Manufacturing process-1

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Manufacturing processes of polymers,
ceramics and composites
• Reference:
• DeGarmo’s MATERIALS AND PROCESSES IN
MANUFACTURING
TENTH EDITION
• J T. BlackAuburn University-Emeritu Ronald A. Kohser
• University of Missouri–Rolla

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Design factors related to finishing of
polymers
• Because plastics are frequently used where consumer acceptance is of great importance, special
attention should be given to finish and appearance. In many cases, plastic parts can be designed to
require very little finishing or decorative treatment.
• For small parts, fins and rough spots can often be removed by a barrel tumbling with suitable
abrasives or polishing agents. Smoothing and polishing occur in the same operation.
• By etching the surfaces of a mold, decorations or letters can be produced that protrude
approximately 0.01 mm (0.004 in.) above the surface of the plastic. When higher relief is required,
the mold can be engraved, but this adds significantly to mold cost.
• Whenever possible, depressed letters or designs should be avoided. These features, when
transferred to the mold, become raised above the surrounding surface.
• Mold making then requires a considerable amount of intricate machining as the surrounding
material must be cut away from the design or letters. When recessed features are absolutely
required, manufacturing cost can be reduced if they can be incorporated into a small area that is
raised above the primary surface

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Design factors
• When designing plastic parts, a prime objective is often the
elimination of secondary machining, especially on surfaces that would
be exposed to the customer.
• Even when fillers are used (as they are in most plastics), the surfaces
of molded parts have a thin film of pure resin.
• This film provides the high luster that is characteristic of polymeric
products. Machining cuts through the surface, exposing the
underlying filler. The result is a poor appearance, as well as a site for
the absorption of moisture

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• Since plastics have a low modulus of elasticity, large flat areas are not rigid and
should be avoided whenever possible.
• Ribbing or doming, like that illustrated in Figure 14-14, can be used to provide the
required stiffness. In addition, flat surfaces tend to reveal flow marks from the
molding operation, as well as scratches that occur during handling or service.
• External ribbing then serves the dual function of increasing strength and rigidity
while masking any surface flaws. Dimpled or textured surfaces can also be used to
provide a pleasing appearance and conceal scratches

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• Holes that are formed by pins protruding from the mold often require special
consideration.
• During the mold closure and filling stages of compression molding, these pins can
be subjected to considerable bending. When they are supported only at one end,
the length should not exceed twice the diameter.
• In processes with reduced filling pressures, the length can be as much as five
times the diameter without excessive problems.
• Holes that are to be threaded or used to receive self-tapping screws should be
countersunk. This not only assists in starting the tap or screw but also reduces
chipping at the outer edge of the hole. If the threaded hole is less than 6.5 mm
( in.) in diameter, it is best to cut the threads after molding, using some form of
thread tap. For diameters greater than 6.5 mm, the threads can be molded or an
insert should be used. 6
PROCESSING OF RUBBER AND
ELASTOMERS
• Rubber and elastomeric products can be produced by a variety of fabrication process-es. Relatively
thin parts with uniform wall thickness, such as boots, gloves, and fairings, are often made by some
form of dipping.
• A master form is first produced, usually from some type of metal. This form is then immersed into
a liquid preparation or compound (usually based on natural rubber, neoprene, or silicone), then
removed and allowed to dry. With each dip, a certain amount of the liquid adheres to the surface,
with repeated dips being used to produce a final desired thickness. After vulcanization, usually in
steam, the products are stripped from the molds.
• The dipping process can be accelerated by using electrostatic charges. A negative charge is
introduced to the latex particles, and the form or mold receives a positive charge, either through an
applied voltage or by a coagulant coating that releases positive ions when dipped into the solution.
• The attraction and neutralization of the oppo-site charges causes the elastomeric particles to be
deposited on the form at a faster rate and in thicker layers than the basic process. With electrostatic
deposition, many products can be made in a single immersion

