UNIT-IV

Radio
Propagatio
n
 Outline

 Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

 Types of Waves

 Radio Frequency Bands

 Propagation Mechanisms

2
Wave Propagation
 Radio propagation
• Radio propagation is the behavior of radio
waves when they are transmitted, or propagated
from one point on the Earth to another, or into
various parts of the atmosphere.
• An EM wave travels from the Txer to the Rxer in
three different types of waves.
 Ground or Surface wave
 Space or Tropospheric wave

 Sky or Ionospheric waves.

Radio Spectrum
 Speed, Wavelength,
Frequency

Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency

= 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s

System Frequency Wavelength

AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km

FM radio 100 MHz 3m

Cellular 800 MHz 37.5 cm

Ka band 20 GHz 15 mm
satellite
Ultraviolet 1015 Hz 10-7 m
light
6
 Radio Frequency Bands
Classificati Initi Frequency Characteri
on Band als Range stics
Extremely ELF < 300 Hz
low Ground
Infra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 wave
kHz
Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30
kHz
Low LF 30 kHz - 300
kHz
Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 Ground/
MHz Sky wave
High HF 3 MHz - 30 Sky wave
MHz
Very high VH 30 MHz -
F 300 MHz
Ultra high UH 300 MHz - 3 Space 7

F GHz
 RADIO WAVES
x
Electric
Field, E

y Direction
z of
Magne Propagati
tic on
Field, H
 Electromagnetic Wave(Radio Waves) travel with a vel.
of light.

 These waves comprises of both Electric and Magnetic

Field.

 The two fields are at right-angles to each other and the

direction of propagation is at right-angles to both
fields.

 The Plane of the Electric Field defines the Polarisation

of the wave.
 POLARIZATION

 The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the

electric field with respect to the Earth's surface.

 Polarization of EM Wave is determined by the physical

structure of the antenna and by its orientation.

 Radio waves from a vertical antenna will usually be

vertically polarized.

 Radio waves from a horizontal antenna are usually

horizontally polarized.
 Radio Wave Propagation
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when they
are transmitted, or propagated from one point on the Earth to
another, or into various parts of the atmosphere.

Like light waves, radio waves are affected by the

phenomena of

Reflection

Refraction

Diffraction

Absorption

Polarization

Scattering
 Radio Wave
Propagation
Radio waves travel to their destination in four ways:

 Line of Sight
 Directly from one point to another.

 Ground-Wave
 Along the ground, bending slightly to follow the
Earth’s curvature.

 Tropospheric Bending and Ducting

 In the lower layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.

 Sky-Wave
 Refracted or bent back to the Earth’s surface by
ionized layers in the ionosphere.

T3-11
 Radio Phenomena
 Propagation: How Signals Travel

 Propagation On The HF Bands

 Ground-wave Propagation
 Sky-wave Propagation
 HF Scatter Propagation

 VHF/UHF Propagation Characteristics

 Line-of-sight Propagation
 Tropospheric Bending and Ducting
 VHF/UHF Signals Through The Ionosphere

T3-12
 Propagation Mechanisms
 Reflection
 Propagation wave impinges on an object which is
large as compared to wavelength
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls,
etc.

 Diffraction
 Radio path between transmitter and receiver
obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges
 Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS
(line of sight) does not exist

 Scattering
 Objects smaller than the wavelength of the
propagation wave
- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts

13
Radio Propagation Effects

Building

Direct
Signal

Reflected
h
Signal
b Diffrac
ted
h
Signal
m

d
Transmit Receiver
ter

14
 Factors influences the
Propagation:
• Earth’s characteristics in terms of conductivity,
permittivity and permeability.
• Frequency of operation
• Polarization of Txing antenna
• Height of Txing antenna
• Txed power
• Curvature of the earth
• Obstacles between the
• Characteristics and moisture content in the
troposphere
• Characteristics of ionosphere
• Earth’s magnetic field
• The distance between
• Types of earth.
 Types of Wave
Propagation

Ionosphe
re
Sky wave (80 - 720
km)
Mesosph
ere
(50 - 80
km)
Space wave Stratosph
ere
Ground (12 - 50
a nsmi wave Rece km)
Troposph
Tr iv
tter er ere
Eart (0 - 12 km)
h
16
 Classification of Radio
Wave Propagation

The radio waves from the transmitting antenna may reach

to the receiving antenna following any of the modes of
propagations depending upon several factors like freq.
distance between transmitter & receiver antennas etc.
Ground Wave Propagation (up
to 2MHz)

Follows contour of the earth

Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example: AM radio
 GWP contd….

 Results from a radio wave diffraction along the Earth’s

surface.

 This mode of propagation exist when transmitter &

receiver antennas are close to the surface of the earth
& is supported at its lower edge by the presence of the
ground.

