UNIT 3

Fundamentals of individual behavior, Personality, types of personality, Personal

effectiveness, meaning of Attitudes, Types, Components, attitude formation and attitude
change. Meaning & Type of Group Behavior, Interpersonal skills, Transactional
Analysis, Johari Window,
 ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR - MEANING

◦ OB is the study and application of knowledge about how

people, individuals, and groups act in organizations.
◦ It interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the
whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole
social system.
◦ Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human
objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives.
OB-Concept and Definition
According to Aldag and Brief OB is defined as:
“Is a branch of the social sciences that seeks to build theories that can be applied to
predicting, understanding and controlling behaviour in work organizations’.
According to Callahan, Fleenor and Kudson OB is:
“Organizational Behaviour is a subset of management activities concerned with
understanding, predicting and influencing individual behaviour in organizational
settings”.
According to above definitions ingredients of OB are same, that is:
Studying, understanding and controlling human behaviour
The study is about behaviour in organizations
It studies human behaviour at individual level, group level and organizational level.
Knowledge about human behaviour would be useful in improving an organization’s
effectiveness.
ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR

◦ People: People make up the internal social system of the

organization. They consist of individuals and groups who
perform various activities in the organizations.
◦ Structure: Structure defines the official relationships of
people in the organization.
◦ Jobs and Tasks: Job refers to the sum total of an
individual’s assignment at the workplace. Tasks refer to
the various activities that need to be performed to get the
job done.
ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR

◦ Technology: Organizations have technologies for transforming inputs

into outputs.

◦ Environment: All organizations operate within an external

environment. A single organization does not exist alone. It is affected
by political, economic , social, political environment.
Nature and Scope of OB
1. A field of Study and not a Discipline- OB can be treated as a distinct field of study and not a
discipline or even emerging discipline.
◦ OB, because of its broad base, recent emergence and interdisciplinary orientation, is not
accepted as science.
2. Interdisciplinary Approach- OB is basically an interdisciplinary approach.
◦ An interdisciplinary approach integrates the relevant knowledge drawn from different disciplines
like psychology, sociology and anthropology.
3. An Applied Science- The basic objective of OB is to make application of various researches to
solve the organizational problems particularly related to human behaviour aspect.
4. Humanistic and Optimistic-
OB focuses the attention on people from humanistic point of view.
◦ It is based on the belief that needs and motivation of people are of high concern.
5. Oriented towards Organizational Objective-
OB, being an applied science and emphasising human aspect of the organization, is oriented towards
organizational objectives.
6. A total Systems Approach-
The systems approach is an integrative approach which takes into account all the variables affecting
organizational functioning.
FIELDS CONTRIBUTING TO OB
PSYCHOLOGY
◦ Psychology deals with studying the human behavior that seeks to measure,
explain and sometimes change the behavior of humans.
◦ Learning
◦ Personality
◦ Perception
◦ Motivation
SOCIOLOGY
◦ Sociology is the study of social systems in which the individuals fill their roles.
◦ Group behavior
◦ Group dynamics
◦ Organizational culture
◦ Organizational theory and structure
◦ Power
◦ Conflict
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
◦ It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how the
thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by
the actual, imagined or implied presence of others,
◦ Persuasion
◦ Influence
◦ Stereotype
◦ Inter-group behavior
◦ Decision making
ANTHROPOLOGY
◦ The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the
relationship between the human being and the environment.
◦ Culture
◦ Values
◦ Attitudes
POLITICAL SCIENCE
◦ Political scientist study the behavior of individuals and groups within a
political environment.
◦ Conflict and conflict resolution tactics
◦ Allocation of power
ECONOMICS
◦ Market conditions
◦ Transaction costs
◦ Uncertainity
◦ Opportunity etc
 Importance of OB