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• When the parts are thicker or complex-shaped solids, the first step is the
com-pounding of elastomeric resin, vulcanizers, fillers, antioxidants,
accelerators, and pigments. This is usually done in some form of mixer,
which blends the components to form a homogeneous mass.
• Adaptations of the processes previously discussed for plastics are
frequently used to produce the desired shapes. Injection, compression,
and transfer molding are used, along with special techniques for foaming.
Urethanes and silicones can also be directly cast to shape

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• Rubber compounds can be made into sheets
using calenders, like that shown in
• Figure 14-15. The sheet coming from the
calender is often rolled with a fabric liner to
prevent the material from sticking. Three- or
four-roll calenders can also be used to place a
rubber or elastomer covering over cord or woven
fabric. In the three-roll geometry, only one side
of the fabric is coated in a single pass.
• The four-roll arrangement, shown in Figure 14-
16, enables both sides to be coated
simultaneously.
• Products such as inner tubes, garden hoses,
tubing, and strip moldings can be produced by
the extrusion process. The compounded
elastomer is forced through a dieby a screw
device similar to that described for plastics.
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PROCESSING OF CERAMICS
• The fabrication processes applied to ceramic materials generally fall into two distinct classes,
based on the properties of the material.
• Glasses can be manufactured into useful articles by first heating the material to produce a
molten or viscous state,shaping the material by means of viscous flow, and then cooling the
material to produce a solid product.
• Crystalline ceramics have a characteristically brittle behavior and are normally manufactured
into useful components by pressing moist aggregates or powder into a shape, followed by
drying, and then bonding by one of a variety of mechanisms, which include chemical
reaction,vitrification(cementing with a liquefied material), and sintering(solid-state diffusion).

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FABRICATION TECHNIQUES FOR GLASSES

• Glass is generally shaped at elevated temperatures, where the

viscosity can be controlled.
• A number of the processes begin with material in the liquid or
molten
• condition. Sheet and plate glass is formed by processes such as
extruding through a narrow slit, rolling through water-cooled rolls,
or floating on a bath of molten tin.Glass shapes can be produced by
pouring the molten material directly into a mold.
• Other glass-forming processes begin with viscous masses and use
mating male and female die members to press the material into the
desired shape, as illustrated in Figure 14-17. Bottles, containers,
and shapes like incandescent light bulbs are made by a process
similar to the blow molding of plastics. Cup-shaped pieces of
viscous material are expanded against the outside of heated dies, as
illustrated in Figure 14-18
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FABRICATION OF CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS

• Crystalline ceramics are hard, brittle materials with Crystalline ceramics are hard, brittle materials with high melting points.
• As a result, they cannot be formed by techniques requiring either plasticity (i.e., forming methods) or melting (i.e., casting
methods). Instead, these materials are generally processed in the solid state by techniques that utilize particles or aggregates
and resemble those used in powder metallurgy.
• The particles can also be blended with additives that impart plasticity or flow and enable the forming or casting processes to
be used.
• Dry powders can be compacted and converted into useful shapes by pressing at either environmental or elevated
temperatures.
• Dry pressing with rigid tooling,isostatic pressing, and hot-isostatic pressing (HIP)with flexible molds are common techniques
and exhibit features and limitations

Clay products
Injection molding

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FABRICATION OF CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS

• Slip casting
• Tape casting
• Sol-gel processing

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PRODUCING STRENGTH IN PARTICULATE CERAMIC
• Each of the processes just described can be used to produce useful shapes from ceramic materials,
but useful strength generally requires a subsequent heating operation, known as firing or sintering
• Slurry-type materials must first be dried in a manner that is designed to control dimensional
changes and minimize stresses, distortion, and cracking.
• The material is then heated to temperatures between 0.5 and 0.8 times the absolute melting point,
where diffusion processes act to fuse the particles together and impart the desired mechanical and
physical properties.
• The temperature and time are selected to control the resulting grain size, pore size, and pore
shape.
• In some firing operations, surface melting (liquid-phase sintering) or component reactions
(reaction sintering) can produce a substantial amount of liquid material (vitrification). The liquid
then flows to produce a glassy bond between the
• ceramic particles and either solidifies as a glass or crystallizes.