 Primarily affects longer wavelength radio waves that

have vertical polarization (electric field is oriented
vertically).

 Most noticeable on AM broadcast band and the 160

meter and 80 meter amateur bands.

 Communication distances often extend to 120 miles or

more.

 Most useful during the day at 1.8 MHz and 3.5 MHz
when the D-Region absorption makes sky-wave
propagation impossible.
T3-19
 GWP contd….

Fig: The curved surface of the Earth horizon can

diffract long-wavelength (low frequency) radio waves.
The waves can follow the curvature of the Earth for as
much as several hundred miles.

T3-20
 This form of propagation fits most frequencies but the
distance between the transmitter and receiver will vary with
geography and composition of “ground”.

This is sometimes also called as Norton’s surface wave &

has practical importance at broadcast & lower frequencies.

 Any horizontal component of E in contact with earth is

short circuited by the earth. since GWP along the surface of
the wave induce charges in the earth, which travel with the
wave and hence constitute a current.

While carrying this induced current the earth behaves as

a leaky capacitance & therefore, earth can be represented as
a resistance in shunt with a capacitance.

The ground wave, therefore, suffers varying amount of

attenuation while propagating along the curvature of the
earth, depending upon Frequency & Power, Surface
irregularities, Permittivity & Conductivity

A good example of very different “grounds” is the

difference between the desert and the ocean.
 Earth’s attenuation increases as frequency increases &
hence this GWP mode is suitable for low & medium
frequencies i.e.; up to 2MHz only. It is also called as
Medium Wave Propagation & is invariably used in local
broadcasting. All broadcast signals received during day
time is due to GWP.

 The field strength at a distance from transmitter antenna

due to ground is given by

E= 120∏hthrIs
lamda d
 According to Somerfield, E for GWP for a flat earth is
given by
Eg=(Eo A)/d
Eo= Ground wave field strength at surface of earth, at
unit distance from transmitting antenna. Earth losses
not accounted
Eg= Ground wave field strength
A= Factor accounting for earth losses called attenuation
factor.
d= distance from transmitter antenna expressed in
same unit as Eo.
 Eo depends upon : Power radiated of transmitter
amtenna, Directivity in vertical & Horizontal planes.
 If the antenna is non-directional, in the horizontal plane,
producing a radiated field which is proportional to
cosine of angle of elevation( Short Vertical antenna),
then the field at unit distance (i.e.; 1km) for a radiated
power of 1kW is given by

Eo=300√p
d
 Advantages
Given enough power they can be used to
communicate between any two points in the
world

They are relatively unaffected by changing

atmospheric conditions
 Disadvantages

Requires relatively high transmission power

They are limited to very low, low and medium

frequencies which require large antennas

Losses on the ground vary considerably with

surface material
 Sky Wave (or) Ionospheric Wave
Propagation
(2MHz to 30MHz)

Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back

down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earth’s surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples: Amateur radio, CB radio, International
broadcasts
 Sky Waves are of practical importance at medium & high
frequencies for very long distance radio communications.

 In this, EM waves reach the receiving point after

reflection from ionized region in the upper atmosphere
called ionosphere situated between50Km to 400 Km
above earth surface under favorable conditions.

 Ionosphere acts like a reflecting surface and is able to

reflect back EM waves of frequencies between (2 to 30)
MHz, EM waves of frequencies more than 30MHz are not
reflected back from ionosphere rather they penetrate it.

 Since long distance point to point communication is

possible with sky wave propagation, so it is called as point
to point propagation or Short Wave Propagation.

 In a single reflection, from the ionosphere radio waves

cover a distance not more than 4000Km.

 Signals received due to sky wave propagation are,

however, subjected to fading in which signal strength
varies with time. It is because at the receiving point a
large number of waves follow a different number of paths.
 The ionosphere is the region of the upper atmosphere where
the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation can ionize oxygen molecules to
create a positive ion and a free electron.

 The ionosphere protects us from excessive ultraviolet

radiation.

 There are three main layers of the ionosphere.

 D layer is 30 to 60 miles in altitude. The ions in this
layer recombine at night.

E layer is 60 to 70 miles in altitude. The ions in this layer

also recombine at night, but last longer after sunset.

F layer is 100 to 300 miles and is the least dense so it can

stay partially ionized all night.

 The F layer splits into the F1 and F2 layers during

the day. The layers combine into a single F layer at
night.

 When the Sun is directly overhead the F2 layer will

be at its highest
altitude.
 The ionosphere is a weak conductor because of the
ions and free electrons.

 The ionosphere can cause radio waves to bend

(refract)

 The more dense the ionization the higher the

degree of refraction, and at higher frequencies.

 VHF and higher radio waves usually pass through

the ionosphere into space.