◦ It helps an individual understand oneself. It is a systematic

study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within
organisation.
◦ It helps managers in getting the work done through
effective ways.
◦ It helps to develop work-related behaviour and job
satisfaction.
◦ It helps in building motivating climate
◦ It helps in building cordial industrial relations.
 Importance of OB
◦ It helps in predicting behaviour and applying it in some meaningful way to
make organisations more effective.
◦ It implies effective management of human resources.
◦ Self development
◦ Personality development
◦ Development of human values and ethical perspective
◦ Managing stress and achieving mental hygiene
◦ Creative use of emotions
◦ Creating learning individual and learning organisation
IMPORTANCE OF OB
◦ Leadership
◦ Motivation and morale
◦ Job satisfaction
◦ Effective communication
◦ Interpersonal effectiveness including persuasion, coaching,
counselling, mentoring, goal setting, decision making,
politicking, negotiation, conflict handling.
◦ Team building
Models of OB
The five models of organisational behaviour are the:
• autocratic model,
• custodial model,
• supportive model,
• collegial model and
• system model.
Autocratic model
◦ The guiding principle behind this model is that
management/owners have enormous business expertise, and
the average employee has relatively low levels of skill and
needs to be fully directed and guided.
◦ This type of system was common in factories in the
industrial revolution era.
◦ One of the problems with the autocratic model is that the
management team is required to micromanage the staff.
◦ The autocratic model is also a detractor to job satisfaction
and employee morale. 
 Custodial model
◦ The custodial model is based around the concept of
providing economic security for employees – through wages
and other benefits – that will create employee loyalty and
motivation.
◦ Many professional companies provide health benefits,
corporate cars, financial packaging of salary, and so on –
these are incentives designed to attract and retain quality
staff.
◦ One of the downsides with the custodial model is that it also
attracts and retains low performance staff as well. 
 Supportive model

◦ It is not based upon control and authority (the autocratic

model) or upon incentives (the custodial model), but
instead tries to motivate staff through the manager-
employee relationship and how employees are treated on
a day-to-day basis.
◦ The intent of this model is to motivate employees through
a positive workplace where their ideas are encouraged
and often adapted. Therefore, the employees have some
form of “buy-in” to the organisation and its direction.
 Collegial model

◦ The collegial model is based around teamwork –

everybody working as colleagues.
◦ The role of the manager is to foster this teamwork and
create positive and energetic workplaces. In much
regard, the manager can be considered to be the
“coach” of the team.
◦ The collegial model is quite effective in organisations
that need to find new approaches – marketing teams,
research and development, technology/software 
 System model
◦ The intent of the system model is to try and balance the
goals of the individual with the goals of the organisation.
◦ Individuals obviously want good remuneration, job
security, but also want to work in a positive work
environment where the organisation adds value to the
community and/or its customers.
◦ The system of model should be an overall partnership of
managers and employees with a common goal, and
where everybody feels that they have a stake in the
organisation.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR OB

1. Responding to economic pressures

◦ Deep and prolonged recession in 2008 that spread
worldwide
◦ In difficult economic times, effective management is
an asset. During these times, the difference between
good and bad management can be the difference
between profit and loss.
◦ In good times, understanding how to reward, satisfy,
and retain employees is at a premium. In bad times,
issues like stress, decision making, and coping come
to the fore.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR OB

2. Responding to globalization
◦ Increased foreign assignments
◦ Organizations are no longer constrained by national borders.
◦ Once you’re in another country, you’ll have to manage a workforce very
differently in needs, aspirations, and attitudes from those you are used to back
home.
◦ Working with people from different cultures
◦ Even in your own country, you’ll find yourself working with bosses, peers, and
other employees born and raised in different cultures.
◦ Management practices need to be modified to reflect the values of the different
countries in which an organization operates.
◦ Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labor
◦ Managers are under pressure to keep costs down to maintain competitiveness.
◦ Moving jobs to low-labor cost places requires managers to deal with difficulties in
balancing the interests of their organization with responsibilities to the
communities in which they operate.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
OB
3. Managing workforce diversity
◦ Workforce diversity is one of the most important and broad-based challenges
currently facing organizations.
◦ While globalization focuses on differences between people from different
countries, workforce diversity addresses differences among people within
given countries.
◦ Workforce diversity acknowledges a workforce of women and men; many
racial and ethnic groups; individuals with a variety of physical or
psychological abilities; and people who differ in age and sexual orientation.
◦ Managing this diversity is a global concern.
◦ Three demographic forces will shape India’s labor force in this decade: more
women in the workforce, urbanization, and an increase in the population of
Indians in their thirties and forties.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
OB