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PRODUCING STRENGTH IN PARTICULATE CERAMIC

• Cementation is an alternative method of producing strength that does not require

elevated temperature.
• A liquid binder material is used to coat the ceramic particles, and a subsequent
chemical reaction converts the liquid to a solid, forming strong, rigid bonds.
• Prototypes or small production quantities of ceramic products have been made by the
laser sintering of ceramic powders. Successive layers of material are fusedtogether by
the laser sintering (or laser melting) of thin layers of heat-fusible powder.
• For ceramic parts, the powder particles are actually coated with a very thin
thermoplastic polymer binder. The laser then acts on the polymer coating to produce
the bond. After the laser bonding, the parts then undergo conventional debinding and
sintering to about 55 to 65% of theoretical density. Isostatic pressing prior to sintering
can raise the final density to 90 to 99% of ideal.

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MACHINING OF CERAMICS
• Most ceramic materials are brittle, and the techniques used to cut metals will
generally produce uncontrolled or catastrophic cracks. In addition, ceramics are
typically hard materials. Since ceramics are often used as abrasives or coatings on
cutting tools, the tools needed to cut them have to be even harder.
• Green Machining

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Joining of ceramics
• When we consider joining operations, the unique properties of
ceramics once again introduce fabrication limitations. Brittle ceramics
cannot be joined by fusion welding or deformation bonding, and
threaded assemblies should be avoided whenever possible.
• Therefore, most joining utilizes some form of adhesive bonding,
brazing, diffusion bonding, or special cements. Even with these
methods, the stresses that develop on the surfaces can lead to
premature failure.
• As a result, most ceramic products are designed to be monolithic
(single-piece) structures rather than multipart assemblies.

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DESIGN OF CERAMIC COMPONENTS
• Since ceramics are brittle materials, special care should be taken to minimize bending and
tensile loading as well as design stress raisers.
• Sharp corners and edges should be avoided where possible. Outside corners should be
chamfered to reduce the possibility of edge chips.
• Inside corners should have fillets of sufficient radius to minimize crack initiation. Undercuts are
difficult to produce and should be avoided.
• Specifications should generally use the largest possible tolerances, since these can often be met
with products in the as-fired condition.
• Extremely precise dimensions usually require hand grinding, and costs can escalate significantly.
• In addition, consideration should be given to surface-finish requirements, since grinding,
polishing, and lapping operations can increase production cost substantially.

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FABRICATION OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
Composite materials were classified by their basic geometry as particulate,
laminar, and fiber-reinforced.
FABRICATION OF PARTICULATE COMPOSITES

Particulate composites usually consist of discrete particles dispersed in a ductile, fracture-resistant

polymer or metal matrix. Their fabrication, however, rarely requires processes unique to composite
materials. Instead, the particles are simply dispersed in the matrix by introduction into a liquid melt
or slurry, or by blending the various components as solids, using powder metallurgy methods.
Subsequent processing generally follows the conventional methods of casting or forming, or utilizes
the various techniques of powder metallurgy.

Reinforcement particles have been successfully blended into the highly viscous slurries of rheocast
material, the semisolid mixtures that are viscous when agitated but retain their shape when static.
Particle reinforcements have also been produced by spray forming multicomponent feeds.
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FABRICATION OF LAMINAR
COMPOSITES
• Laminar composites include coatings and protective surfaces, claddings,
bimetallic, laminates, and a host of other materials. Their production
generally involves processes designed to form a high-quality bond between
distinct layers of different materials.
• When the layers are metallic, as in claddings and bimetallic, the composites
can be produced by hot or cold roll bonding. Sheets of the various materials
are passed simultaneously through the rolls of a conventional rolling mill.
• If the amount of deformation is great enough, surface oxides and
contaminants are broken up and dispersed, metal-to-metal contact is
established, and the two surfaces become joined by a solid-state bond. U.S.
coinage is a common example of a roll-bonded material.
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 FABRICATION OF LAMINAR
COMPOSITES
• Explosive bonding is another means of joining layers of metal. A sheet of explosive
material progressively detonates above the layers to be joined, causing a pressure
wave to sweep across the interface.
• A small open angle is maintained between the two surfaces. As the pressure wave
propagates, any surface films are liquefied or scarfed off and are jetted out the
open interface.
• Clean metal surfaces are then forced together at high pressures, forming a solid-
state bond with a characteristically wavy configuration at the interface. Large
areas, wide plates (too wide to roll bond conveniently), and dissimilar materials
with large differences in mechanical properties are attractive candidates for
explosive bonding