 HF radio waves are most affected by refraction.

 The virtual height is the height from which the radio
wave appears to be reflecting.
 The critical angle is the angle at which a radio wave
must hit the ionosphere to reflect back to the Earth.
 The critical frequency is the highest frequency that a
radio wave transmitted straight up will return to the
Earth.

 Radio waves that pass through the denser D and E

regions are partially absorbed. Frequencies below
about 10 MHz are completely absorbed.

 160, 80, 60, and 40 meters provide the best TX at

night when the D layer is gone.

 Shortwave broadcasters move to lower frequencies

at night.
 Sky-wave propagation refers to radio wave
propagation via the ionosphere. Each reflection from
the ionosphere is a hop. Reception of sky-wave
propagation is called skip.

 The higher the region in the ionosphere where the hop

occurs, the greater the distance the wave can travel.

 F2 skip can travel up to 2500 miles

 E skip can travel up to 1200 miles

 Sky-wave propagation can include multiple hops

between the Earth and the ionosphere.

 If the ionosphere is very dense, then the critical angle

is high and short skip is possible.

 Short skip distances are much shorter than the

usual skip distances.

 Short skip on the 10 M band is a good indicator

that sky-wave propagation is possible on 6 M.
 Sky-wave signals due to fluctuations in the ionosphere
which can create multiple paths for the signal
(multipath). The combination of multipath signals can
cause some distortion or fading.

 Ground-wave signals travel along the surface of the

Earth. The ground is a poor conductor so ground wave
losses are high and increase with frequency.

 The skip zone is the region between the maximum

ground-wave and minimum sky-wave where a station
can not be heard.
 Ionization levels in the Earth’s ionosphere can refract
(bend) radio waves to return to the surface.

 Ions in the Earth’s upper atmosphere are formed

when ultraviolet (UV) radiation and other radiation
from the sun knocks electrons from gas atoms.

 The ionization regions in the Earth’s ionosphere is

affected the sunspots on the sun’s surface. The
sunspots vary in number and size over a 11 year
cycle.

 Sky-wave propagation is determined by radio wave

frequency and level of ionization in the ionosphere.

T3-36
 Communication distances of 2500 miles are possible with
one skip off the ionosphere.

 Skip propagation has both minimum and maximum

ranges.

 The area between the maximum ground wave distance

and the minimum skip distance is called the skip zone.

 World-wide communications is possible using several

skips (or multi-hops)

 The highest frequency that a radio wave transmitted straight

up is reflected back to Earth is called the critical frequency.

 The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest

frequency at which the ionosphere bends radio waves back to
a desired location on earth.

 MUF is dependant on level of solar radiation strength

and time of day.

 The maximum usable frequency (MUF) tends to be

higher during periods of high sunspots.
T3-37
Sky Wave Propagation

T3-38
 Regions In The
Ionosphere

The Earth’s ionosphere

contains several regions
of charged particles
which affect radio signal
propagation.

The ionization regions

change from day to night
periods. Region Height
Above
Surface
D 30-60 miles
Region
E 60-70 miles
Region
F 100-310
Region miles T3-39
 Regions In The Ionosphere

 D Region
 Height about 35 to 60 miles above Earth.

 Maximum ionization at or near noon.

 Ionization disappears by sunset.

 Absorbs energy from radio waves. Absorption on

lower frequencies is greater than higher frequencies.

 Radio wave absorption is most pronounced at mid-

day.

 Responsible for short daytime communication

ranges on lower-frequency HF bands (160, 80 and
40 meters).

T3-40
 Regions In The Ionosphere
(Cont’d)
 E Region
 Height about 50 to 70 miles above Earth.

 Ionization useful for bending radio waves when in

sunlight.

 Reaches maximum ionization level around mid-

day.

 Ionization reaches a minimum level just prior to

sunrise.

 Radio wave propagation up to about 1250 miles in

a single skip hop.

T3-41
 Regions In The Ionosphere
(Cont’d)
 F Region
 Height ranges from 100 to 310 miles above Earth.

 Ionization reaches a maximum about noon and tapers

off gradually toward sunset. Minimum ionization is
reached just prior to sunrise.

 F region splits into two parts (F1 and F2) during the
day and recombine at night.

 F1 region forms about 140 miles above Earth

 F2 region forms about 200 miles above Earth

 F2 region is responsible for long distance HF band

communication with distances of about 2500 miles.

T3-42
 Sky Wave Propagation
Sky Wave:
The propagation of Space and
Ground waves are limited by the
curvature of earth.

So for long distance comm. of

thousands of Km or more are
performed by Sky waves or
ionospheric waves.

Also Known as Skip/ Ionospheric/

Hop/ wave.