4. Improving customer service

◦ Today the majority of employees in developed countries work in
service jobs.
◦ The service industry in India contributed 54.6 per cent of the
country’s GDP and employed 34 per cent of the labor force in
2009.
◦ Examples of people in the service industry include technical
support reps, fast food counter workers, waiters, nurses, financial
planners, and flight attendants.
◦ Employee attitudes and behavior are associated with customer
satisfaction.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
OB

5. Improving people skills

◦ People skills are essential to managerial effectiveness.
◦ OB provides the concepts and theories that allow managers to
predict employee behavior in given situations.
6. Stimulating innovation and change
◦ Successful organizations must foster innovation and master
the art of change.
◦ Employees can be the impetus for innovation and change or a
major stumbling block.
◦ Managers must stimulate employees’ creativity and tolerance
for change.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
OB

7. Coping with “temporariness”. Organizations must be flexible and fast in order to

survive. In such a scenario:
◦ Jobs must be continually redesigned.
◦ Tasks are being done by flexible work teams rather than individuals.
◦ Companies rely more on temporary workers.
◦ Workers need to update knowledge and skills.
◦ Work groups and organizations are in a continuing state of flux.
◦ Managers and employees must learn to cope with temporariness.
◦ Learning to live with flexibility, spontaneity, and unpredictability has become
part of one’s job.
◦ OB provides help in understanding a work world of continual change,
overcoming resistance to change, and creating an organizational culture that
thrives on change.
 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
OB
8. Working in networked organizations
◦ Networked organizations are becoming more pronounced.
◦ Manager’s job is fundamentally different in networked organizations. Challenges of motivating
and leading “online” require different techniques.
9. Helping employees balance work-life conflicts
◦ The creation of the global workforce means work no longer sleeps. Workers are on-call 24-hours a
day or working nontraditional shifts.
◦ Communication technology has provided a vehicle for working at any time or any place.
◦ Employees are working longer hours per week— India ranks among the hardest working nations
globally with an average workweek of 50 hours.
◦ The lifestyles of families have changed—creating conflict: more dual-career couples and single
parents find it hard to fulfill commitments to home, children, spouse, parents, and friends.
◦ Balancing work and life demands now surpasses job security as an employee priority.
 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
OB
10. Creating a positive work environment
◦ Organizations like the erstwhile Satyam Computer Services realized that creating
a positive work environment could be a competitive advantage.
◦ Positive organizational scholarship or behavior studies what is ‘good’ about
organizations.
◦ This field of study focuses on employees’ strengths versus their limitations as
employees share situations in which they performed at their personal best.
11. Improving ethical behavior
◦ Ethical dilemmas are situations in which an individual is required to define right
and wrong conduct.
◦ Good ethical behavior is not so easily defined.
◦ Organizations are distributing codes of ethics to guide employees through ethical
dilemmas.
◦ Managers need to create an ethically healthy climate.
PERSONALITY
 What Is Personality?
The dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment. - Gordon Allport
◦ The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, the
measurable traits a person exhibits.

◦ The term personality is derived from the Latin word

“persona” meaning a “mask”. 

12/08/2022 5-32
Determinants of Personality
Determinants of Personality
◦ Heredity: heredity refers to those factors that were determined
at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex,
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level,
and biological rhythms are characteristics that a generally
considered to be imported either completely or substantially
from our parents.

• Physical Structure
• Reflexes
• Innate Drivers
• Intelligence
• Temperament
Determinants of Personality
◦ Environment: Not all characteristics are said to be genetic when we talk
about personality.
◦ Environment is a broad term and includes such factors as culture which
influences norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from one
generation to another and create consistencies over time.
◦ Every culture has its own sub-culture, each with its own views about such
qualities such as moral values and standards, cleanliness, style of dress and
definition of success. The cultural sub-group exerts its influence on
personality.
◦ For eg.: A boy raised in an urban slum is expected to behave differently in
some respects from a boy from well-to-do raised in a middle class suburban.
Determinants of Personality
◦ Contribution from the Family: Family has
considerable influence on the personality
particularly at the early stages as the child
identifies with the parent of the same sex and
the parent acts as a model for his/her behavior
Determinants of Personality
◦ Socialization Process: Socialization involves the
process by which a person acquires , from the
enormously wide range of behavioral potentialities that
are open to him or her, starting at birth, those behavior
that are customary and acceptable to the standards of,
initially, the family and later the social group and the
employing organization.
Determinants of Personality
◦ Situational Considerations: Situational
considerations must be kept in mind while one is
studying the determinants of personality, it is hard to
determine exactly how much is the impact of one
situation on the person’s personality. Also, it is also
hard to have a neat classification scheme that would
tell us the impact of various types of situations has.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

