose that c is a constant and

the limits lim f ( x) and lim g ( x)
xa x a
exist.
THE LIMIT LAWS

Then,
1.lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
xa x a xa

2.lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x a x a x a

3.lim cf ( x)   c lim f ( x)

xa x a

4.lim  f ( x) g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa x a x a

f ( x) limx a
f ( x)
5.lim  if lim g ( x)  0
x a g ( x ) lim g ( x) xa
xa
THE LIMIT LAWS

These laws can be

stated verbally.
THE SUM LAW

The limit of a sum is the sum

of the limits.

lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x a x a x a
THE DIFFERENCE LAW

The limit of a difference is the

difference of the limits.

lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa xa xa
THE CONSTANT MULTIPLE LAW

The limit of a constant times a

function is the constant times the
limit of the function.

lim cf ( x)   c lim f ( x)

x a x a
THE PRODUCT LAW

The limit of a product is the

product of the limits.

lim  f ( x) g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x a xa x a
THE QUOTIENT LAW

The limit of a quotient is the quotient

of the limits (provided that the limit of
the denominator is not 0).

f ( x) lim f ( x)
lim  x a if lim g ( x)  0
x a g ( x) lim g ( x) x a
x a
THE LIMIT LAWS

It is easy to believe that these

properties are true.
 For instance, if f(x) is close to L and g(x) is close to M, it
is reasonable to conclude that f(x) + g(x) is close to L +
M.
 This gives us an intuitive basis for believing that the Sum
Law is true.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 1

Use the Limit Laws and the graphs

of f and g in the figure to evaluate the
following limits, if they exist.

a. xlim
2
 f ( x)  5 g ( x) 

lim  f ( x) g ( x) 
b. x1
f ( x)
lim
c. x2 g ( x)
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 1 a

From the graphs, we see that

lim f ( x)  1 and.lim g ( x)  1 .
x 2 x 2

 Therefore, we have:

lim  f ( x)  5 g ( x) 
x 2

 lim f ( x)  lim 5 g ( x) 
x 2 x 2

 lim f ( x)  5 lim  g ( x) 
x 2 x 2

 1  5( 1)  4
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 1 b

We see that lim f ( x)  2.

x 1
However, lim g ( x ) does not exist—because
x 1
the left and right limits are different:
lim g ( x)  2 andlim g ( x)  1
x 1 x 1

 So, we can’t use the

Product Law for the desired
limit.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 1 b

However, we can use the Product Law

for the one-sided limits:
lim[ f ( x) g ( x)]  2  ( 2)  4 and
x 1

lim[

f ( x) g ( x)]  2  (1)  2
x 1
 The left and right limits
aren’t equal.
 So, lim  f ( x ) g ( x ) 
x 1
does not exist.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 1 c

The graphs show that. lim f ( x)  1.4and

x2
lim g ( x)  0
x 2
.
As the limit of the denominator is 0, we
f ( x)
can’t use
lim
x2 g ( x) the Quotient Law.
 does not exist.
 This is because the
denominator approaches 0
while the numerator
approaches a nonzero
number.
THE POWER LAW

If we use the Product Law repeatedly

with f(x) = g(x), we obtain the Power
Law.
n
6.lim  f ( x)   lim f ( x) 
n

xa  xa 

where n is a positive integer

USING THE LIMIT LAWS

In applying these six limit laws, we

need to use two special limits.
7.lim c  c
xa
8.lim x  a
xa

 These limits are obvious from an intuitive point of view.

 State them in words or draw graphs of y = c and y = x.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS

If we now put f(x) = x in the Power Law

and use Law 8, we get another useful
special limit.
n n
9.lim x  a
xa

where n is a positive integer.

USING THE LIMIT LAWS

A similar limit holds for roots.

n n
10.lim x  a
x a

 If n is even, we assume that a > 0.

THE ROOT LAW

More generally, we have the

Root Law.
11.lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x)
xa xa

where n is a positive integer.

 If n is even, we assume that lim f ( x) . 0

xa
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 2

Evaluate the following limits and

justify each step.

a. lim(2
x 5
2
x  3 x  4)

3 2
x  2x  1
b. xlim
2 5  3x
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 2 a
2
lim(2 x  3 x  4)
x 5
2
 lim(2 x )  lim 3 x  lim 4 (by Laws 2 and 1)
x 5 x 5 x 5
2
 2 lim x  3lim x  lim 4 (by Law 3)
x 5 x 5 x 5
2
 2(5 )  3(5)  4 (by Laws 9, 8, and 7)

 39
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 2 b

We start by using the Quotient Law.

However, its use is fully justified only
at the final stage.
 That is when we see that the limits of the numerator
and denominator exist and the limit of the denominator is
not 0.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 2 b
x3  2 x 2  1
lim
x 2 5  3x
3 2
lim ( x  2 x  1)
 x 2 (by Law 5)
lim (5  3 x)
x 2

lim x 3  2 lim x 2  lim 1 (by Laws 1, 2, and 3)

x 2 x 2 x 2

lim 5  3 lim x
x 2 x 2

(2)3  2(2) 2  1 1
  (by Laws 9, 8, and 7)
5  3(2) 11
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Note

If we let f(x) = 2x2 - 3x + 4,

then f(5) = 39.
 In other words, we would have gotten the correct
answer in Example 2 a by substituting 5 for x.
 Similarly, direct substitution provides the correct
answer in Example 2 b.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Note

The functions in the example are

a polynomial and a rational function,
respectively.
 Similar use of the Limit Laws proves that direct substitution
always works for such functions.
DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

We state this fact as follows.