 HF radio communication (2 and 30

MHz) is a result of sky wave
propagation.

 Example: Amateur radio

 Sky Wave Propagation
contd….

 Signal reflected from

ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth

 Signal can travel a number

of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and
earth’s surface

 Reflection effect caused by

refraction
Sky-Wave Propagation
contd….

Sky wave
propagation
Sky-Wave Propagation (Related
terms)

 Sky-wave propagation refers to radio wave propagation

via the ionosphere. Each reflection from the ionosphere
is a hop.

 Reception of sky-wave propagation is called skip.

 The skip zone is the region between the max. ground-

wave and min. sky-wave where a station can not be
heard.

 The higher the region in the ionosphere where the hop

occurs, the greater the distance the wave can travel.

 F2 skip can travel up to 2500 miles

 E skip can travel up to 1200 miles

Sky-Wave Propagation
contd….

Sky wave
propagation
 Sky-Wave Propagation
contd….
 Sky-wave propagation can include multiple hops
between the Earth and the ionosphere.

 Sky-wave signals due to fluctuations in the ionosphere

which can create multiple paths for the signal
(multipath). The combination of multipath signals can
cause some distortion or fading.

 If the ionosphere is very dense, then the critical angle

is high and short skip is possible.

 Short skip distances are much shorter than the

usual skip distances.

 Short skip on the 10 M band is a good indicator

that sky-wave propagation is possible on 6 M.
 Ionospheric Propagation
 For many years, numerous organisations have been employing the High Frequency (HF)
spectrum to communicate over long distances. It was recognised in the late 30's that these

communication systems were subject to marked variations in performance. It was hypothesised

that most of these variations were directly related to changes in the ionosphere. Considerable

effort was made to investigate ionospheric parameters and determine their effect on radio

waves and the associated reliability of HF circuits. World-wide noise measurement records

were started and steps were taken to record observed variations in signal amplitudes over

various HF paths.

 The results of this research established that ionised regions ranging from approximately 70 to
1000 km above the earth's surface provide the medium of transmission for electromagnetic

energy in the HF spectrum (2 to 30 MHz) and that most variations in HF system performance

are directly related to changes in these ionised regions. The ionisation is produced in a

complex manner by the photo ionization of the earth's high altitude atmosphere by solar

radiation.
 Within the ionosphere, the recombination of the ions and electrons proceeds slowly
enough (due to low gas densities) so that some free electrons persist even

throughout the night. In practice, the ionosphere has a lower limit of 50 to 70 km

and no distinct upper limit, although 1000 km is somewhat arbitrarily set as the

upper limit for most application purposes.

 The vertical structure of the ionosphere is changing continuously. It varies from day
to night, with the seasons of the year, and with latitude. Furthermore, it is sensitive

to enhanced periods of short-wavelength solar radiation accompanying solar

activity. In spite of all this, the essential features of the ionosphere are usually

identifiable, except during periods of unusually intense geomagnetic disturbances.

 PREDICTABLE IONOSPHERIC

PARAMETERS

The presence of free electrons in the ionosphere produces the reflecting

regions important to High Frequency (HF) radio-wave propagation. In the

principal regions, between the approximate heights of 75 km and 500 km,

the electrons are produced by the ionising effect of ultraviolet light and soft

x-rays from the sun. for convenience in studies of radio-wave propagation,

the ionosphere is divided into three regions defined according to height and

ion distribution: the D,E, and F regions.

 Ionospheric Layers
Each region is subdivided into layers called the D, E, F1, and F2
layers, also according to height and ion distribution.

These are not distinctly separated layers, but rather overlapping

regions of ionisation that vary in thickness from a few kilometres to

hundreds of kilometres.

 The number of layers, their heights, and their ionisation (electron)

density vary both geographically and with time.

 At HF all the regions are important & must be considered in

predicting the operational parameters of radio communication circuits.

THE IONOSPHERIC
LAYERS CONT’D
 THE IONOSPHERIC
LAYERS CONT’D
D layer:
 is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the
surface of the Earth. when the sun is active with 50
or more sunspots, During the night cosmic rays
produce a residual amount of ionization as a result
high-frequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by
the D layer.

 The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption

of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and
below, with progressively smaller absorption as the
frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at
night and greatest about midday. The layer
reduces greatly after sunset. A common example of
the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant
AM broadcast band stations in the daytime.
 THE IONOSPHERIC
LAYERS CONT’D
D layer

Because of the low electron density, the D region does not

reflect useful transmissions in the frequency range above 1 MHz.

The electron density is relatively small compared with that of

the other regions, but, because of collisions between the
molecules of the atmosphere and free electrons excited by the
presence of an electromagnetic wave, pronounced energy loss
occurs.