◦ Most widely used personality assessment instrument

in the world.
◦ It is a 100 question test that asks people how they
usually feel or act in a particular situation.
◦ Participants are classified within four scales to
determine 1 of 16 possible personality types such as
ENTJ.
◦ These types are broken down into four dichotomies.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

◦ Extroverted or introverted (E or I) - extroverts are outgoing,

sociable and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy.
◦ Sensing or Intuitive (S or N) – sensing types are practical and prefer
routine and order. They focus on details. Intuitive rely on
unconscious processes.
◦ Thinking or Feeling (T or F) - Thinking focuses on using reason and
logic to handle problems where feeling utilizes values and emotions.
◦ Judging or perceiving (J or P) - Judgers want order and structure
whereas perceivers are more flexible and spontaneous.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
EXTRAVERSION SENSING THINKING JUDGING
(E) (S) (T) (J)
Outgoing Practical Analytical Structured
Expressive Specific Clarity Time Oriented
Interacting Feet on the ground Justice Decisive
Speaks and Thinks Concrete Rules Organised

INTROVERSION INTUITION FEELING PERCEIVING

(I) (N) (F) (P)
Quiet General Subjective Flexible
Reserved Abstract Harmony Open ended
Concentrating Head in the clouds Heart Exploring
Thinks, then Possibilities Mercy Spontaneous
speaks
The Big Five Model

• Sociable, gregarious, and assertive

Extroversion
• Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting
Agreeableness
• Responsible, dependable,
Conscientiousnes persistent, and organized
s • Calm, self-confident, secure under stress
Emotional (positive), versus nervous, depressed, and
Stability insecure under stress (negative)
Openness to • Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive
Experience
Extroversion

This dimension captures one’s comfort level with

relationships.

Extroverted people Introverted people

◦ Energetic ◦ Shy
◦ Enthusiastic ◦ Retiring
◦ Dominant ◦ Submissive
◦ Sociable ◦ Quiet
◦ Talkative
Agreeableness

This dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to

defer to others
High Agreeableness Low Agreeableness
◦ Friendly ◦ Cold
◦ Cooperative ◦ Quarrelsome
◦ Trusting
◦ Warm
Conscientiousness

This dimension is a measure of reliability.

Conscientious Impulsive
◦ Cautious ◦ Careless
◦ Dependable ◦ Disorderly
◦ Organized ◦ Undependable
◦ Responsible
 Neuroticism

This dimension taps a person’s ability to

withstand stress.

Emotionally unstable Emotionally stable

◦ Nervous ◦ Calm
◦ High-strung ◦ Contented
◦ Tense
◦ Worrying
Openness

This dimension addresses one’s range of interests

and fascination with novelty.
High on Openness Low on Openness

◦ Imaginative ◦ Down to earth

◦ Witty ◦ Conventional
◦ Original ◦ Conformist
◦ Artistic ◦ Simple
How Do the Big Five Traits Predict
Behavior?
◦ Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to
higher job performance:
◦ Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge,
exert greater effort, and have better performance.
◦ Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.
◦ Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.
◦ Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills.
◦ Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.
◦ Agreeable people are good in social settings.
 Other Personality Traits Relevant
to OB
◦ Core Self-Evaluation
◦ The degree to which people like or dislike themselves
◦ Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance
◦ Machiavellianism
◦ A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the
means
◦ High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than they are
persuaded. They flourish when:
◦ they have direct interaction with others
◦ they work with minimal rules and regulations
◦ emotions distract others
◦ Narcissism
◦ An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration
◦ Less effective in their jobs

12/08/2022 5-49
 The degree to which an individual likes or dislikes himself
or herself whether the person sees himself or herself as
capable & effective and whether the person feels in control
of his or her environment or powerless over the
environment..