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FABRICATION OF FIBER-REINFORCED
COMPOSITES
• In the fiber-reinforced composites, the matrix and fiber reinforcement provide a system that
offers properties not attainable by the individual components acting alone.
• The fiber reinforcement produces a significant increase in strength and stiffness, while the matrix
functions as a binder, transfers the stresses, and provides protection against abrasion and
environmental effects.
• Each process seeks to embed the fibers in a selected matrix with the proper alignment and
spacing necessary to produce the desired properties.
• Discontinuous fibers can be combined with a matrix to provide either a random or a preferred
orientation. Continuous fibers are normally aligned in a unidirectional fashion in rods or tapes,
woven into fabric layers, wound around a mandrel, or woven into a three-dimensional shape.
• Some of the fiber-reinforced processes are compression, transfer and injection molding,
extrusion, rotational molding, and thermoforming. Others are standard processes with simple
modifications, such as reinforced reaction injection molding and resin transfer molding.
• Still others are specific to fiber-reinforced composites, such as hand lay-up, spray-up, vacuum-
bag, pressure-bag, and autoclave molding; filament winding; and pultrusion
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Production of Reinforcing Fibers
• Metallic fibers, glass fibers, and many polymeric fibers (including the
popular Kevlar) are produced by variations of conventional wire drawing and
extrusion.
• Boron, carbon, and ceramic fibers such as silicon carbide are too brittle to
be produced by the deformation methods. Boron fibers are produced by
chemical vapor deposition around a tungsten filament.
• Carbon (graphite) fibers can be made by carbonizing (decomposing) an
organic material that is more easily formed to the fiber shape.
• The individual fine filaments are often bundled into yarns(twisted
assemblies of filaments),tows(untwisted assemblies of fibers), and rovings
(untwisted assemblies of yarns or tows).
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Processes Designed to Combine Fibers and a
Matrix
• If the matrix material can be liquefied and the temperature is not
harmful to the fibers, casting-type processes can be an attractive
means of coating the reinforcement. The pouring of concrete around
a steel reinforcing rod is a crude example of this method.
• In the case of the high-tech, fiber-reinforced plastics and metals, the
liquid can be introduced between the fibers by means of capillary
action, vacuum infiltration, or pressure casting. In a modification of
centrifugal casting, resin is introduced into the center of a rotating
mold and is then uniformly forced against and into the reinforcing
material.

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Processes Designed to Combine Fibers and a
Matrix-Prepreg
• Prepregs, or pre-impregnated reinforcements, are sheets of
unidirectional fibers or woven fabric that have been infiltrated with a
matrix material.
• Mats are sheets of nonwoven, randomly oriented fibers in a matrix.
• When the matrix is a polymeric material, the resin in the prepreg or
mat is usually only partially cured. Later fabrication then involves the
stacking of layers and the application of heat and pressure to further
cure the resin and bond the layers into a continuous solid matrix.
• Prepreg layers can be stacked in various orientations to provide
various directional properties.
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Processes Designed to Combine Fibers and a
Matrix-SMC
• Sheet-molding compounds (SMC)are composed of chopped fibers (usually glass in lengths of 25
to 50 mm or 1 to 2 in.) and partially cured thermoset resin, along with fillers, pigments, catalysts,
thickeners, and other additives, in sheets approximately 2.5to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in.) thick.
• With strengths in the range of 35 to 70 MPa (5 to 10 ksi) and the ability to be press formed in
heated dies, these materials offer a feasible alternative to sheet metal in applications where light
weight, corrosion resistance, and integral color are attractive features.
• After initial compounding and a few days of curing, sheet-molding compounds generally take on
the consistency of leather, making them easy to handle and mold.
• When they are placed in a heated mold, the viscosity is quickly reduced, and the material flows
easily under pressures of about 7 MPa (1000 psi). The elevated temperatures accelerate the
chemical reactions, and final curing can often be completed in less than 60 seconds.
• As an added benefit, sheet-molding compounds can be easily recycled.
• One possible disadvantage, however, is that polymer flow may orient the reinforcing fibers,
making the final orientation nonrandom and difficult to predict and control.
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Processes Designed to Combine Fibers and a
Matrix-BMC
• Bulk-molding compounds (BMC)are fiber-reinforced, thermoset,
molding materials, where short fibers (6 to 12 mm or to in.) are
distributed in random orientation.
• The starting material is usually a bulk material with the consistency of
putty or modeling clay, although pellets and granules are also
possible.
• The final shape is usually produced by compression molding in heated
dies, but transfer molding and injection molding are other
possibilities.