This energy loss, dissipated in the form of thermal energy of the

electrons or thermal (electromagnetic) noise, is termed
absorption.
 THE IONOSPHERIC
LAYERS(Contd.)
The E layer:

is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface

of the Earth.

can only reflect radio waves having frequencies less

than about 10 MHz.

has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due

to its partial absorption of these waves.

At night the E layer begins to disappear because the

primary source of ionization is no longer present.

The increase in the height of the E layer maximum

increases the range to which radio waves can travel by
reflection from the layer.

 Maximum Electron density occurs at 110 Km.

 THE IONOSPHERIC LAYERS

The F layer:

is 120 km to 400 km above the surface of the Earth.

is top most layer of the ionosphere (Imp. For HF Comm.)

Extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation

ionizes atomic oxygen (O).

The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in the

presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two
layers, the F1 and F2. The F layers are responsible for most
skywave propagation of radio waves, and are thickest
and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth
facing the sun.
 THE IONOSPHERIC
LAYERS(Contd.)
 The F1 layer is of importance to communication only during

daylight hours. It lies in the height range of about 200 to 250 km

and undergoes both seasonal and solar cycle variations, which are
more pronounced during the summer and in high sunspot periods.

 The F2 layer is located between 250 to 350 km above the earth’s

surface. During the night the F1 and F2 layers combine into a single
layer
Effect of Solar Flare
Radiation on the Ionospheric
layers
 Effects of the Ionosphere on the Sky wave

If we consider a wave of frequency , f is incident on an

ionospheric layer whose maximum density is N, then the

refractive index of the layer is given by

81N
n  1 2
f
 Critical Frequency

If the frequency of a wave transmitted vertically is increased, a point will

be reached where the wave will not be refracted sufficiently to curve back to

earth and if this frequency is high enough then the wave will penetrate the

ionosphere and continue on to outer space. The highest frequency that will

be returned to earth when transmitted vertically under given atmospheric

conditions is called the CRITICAL FREQUENCY.

fc  9 N
 Maximum Usable
frequency (MUF)

There is a best frequency for communication between any

two points under specific ionospheric conditions. The highest

frequency that is returned to earth at a given distance is called

the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF).

MUF depends on the layer that is responsible for

refraction/reflection and so contact between two
stations relying on skip will depend on the amount
of sunspot activity, the time of day, time of year,
fmuf  9 N sec
latitude of the two stations, and antenna
transmission angle. The MUF is not significantly
affected by transmitter power and receiver
OPTIMUM WORKING
FREQUENCY (OWF)
 The OWF is usually the most effective
frequency for ionospheric reflection of
radio waves between two specified
points on Earth.
 The actual freq which provides the most

satisfactory reception of the signal should be less

than the MUF.

 OWF is the highest effective (i.e.
working) frequency that is predicted to
be usable for a specified path and time
for 90% of the days of the month.
An Optimum Frequency is predicted from MUF

85%of the MUF. This is also called as Freq. Of

and is
Optimum Transmission(FOT).
For transmission using the F2 layer it is defined as
fowf  0.85  9 N sec
 The Lowest Usable High
Frequency (LUHF)

 The frequency in the HF band at which the

received field intensity is sufficient to provide
the required signal-to-noise ratio. The amount
of energy absorbed by the lower regions of the
ionosphere (D region, primarily) directly
impacts the LUF
 MUF,LUF AND CRITICAL
FREQUENCIES
Above Critical Frequency

Maximum Useful
Frequency (MUF)

Frequency of
optimum
transmission
(FOT) /Optimal
Working Frequency
(OWF)

Lower Absorption
Frequency (ALF) /
The lowest Usable
frequency (LUF):
 VIRTUAL HEIGHT

• It is defined as the height to which a short pulse of energy

sent vertically upward and travelling with speed of light
would reach taking the same 2 ways travel time as does
the actual pulse reflected from the layer
• Advantages: if virtual height of layer is known then it is
easy to calculate angle of incidence required for the wave
to return to the earth at a desired point . It is useful in Tx
path calculations
• Note: in the measurement of virtual height T & R are
usefully placed very close together so that wave sent
nearly vertically upward .
• Virtual can be calculated for flat surfaces as well as
curved surfaces.
 FOR FLAT SURFACES:

Assuming flat earth surface & Ionospheric

conditions are symmetrical for incident and
reflected waves,Tx path dist.
TR is obtained as:
tanβ=2h/Tr
=> Tr=2h/tanβ=D
 FOR CURVED SURFACES:

• D=2R(θ)=2R[(90°-β)-SIN¯ˡ(R*COSβ/(R+h))]
• Measurement of virtual height is normally
carried out by means of an instrument
known as Ionosonde.This method is used to
transmit vertically upward a pulse modulated
radio wave with a pulse duration of 150ᶙs.
• h=ct/2=virtual height
• t=time required for round trip
• Ionosonde sweeps over the RF range from
1MHz to 20MHz in 3 min
 Maximum Usable
Frequency (MUF)
• When the frequency of radio wave exceeds fc, then the
influence of the ionospheric layer on the path of
propagation depends on angle of incidence at the
ionosphere . Thus MUF is also a limiting freq which can
be reflected back to earth but this time for some
specific angle of incidence rather than vertical .
• Defined as the max possible value of freq for which
reflection takes place for a given dist of propagation is
called as MUF for that dist,& for the given ionosphere
layer. If the wave freq is higher than this value ,then
wave penetrates the ionized layer & does not reflect
back to the earth normal value of MUF vary from the
8MHz to 35MHz.
• For a sky wave to return to earth angle of
refraction i.e angle r=90° which implies N=Nmax
& f=fmax
• µ=sin(i)/sin(90°) =sqrt(1-((81*Nmax)/f²max))
• =sqrt(1-(fc²)/f²max)) (....81*Nmax=fc²)
• s.o.b.s
• (fc/fmax)²=1-sin²i=cos²i
• fmax=fc/cosi
• =MUF=fc*sec(i)
• ‘’applicable safely upto 1000km’’
• ‘’ when the dist btw 2 points TX &RX is
increased a limit due to curvature of the earth
then the path of the wave is tangent to surface
of the earth ….Fmax=sec(74°)*fc=3.6*fc
•
• Calculation of MUF for flat
earth:
• from fig:
cosi=BO/AB=h/(sqrt(h²+(D²/4)))
cosi=2h/sqrt(4h²+D²/4)
but cosi=fc/fmax
cos²i=(fc/fmax)²=4h²/(4h²+D²)
fmax=fc*sqrt(1+(D/2h)²)
• Lowest usable frequency:
• The absorption of HF radio wave in D-region of the
ionosphere is proportional to inverse sq. of frequency.
The sensitivity of an HF Rx is normally limited by
external noise which increases as frequency is
reduced. Hence there is a frequency limit below which
S/N ratio fails to reach an acceptable value for the
service required. This frequency is called LUF &
depends upon transmitted power.
• LUF gives the lowest permissible freq for a lower freq
of Tx the received sky wave signal gets lost in the
background noise & no communication is possible.
The value of LUF is calculated from the measurement
of noise level at the receiving site & estimated value of
sky wave absorption in the given propagation path.
Skip distance:
• Min. dist. From the Tx at which a sky wave of given
freq. is returned to earth by ionosphere. (or)
• The min distance from the Tx to a pt. where sky wave
of a given freq. is first received. (or)
• Min distance with in which a sky wave of given freq
fails to be reflected back.
• Min distance for which sky wave propagation just
takes place & no sky wave propagation is possible for
pts. nearer than this dist.
• For agiven freq of propagation f=fmax
skip distance is
fmax/fc=sqrt (1+(D/2h)²)
(fmax/fc)²-1=(D/2h)²
Dskip=2h*sqrt((fmax/fc)²-1)
Optimum working frequency(OWF):
• For satisfactory reception of signals at the receiving
pts, it is essential that the freq. should be less than
MUF & absorption of waves by the ionosphere be
small.
• Due to the presence of free e- which give rise to
certain conductivity & this effect is important at
lower edge of ionosphere.
• The absorption is depends upon inverse sq. of freq.
thus the highest possible frequency gives strongest
sky wave signal at the highest possible freq. gives
strongest sky wave signal at the Rx & hence it is
preferred to work as closely as possible to MUF.
• Optimum frequencies are selected from the prediction
of MUF based on a monthly average & in practice
there is daily variations about 15% from this mean
value.
• Hence it is normal to use a freq 85% of predicted MUF.
• Therefore there is a freq. called OWF/OTF which is
50% to 85% of MUF is used to accommodate a no of
chls.
OWF=85%MUF
Space wave propagation:
• Space wave or LOS propagation is chiefly
useful at higher frequencies i.e., VHF,UHF &
µwaves because sky and surface wave
propagations both fail at such frequencies .
space wave propagation is limited to LOS
distance & curvature of the earth.
• Line of sight distance(LOS distance):
LOS dist. Is that the
distance b/w Tx & Rx , In which if a direct ray
passes from the Tx to Rx without being
intercepted by the bulge in the earth’s
surface, considering variation of µ of earth’s
atmosphere with height, the Tx ant must see
at least top of Rx ant.
Los propagation is limited to about few
tens of kms & propagation occurs in
troposphere-a region 12km away from earth
surface
LOS distance:
• Let d be the distance b/w Tx ,Rx ,heights of Tx ant & Rx
ant are ht & hr respectively.
d=d1+d2
r is radius of earth(6370km)
d1=sqrt((ht+r)²-r²)=sqrt(ht²+2ht*r)
d1=sqrt(2ht*r) ht²<<2rht
similarly d2=sqrt(2r*hr)
d=sqrt(2r*ht)+sqrt(2r*hr)
=(sqrt(2r))*[srqt(ht)+sqrt(hr)]
=(3.57*10^3)*[sqrt(ht)+sqrt(hr)]mts
The service area can be increased by increasing heights ht
& hr ,however
Space wave propagation >100km is hardly used in
commercial communications.
• Effective earth’s radius:-
• Radio wave travelling horizontally in the earth’s
atmosphere follows a path which has slight downward
curvature due to refraction of wave in the
atmosphere
• This curvature of path tends to overcome partially the
loss of signal due to curvature of earth & permits
direct ray to reach point slightly beyond the horizon as
found by st. line /line of sight path in making
computations effect of refraction is accounted for by
using an effective radius of curvature of earth which is
a bit greater than the actual radius & assuming st. line
path in the atmosphere.
• As the dielectric const. changes with height above
ground level &hence refraction of radio wave takes
place.
• µ near the surface of the earth is greater than unity
but decreases to unity at greater height where air
density approaches to zero.
• Consider a radio wave which is travelling nearly
horizontally in the tropospehre & its path is bent into
an arc by the variation of µ with height
• angle =arc/radius => dθ=v*dt/R
similarly dθ=(v+dv)dt/(R+dh)
dθ=(v+dv)dt-vdt/(R+dh-R)
dθ*dh =dt*dv
dθ/dt=dv/dh
but v=c/µ
hence change in µ with height is obtain by
differentiating v w.r.t.h
dv/dh=c*d/dh(1/µ)
= -c/µ*(1/µ)*(dµ/dh)
= -(v/µ)*(dµ/dh) µ=1
R*dθ=v*dt
R=v*dt/dθ=V*dh/dv dv/dh=
-v*dµ/dh
R=dh/dµ
This shows that the radius of curvature of wave path is a
function of rate of change of µ with height which
changes from hr. to hr., day to day & season to
season . but in practice an avg value 4 times the radius
of earth is used in calculations
Note:-
for a std. atmospheric refraction the
effective earth radius is 4/3 times actual earth’s radius.
d=sqrt(2r’)[sqrt(ht)+sqrt(hr)] r’=4/3 r
=4.12[sqrt(ht)+sqrt(hr)]km
sometimes height of Tx & Rx antennas are
also given in feet & LOS dist. Or radio horizon distance
is required to be in miles
r=3960 miles
d=sqrt(2)*[sqrt(ht)+sqrt(hr)]miles
Refraction of Radio Waves