ENVIRONMENT
CONTROL ON ENVIRONMENT
CAPABLE POWERLESS
EFFECTIVE UNCAPABLE

EVALUATION EVALUATON
SELF SELF
POSITIVE CORE NEGATIVE CORE

12/08/2022 5-50
 Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism (Mach)
Degree to which an individual is pragmatic,
maintains emotional distance, and believes
that ends can justify means.

Conditions Favoring High Machs

• Direct interaction with others
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Emotions distract for others
12/08/2022 5-51
 More Relevant Personality Traits

◦ Self-Monitoring
◦ The ability to adjust behavior to meet external, situational
factors.
◦ High monitors conform more and are more likely to become
leaders.

◦ Risk Taking
◦ The willingness to take chances.
◦ May be best to align propensities with job requirements.
12/08/2022 ◦ Risk takers make faster decisions with less information. 5-52
 Self-Concept

Refers to the totality of

thoughts and feelings that
an individual has about him
or her self.

12/08/2022 5-53
 We Have Many Self-Concepts

Actual self Ideal self

Social self Ideal social self

Possible self Extended self

12/08/2022 5-54
 Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring
Self-Esteem (SE)
Individuals’ degree of liking
or disliking themselves.

Self-Monitoring
A personality trait that measures
an individuals ability to adjust
his or her behavior to external,
situational factors.

12/08/2022 5-55
 Risk-Taking
◦ High Risk-taking Managers
◦ Make quicker decisions
◦ Use less information to make decisions
◦ Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations
◦ Low Risk-taking Managers
◦ Are slower to make decisions
◦ Require more information before making decisions
◦ Exist in larger organizations with stable environments

12/08/2022 5-56
 Even More Relevant Personality
Traits
◦ Type A Personality
◦ Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to
achieve more in less time
◦ Impatient: always moving, walking, and eating rapidly
◦ Strive to think or do two or more things at once
◦ Cannot cope with leisure time
◦ Obsessed with achievement numbers
◦ Prized in today’s competitive times but quality of the
work is low
◦ Type B people are the complete opposite of Type A’s

12/08/2022 5-57
 Even More Relevant Personality
Traits
◦ Type B Personality
• never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its
accompanying impatience;
• feel no need to display or discuss either their
achievements or accomplishments;
• play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit
their superiority at any cost;
• can relax without guilt.

12/08/2022 5-58
 Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities,
shows initiative, takes
action, and perseveres
until meaningful change
occurs.
Creates positive change
in the environment,
regardless or even in
spite of constraints or
obstacles.

Personality Types
12/08/2022 5-59
Locus of Control
The extent to which a person believes they have
power over their successes and/or failures in life.
 Locus of Control
The extent to which a person believes they have power over their successes and/or failures in school tasks.

Internal Locus of Control External Locus of Control

◦ Believes his or her successes are ◦ Believes his or her successes or

due to factors within their own failures are due to factors outside
control. of their own control.

◦ Behavior is guided by his/her ◦ Behavior is guided by fate, luck,

personal decisions and efforts. or other external circumstance.
Example:
A person late for work.

External Locus of Control

Internal Locus of Control

◦ Person may blame, weather,

◦ Person will admit that they
traffic, road construction, and
should have left earlier in
any number of external
order to be on time.
factors.
ATTITUDE
ATTITUDE - MEANING
◦ The term attitude is in general terms the positive or
negative orientation of a person.

◦ Mala has a positive attitude, Geeta has a negative attitude.

What does this mean?????

ATTITUDE - MEANING
◦ Mala’s general orientation towards most things is
positive whereas Geeta’s general orientation is
negative.
◦ This is not the correct usage of the term ‘Attitude’.
◦ Attitude always has a referent, i.e., an object towards
which positive or negative orientation is implied.
Attitude is always ‘towards’ something.
◦ Mohan has a positive attitude towards his organization.
ATTITUDE - DEFINITION
◦ An attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about
something.
◦ Attitude is positive or negative feelings toward some
person, object or issue.
◦ Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments
concerning objects, people or events.
◦ Attitude is the tendency to behave positively or negatively
to objects, people or events.
The ABC Model
- An individual may respond to a specific entity on
an affective, cognitive or behavioural basis.
- Attitudes are generally affective in nature, they
also have a cognitive element and a conative
(Behavioural) element.
Components of an attitude :
- Affect
- Behavioural Intention and
- Cognition
 COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE