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 Fabrication of Final Shapes from Fiber-
Reinforced Composites-Pultrusions
• Pultrusion is a continuous process that is used to produce long lengths of relatively simple shapes
with uniform cross section, such as round, rectangular, tubular, plate, sheet, and structural products.
• As shown in Figure 14-20, bundles of continuous reinforcing fibers are drawn through a bath of
thermoset polymer resin, and the impregnated material is then gathered to produce a desired cross-
sectional shape.
• This material is then pulled through one or more heated dies, which further shapes the product and
cures the resin. When it emerges from the heated dies, the product is cooled by air or water and
then cut to length. Some products, such as structural shapes, are complete at this stage, while
others are further fabricated into products such as fishing poles, golf club shafts, and ski poles.

Extremely high strengths

and stiffnesses are possible since
the reinforcement can be as
much as 75% of the final
structure
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 FILAMENT WINDING
• Resin-coated or resin-impregnated, high-strength, continuous filaments, bundles, or tapes made
from fibers of glass, graphite, boron, Kevlar (aramid), or similar materials can be used to produce
cylinders, spheres, cones, and other container-type shapes with exceptional strength-to-weight
ratios.
• The filaments are wound over a rotating form or mandrel, using longitudinal, circumferential, or
helical patterns, or a combination of these, designed to take advantage of their highly directional
strength properties.
• By adjusting the density of the filaments in various locations and selecting the orientation of the
wraps, products can be designed to have strength where needed and lighter weight in less critical
regions. After winding, the part and mandrel are placed in an oven for curing, after which the
product is stripped from the form. The matrix, often an epoxy-type polymer, binds the structure
together and transmits the stresses to the fibers.

Figure 14-21 shows a large tank being produced by filament

winding.

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LAMINATION AND LAMINATION-TYPE
PROCESSES
• In the lamination process, prepregs, mats, or tapes are stacked to produce a
desired thickness and cured under pressure and heat.
• The resulting products possess unusually high strength as a result of the integral
fiber reinforcement. Because the surface is a thin layer of pure resin, laminates
usually possess a smooth, attractive appearance. If the resin is transparent, the
fiber material is visible and can impart a variety of decorative effects. Other
decorative laminates use a separate patterned face sheet that is bonded to the
laminate structure. Laminated materials can be produced as sheets, tubes, and
rods.
• Flat sheets can be made using the method illustrated in Figure 14-22. Prepreg
sheets or reinforcement sheets saturated in resin are stacked and then compressed
under pressures on the order of 7 MPa (1000 psi). Figure 14-23 depicts the
technique used to produce rods or tubes.
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LAMINATION AND LAMINATION-TYPE
PROCESSES

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LAMINATION AND LAMINATION-TYPE
PROCESSES
• In the vacuum-bag molding process, the entire assembly (mold and material) is
placed in a non adhering, flexible bag, and the contained air is evacuated. Air
pressure then eliminates entrapped air, expels excess resin, and holds the laminate
against the mold while the resin is cured. While curing may occur at room
temperature, moderately elevated temperatures may also be used.
• In pressure-bag molding, a flexible membrane is positioned over the female mold
cavity and is pressurized to force the individual plies together and drive out
entrapped air and excess resin. Pressures usually range from 0.2 to 0.4 MPa (30 to
50 psi) but can be as high as 2 MPa (250 psi). This pressing is coupled with room-
or low-temperature curing. Pressure-bag molding has been used to produce
extremely large components, such as the skins of military aircraft, large air
deflectors for tractor-trailers, and body panels for trucks