81N
n 1
f 2
Duct propagation:-
• Inside the troposphere the atmosphere has a dielectric
const. slightly greater than unity at earth’s surface
where the density is most dense & this decreases to
unity at great heights where air density approaches to
zero.
• The dielectric const. of dry air is slightly greater than
unity & presence of water vapour increases dielectric
const. farther & hence µ depends on air conditions ,i.e.
weather
• A normal/std. atmosphere is one where dielectric
const. is assumed to decrease uniformly height to a
value of unity at a height where air density is essentially
zero. However , this condition does not exist in reality.
• Because the air is frequently turbulent & at other times
there are often layers of air one above the other having
diff. temperatures & water vapour contents . These
conditions beside giving phenomena of
scattering ,refraction & reflection give a new
phenomenon called duct propagation.
• In this two boundary surfaces b/w layers of air from a
duct/ a sort of “leaky w/g” which guides EM wave b/w
wall.
• When the freq is sufficiently high ,the region
where the variation of dielectric
const./refractive index is usually high actually
traps the energy and causes it to travels
along earth surface as happens in a w/g
• This happens near the ground often within 50
m of the troposphere . The higher
frequencies /µ waves are does continuosly
refracted in the duct and refracted by the
ground so that they propagate around the
curvature for beyond LOS , even upto a
distance of 1000 km.
• This special refraction of EM waves is called
super refraction and the process is called
duct propagation.the main requirement for
the formation of duct is a temp inversion i.e ,
in the inversion layer temp.increases with
height rather usual decrease of temp at the
rate of 6.5 °c km in the standard atmosphere.
• Propagation of radio waves through
ionosphere (neglecting earth’s magnetic
field theory of eccles & larmor):-
• In an ionized medium having free e- & ions when the radio
waves passes through , it sets these charged particles In motion .
since the mass of ions are much heavier than the e- s , so their
motions are negligibly small & neglected for all practical
purposes.
• The radio wave passing through the ionosphere is influenced by
the e- s only & the E of radio waves set e- in motion. These e-
then vibrate simultaneously along paths parallel to E of radio
waves & the vibrating e- represent AC current proportional in
the velocity of vibration.
• Here the effect of earth’s magnetic field on the vibration of
ionosphere e- lags behind the E of wave, thus resulting e-
current is inductive. The actual current flowing through a
volume of space in ionosphere consists of components.

eg:- the usual capacitive current which leads voltage by 90° & e-
current which lags the voltage by 90° & hence subtracted from
capacitive current thus free e- in space decrease the current &
so dielectric const. of space is also reduced below the value that
would be in the absence of e-.