CO EHA
G) E

(B
NA VIO
IN I V
IK C T

TIV U
( L FE

E R)
AF

ATTITUDE

COGNITIVE
(BELIEF) 68
EXAMPLE
◦ My exposure to my job – gives me enough
knowledge about it. (COGNITIVE)
◦ Then I develop a feeling for it – I like it or I do not
like it. (AFFECTIVE/EMOTIONAL/FEELING)
◦ Finally I will act on the feeling – stay on in my job
or quit it. (BEHAVIOR/CONATIVE)
EXAMPLE: To Understand employees’ attitude towards Variable
Pay or Incentive pay :

◦ Affect : How do employees feel about variable pay ? Do

they like it or not ?
◦ Behavioural Intentions : Do employees want to use the
flexible pay system ?
◦ Cognition : What do they know about the variable pay
mechanism of pay calculation ; what are their beliefs, what
are their perceptions ? ( Really it captures their perception )
EXAMPLE
◦ The belief – “ Discrimination is wrong” –
◦ Cognitive component.

◦ “I don’t like John because he discriminates against

minorities” –
◦ Affective component.

◦ “I will not meet John” –

◦ Behavioral component.
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
1. Direct experience- The quality of a person’s direct
experience with the attitude object determines his
attitude towards it.
◦ Such attitudes are always available to us in our
consciousness.
◦ You had the system of variable pay in the past and found
the fluctuations in monthly pay very disturbing ; hence
an unfavourable attitude
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
2. Social Learning- Attitudes are also learned from others:
- Family : By Reinforcing the desirable attitudes shown by children
- Peer Groups : Mould attitude through group acceptance.
- Religious Organizations
- Culture
E.g. An unemployed person entering the job market for the first
time, may be favourably disposed towards a government job
because others in the society have such attitude towards
government jobs.
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

3. Association- A new attitude object may be

associated with an old attitude object.

Example: if a newly recruited worker remains most

of the time in the company of a worker towards
whom the supervisor has favourable attitude, the
supervisor is likely to develop a positive attitude
towards the new worker.
FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES

◦ Attitudes serve as conscious and unconscious

motives and have four functions (Katz, 1960):
◦ KNOWLEDGE FUNCTION
◦ UTILITARIAN/ADJUSTIVE FUNCTION
◦ SOCIAL IDENTITY/VALUE-EXPRESSIVE
FUNCTION
◦ EGO-DEFENSIVE FUNCTION
KNOWLEDGE FUNCTION
◦ They assist in helping us make sense of our world and to
organize the information we encounter. Some attitudes are
useful because they help to make the world more
understandable.
◦ For ex: Stereotyping is an example of the knowledge
function of attitudes.
◦ Stereotypes are mental structures that allow us to predict
the characteristics a person will have based on the group
they belong to.
UTILITARIAN/ADJUSTIVE
FUNCTION
◦ Some attitudes serve to enable people to attain particular,
desired goals or avoid undesirable circumstances. The
holding/expressing of certain attitudes may bring about
direct rewards.
◦ For ex: A young child whose parent holds strong attitudes
about football might learn that expressing support for
football brings parental approval.
SOCIAL IDENTITY/VALUE-
EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION
◦ Attitudes provide people with a basis for
expressing their values.
◦ For Example: A manager who believes strongly in
the work ethic will tend to voice attitudes toward
such work practices that reflects such values.
EGO-DEFENSIVE FUNCTION
◦ Helps individuals adjust and defend their self - images.
◦ It also helps in protecting people form recognizing certain
thoughts or feelings which may threaten the self-image or
adjustment.
◦ An individual may experience feelings that are unacceptable
to him, such as hostility towards his father. If he recognized
this hostility, he would feel guilty, because we are thought to
love our parents. So, instead of acknowledging that he hates
his farther, he may direct it toward members of a minority
group, or authority figures such as policemen or teachers
ATTITUDES IN THE WORK
PLACE
◦ Most of the research in OB has been concerned
with three attitudes:

◦ Job satisfaction
◦ Job involvement
◦ Organizational commitment
Job Satisfaction

◦ It refers to an individual’s general attitude toward

his or her job.
◦ It includes various aspects- the nature of the job;
the compensation a person gets; growth
opportunities; behavior of the supervisors and
coworkers.
◦ A person with high level of job satisfaction holds
positive attitudes towards the job.
Job Involvement
◦ It measures the degree to which a person identifies
psychologically with his or her job and considers
his or her performance important to self-worth.
◦ High levels of job involvement leads to fewer
absences, lower resignation rates.
Organizational Commitment

◦ It indicates a person’s feeling with regard to

continuing his or her association with the
organization, acceptance of the values and
goals of the organization, and the
willingness to help the organization achieve
such goals.
 GROUP
BEHAVIOUR
 Groups - Definition
◦ Skein (1988), a group is any number of people:
Who interact with one another
Who are psychologically aware of one
another; and
Who perceive themselves to be a group.

◦ Group – two or more individuals interacting

with each other to accomplish a common goal

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 Features of a group:
◦ Two or more persons
◦ Interaction -- face to face interaction
◦ Shared goal interest -- members share at least
one common goal
◦ Collective identity -- members perceive group
as a unit

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 Reasons for group formation/Why do
people join groups?:

Warmth and
Support

Goal
Power
Accomplishment

Recognition Proximity
Security
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 Types of Groups

Formal Groups Informal Groups

◦ Command Group ◦ Interest Group

◦ Task Group ◦ Friendship Group

◦ Project Group ◦ Reference Group

◦ Committees

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 1. Formal Group

◦ A designated work group defined by the organization’s

structure
◦ Command group: consists of subordinates who report to a
common superior
◦ Task group: those working together to complete a job task
◦ Project group: consists of individuals from many
different areas or backgrounds
◦ Committees: group of people working together to solve a
certain problem.
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 2. Informal Group
◦ A group that is neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined; appears in response
to the need for social contract.
◦ Interest group : Those working together to attain a
specific objective with which each is concerned.
◦ Friendship group :Those brought together
because they share one or more common
characteristic.

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 Tuckman’s Five-Stage
Model of Group Development
◦ FORMING: During this stage, the focus is on the task in hand and the
utilization of resources to complete it.
◦ STORMING: As members receive clarity about the techniques of doing the
job, there may be disagreements among them.
◦ NORMING: As the differences began to resolve, members develop mutual
understanding and clarity with respect to the task in hand.

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 Tuckman’s Five-Stage
Model of Group Development
◦ PERFORMING: As members develop norms for work and interpersonal
relationships, solution to the problem begin to emerge and constructive
attempts are made to complete the job.
◦ ADJOURNING: This stage is more apparent in temporary groups, where the
members have to abandon their membership in the group once the tasks have
been completed.

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Tuckman’s Five-Stage
Model of Group Development

Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

Little Conflict Agreement Clear vision Task

agreement increased and and purpose completion
Unclear clarity of consensus Focus on Good
purpose purpose Clear roles goal feeling about
Guidance Power and achievement achievements
responsibili- Recognition
and struggles Delegation
ties
direction Coaching
Facilitation

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 Bruce W Tuckman ， 1977

Prestage I Stage I Stage II

Forming Storming

Stage III Stage IV Stage V

Norming Performing Adjourning

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 Group Decision Making
◦ Group decision-making commonly known as collaborative decision-
making is a situation faced when individuals collectively make a choice
from the alternatives before them.
◦ The decision is then no longer attributable to any individual group
member.
◦ The decisions made by groups are mostly different from those made by
individuals.
◦ For example, groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than
those made by individual members, as individuals tend to be biased.

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 Advantages of Group Decision Making

◦ Synergy: It is the idea that the whole is greater than the

aggregate of its parts. When a group makes a decision
collectively, its judgment can be powerful than that of any of its
members. Through discussing, questioning, and collaborative
approach, group members can identify more complete and
robust solutions and recommendations.
◦ Sharing of information: Group decisions take into account a
wider scope of information as each group member may
contribute distinct information and expertise. Sharing information
increases understanding, clarifies issues, and facilitates
movement towards a collective decision.