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Resin-transfer molding
• Resin-transfer molding is a low-pressure process that is intermediate to the slow,
labor-intensive lay-up processes and the faster compression molding or injection
molding processes, which generally require more expensive tooling.
• Continuous fiber mat or woven material (usually employing glass fiber) is
positioned dry in the bottom half of a matching mold, which is then closed and
clamped.
• A low-viscosity catalyzed resin is then injected into the mold, where it displaces
the air, permeates the reinforcement, and subsequently cures at low
temperatures.
• Because of the low pressures employed in the process, the mold tooling does not
need to be steel but can be electroformed nickel shells, epoxy composite, or
aluminum.
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Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Metal-Matrix
Composites
• Continuous-fiber metal-matrix composites can be produced by variations
of filament winding, extrusion, and pultrusion.
• Fiber-reinforced sheets can be produced by electroplating, plasma spray
deposition coating, or vapor deposition of metal onto a fabric or mesh.
• These sheets are then shaped and bonded, often by some form of hot
pressing. Diffusion bonding of foil–fabric sandwiches, roll bonding, and
coextrusion are other means of producing fiber-reinforced metal products.
• Various casting processes have been adapted to place liquid metal around
the fibers by means of capillary action, gravity, pressure (die casting and
squeeze casting), or vacuum (counter gravity casting)

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Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Metal-Matrix
Composites
• In terms of properties, graphite-reinforced aluminum has been shown to be
twice as stiff as steel and one-third to one-fourth the weight, with
practically zero thermal expansion.
• Aluminum reinforced with silicon carbide exhibits increased strength
(tension, compression, and shear at both room and elevated temperature)
as well as increased hardness, fatigue strength, and elastic modulus.
• Thermal creep and thermal expansion are both reduced, but ductility,
thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity are also decreased.
Magnesium, copper, and titanium alloys, as well as the superalloys, have
also been used as the matrix in fiber-reinforced metal-matrix composites.

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Fabrication of Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic-
Matrix Composites
• Unlike polymeric-or metal-matrix composites, where failures originate in or along the reinforcement
fibers, ceramic-matrix composites often fail due to flaws in the matrix. If the reinforcement is
bonded strongly to the matrix, a matrix crack might propagate right through the fibers.
• To impart toughness to the assembly, it is often desirable to promote a weak bond between the
fiber and matrix. Cracks are redirected along the fiber–matrix interface rather than through the fiber
and the remaining matrix.
• One approach is to pass the fibers or mats through a slurry mixture that contains the matrix
material. The impregnated material is then dried, assembled, and fired.
• Other techniques include the chemical vapor deposition or chemical vapor infiltration of a coated
fiber base, where the coating serves to weaken an otherwise strong bond.
• Silicon nitride matrices can be formed by reaction bonding. The reinforcing fibers are dispersed in
silicon powder, which is then reacted with nitrogen. Hot-pressing techniques can also be used with
the various ceramic matrices. When the matrix is a glass, the heated material behaves much like a
polymer, and the processing methods are often similar to those used for polymer-matrix composites

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Secondary Processing and Finishing of Fiber-
Reinforced Composites
• The various fiber-reinforced composites can often be processed further
with conventional equipment (sawed, drilled, routed, tapped, threaded,
turned, milled, sanded, and sheared), but special considerations should
be exercised because composites are not uniform materials.
• Cutting some materials may be like cutting multilayer cloth, and
precautions should be used to prevent the formation of splinters and
cracks as well as frayed or delaminated edges.
• Sharp tools, high speeds, and low feeds are generally required. Cutting
debris should be removed quickly to prevent the cutters from becoming
clogged.

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Secondary Processing and Finishing of Fiber-
Reinforced Composites

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