. The reduction in the dielectric const. due to presence of e- in

the ionosphere causes the path of radio waves to bent towards
earth i.e., from high e- density to lower e- density.
• Let an E of value E=Em sinωt v/m is acting across a
mᶾ of space in the ionosphere.
force exerted by electric field on each e- is given
by
F=-qE newtons
let us assume that there is no collision , then the e- will
have an instantaneous velocity v m/s in the dist.
opposite to the field.
F=ma
-Eq=m* dv/dt
(or) dv/dt= -qE/m (or) dv= -(qE/m)*dt
∫dv= -∫(qE/m)*dt
v=(-q/m)∫Em sinωt dt
= (q/mω)*cosωt *Em
If n= no. of e- per cubic metre, then instantaneous
electric current constituted by these N e- s moving
with v is
iq= -Nqv A/m²
= -Nq(q/mω)Em * cosωt
=-(Nq²/mω)Em cosωt
shows iq lags behind E by
90°
• Besides the inductive current there is usual capacitive
current(ic). The capacitance of unit volume is
Ko=8.854*10^(-12) F/m
hence ic= dD/dt = d/dt(Ko*E)=Ko d/dt(Em sinωt)
ic= Ko*Em*cosωt *ω
total current I that flows through a cubic metre of
ionized medium is
i=
ic+iq=Ko*Em*ω*cosωt-(Nq²/mω)*Em*cosωt
i = Em*cosωt*ω[Ko-(Nq²/mω²)
the effective dielectric constant K of ionosphere is
K=Ko-(Nq²/mω²) =Ko{1-(Nq²/mω²Ko)}
hence dielectric constant w.r.t air or vaccum is
Kr= K/Ko = 1-(Nq²/mω²Ko)
thus the relative refractive index of (µ) of ionosphere
w.r.t vaccum or air
µ=sqrt(Kr)=sqrt(K/Ko) = sqrt(1-(Nq²/mω²Ko)
substitute m=9.1*10^(-31) Kg
e- =1.602 * 10^(-19) c
Ko=8.854*10^(-12) F/m
ω=2*∏*f
µ = sqrt(1-(81N/f²) N=ionic
density(e-/mᶾ)
Mechanism of radio wave bending
by the ionosphere:-
• From µ=sqrt(1-81N/f²) N=ionic density/mᶾ
the above eqn shows that real values of refractive
index of ionosphere is always less than unity &
deviation of µ from unity becomes greater if N is
higher freq is lower.

. if f²<81N, then µ becomes imaginary which means

under such condition the radio waves are attenuated
at this freq & ionosphere is not able to transmit or
bend radio waves
The bending of radio waves by ionosphere
governed by ordinary optical laws. By snell’s law, angle
I & angle r at any point is given by
µ= sini/sinr
µ<1 for ionosphere sini<sinr i.e. angle r will be go on
deviating from the normal as wave will encounter
rarer medium
if successive layers of ionosphere are of higher e-
density i.e.N6>N5>N4>N3>N2>N1 it means by eqn.
µ=sqrt(1-81N/f²), µ will go on decreasing
µ1>µ2>µ3>µ4>µ5>µ6
• Thus awave enters at a point P will be deviating more
& a pt. will reach where it travels llel to earth (at pm)
Here angle(r)=90° Pm is the highest pt. in ionosphere
reached by radio wave.
• If µm= refractive index
• Nm=max. electron density at a pt. pm then
• µm=sin im -① sinr=sin 90=1
• The pt. Pm , is usually called as a pt. of reflection
although it is actually a pt. of refraction. At this pt.
total internal reflection takes place & wave gets bent
earthward & ultimately returns to earth. Hence radio
waves once enter at a pt. P , leave ionosphere at a pt.
Q after a slight penetration into the ionosphere & thus
radio waves are reflected back to earth after
successive refraction in ionosphere.
• From eq -① smaller the angle(i), smaller the µm
which implies higher should be the N needed to
return the radio wave towards the earth. If angle (i)=0
i.e., vertical incidence then µm=0 for reflection to
takes place & this corresponds to max N of the layer
& freq corresponds to critical freq. which can be
reflected by a layer at vertical incidence