If f is a polynomial or a rational function
and a is in the domain of f, then

lim f ( x)  f (a )
xa
DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

Functions with the Direct Substitution

Property are called ‘continuous at a.’

However, not all limits can be evaluated by

direct substitution—as the following examples
show.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 3
2
x 1
Find lim
x 1 x  1
.
 Let f(x) = (x2 - 1)/(x - 1) .
 We can’t find the limit by substituting x = 1 because
f(1) isn’t defined.
 We can’t apply the Quotient Law because the limit
of the denominator is 0.
 Instead, we need to do some preliminary algebra.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 3

We factor the numerator as a

difference of squares.
x 2  1 ( x  1)( x  1)

x 1 ( x  1)
 The numerator and denominator have a common
factor of x - 1.
 When we take the limit as x approaches 1, we have
x 1 x  so
and 1 0 .
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 3
 Therefore, we can cancel the common factor
and compute the limit as follows:
x2  1
lim
x 1 x  1

( x  1)( x  1)
 lim
x 1 ( x  1)
 lim( x  1)
x 1

 11
2
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Note

In the example, we were able to compute

the limit by replacing the given function
f(x) = (x2 - 1)/(x - 1) by a simpler function
with the same limit, g(x) = x + 1.
 This is valid because f(x) = g(x) except when x = 1
and, in computing a limit as x approaches 1, we don’t
consider what happens when x is actually equal to 1.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Note

In general, we have the following

useful fact.

If f(x) = g(x) when x  a , then

lim f ( x)  lim, gprovided
( x) the limits exist.
xa xa
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 4
 x  1 if x  1
Find lim g ( x)where g ( x)   .
x 1  if x  1

 Here, g is defined at x = 1 and g (1)  .

 However, the value of a limit as x approaches 1 does
not depend on the value of the function at 1.
 Since g(x) = x + 1 for x  1 , we have
lim g ( x)  lim( x  1)  2
x 1 x 1
USING THE LIMIT LAWS
Note that the values of the functions in Examples 3
and 4 are identical except when x = 1. So, they
have the same limit as x approaches 1.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 5
2
(3  h)  9
Evaluate lim .
h 0 h
(3  h) 2  9
 If we define F (h)  h , then, we can’t compute
lim F (h)
h 0 by letting h = 0 since F(0) is undefined.
 However, if we simplify F(h) algebraically, we find that:
F ( h)
(9  6h  h 2 )  9

h
6h  h 2

h
 6h
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 5
 Recall that we consider only h  0 when letting h
approach 0.
 Thus,
(3  h) 2  9
lim
h 0 h
 lim(6  h)
h 0

6
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 6
t2  9  3
Find lim 2
.
t 0 t

 We can’t apply the Quotient Law immediately—since

the limit of the denominator is 0.
 Here, the preliminary algebra consists of rationalizing
the numerator.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 6
 Thus,
t2  9  3
lim
t 0 t2
t2  9  3 t2  9  3
 lim 2

t 0 t t2  9  3
(t 2  9)  9
 lim
t 0 2
t ( t 2  9  3)
t2
 lim
t 0
t 2 ( t 2  9  3)
1
 lim
t 0
t2  9  3
1 1 1
  
lim(t 2  9)  3 33 6
t 0
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Theorem 1
Some limits are best calculated by first finding
the left- and right-hand limits.
The following theorem states that a two-sided
limit exists if and only if both the one-sided
limits exist and are equal.

if and only if

 When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also hold for one-sided limits.

lim f ( x)  L lim f ( x)  L  lim f ( x)

xa x a xa
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 7

Show that lim x  0.

x 0

x if x  0
 Recall that: x  
 x if x  0

 Since |x| = x for x > 0 , we have: lim x  lim x  0

x 0 x 0

 Since |x| = -x for x < 0, we have: lim x  lim (  x)  0

x 0 x 0

 Therefore, by Theorem 1, lim

x 0
x  0.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 7

The result looks plausible from

the figure.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 8
x
Prove that lim does not exist.
x 0 x
x x
lim  lim  lim 1  1
x 0 x x 0 x x 0

x x
lim  lim  lim ( 1)  1
x 0 x x 0 x x 0

 Since the right- and left-hand limits are different, it follows

x
from Theorem 1 that limnot exist.
does
x 0 x
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 8

The graph of the function f ( x) | x | / x

is shown in the figure.
It supports the one-sided limits that we
found.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 9
 x  4 if x  4
If f ( x)  8  2 x if x  4

determine whether lim
x4
f ( x)exists.

 Sincef ( x)  x  4 for x > 4, we have:

lim f ( x)  lim x  4
x 4 x 4

 44  0
 Since f(x) = 8 - 2x for x < 4, we have:
lim f ( x)  lim (8  2 x)
x 4 x4

 8 24  0
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 9

 The right- and left-hand limits are

equal.
 Thus, the limit exists and
lim f ( x)  .0
x4
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 9

The graph of f is shown in the

figure.
GREATEST INTEGER FUNCTION

The greatest integer function is defined

by x = the largest integer that is less
than or equal to x.
 The greatest integer function is sometimes called
the floor function.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 10

Show that lim  x does not exist.

x 3
 The graph of the greatest integer function
is shown in the figure.
USING THE LIMIT LAWS Example 10
3 x  4

2 x3
Exercise
Evaluate the following limits:
Exercise 2
Justify the following assertions.