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 Disadvantages of Group
Decision Making
◦ Diffusion of Responsibility: Group decision making results in
distribution of responsibility that results in lack of accountability for
outcomes. In this way, everyone is responsible for a decision, and no one
really is. Moreover, group decisions can make it easier for members to
refuse personal responsibilities and blame others for bad decisions.
◦ Lower Efficiency: Group decisions can sometimes be less efficient than
individual decisions. It takes additional time because there is a need of
active participation, discussion, and coordination among group members.
Without good facilitation and structure, meetings can get eliminated in
trivial details that may matter a lot to one person but not to the others.
◦ Groupthink: By refraining themselves from outside influences and
actively suppressing opposing viewpoints in the interest of minimizing
conflict, group members reach a consensus decision without critical
evaluation of substitute viewpoints.
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 Group Decision-Making Techniques

◦ Brainstorming: This technique includes a group of

people, mostly between five and ten in number, sitting
around a table, producing ideas in the form of free
association. The main focus is on generation of ideas
and not on evaluation of these ideas.
◦ If more ideas can be originated, then it is likely that
there will be a unique and creative idea among them.
All these ideas are written on the blackboard with a
piece of chalk so that all the team members can see
every idea and try to improvise these ideas.

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 Group Decision-Making Techniques
◦ Nominal Group Thinking: This technique is similar to brainstorming
except that this approach is more structured. It motivates individual
creativity. Members form the group for namesake and operate
independently, originate ideas for solving the problem on their own, in
silence and in writing. Members do not communicate well with each
other so that strong personality domination is evaded.
◦ The group coordinator either collects the written ideas or writes them on
a large blackboard so that each member of the group can see what the
ideas are.
◦ These ideas are further discussed one by one in turn and each
participant is motivated to comment on these ideas in order to clarify
and improve them.
◦ After all these ideas have been discussed, they are evaluated for their
merits and drawbacks and each actively participating member is needed
to vote on each idea and allot it a rank on the basis of priority of each
alternative solution.
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 Group Decision-Making Techniques
Didactic Interaction: The type of problem should be such that it
generates output in the form of yes or no. E.g., a decision is to be made
whether to buy or not to buy a product, to merge or not to merge, to
expand or not to expand and so on. These types of decision requires an
extensive and exhaustive discussion and investigation since a wrong
decision can have serious consequences.
◦ The group that makes the decision is divided into two sub-groups, one
in favor of the “go” decision and the opposing in favor of “no go”
decision.
◦ The first group enlists all the “pros” of the problem solution and the
second group lists all the “cons”. These groups meet and discuss their
discoveries and their reasons.
◦ After tiring discussions, the groups switch sides and try to find
weaknesses in their own original standpoints. This interchange of ideas
and understanding of various viewpoints results in mutual acceptance of
the facts as they exist so that a solution can be put together around
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 Group Decision-Making Techniques
Delphi Technique: The problem is first identified and a panel of experts
are selected. These experts are asked to provide potential solutions
through a series of thoughtfully designed questionnaires.
• Each expert concludes and returns the initial questionnaire.
• The results of the questionnaire are composed at a central location and
the central coordinator prepares a second set of questionnaire based on
the previous answers.
• Each member receives a copy of the results accompanied by the
second questionnaire.
• Members are required to review the results and respond to the second
questionnaire. The results typically trigger new solutions or motivate
changes in the original ideas.
• The process is repeated until a general agreement is obtained.

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 TEAM

◦ Together
◦ Everyone
◦ Achieves
◦ More

◦ Together Everyone Achieves MIRACLES!!!

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 Definition of Team
◦ Work Team – a group of people with
complementary skills who are committed to a
common mission, performance goals, and
approach for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable

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 Team Versus Groups: What’s the
Difference

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Group Versus Team Differences
Formal Work Group Team
Works on common goals Total commitment to common goals
Accountable to manager Accountable to team members
Skill levels are often random Skill levels are often complementary
Performance is evaluated by leader Performance is evaluated by
members as well as leaders
Culture is one of change and conflict Culture is based on collaboration and
total commitment to common goals
Performance can be positive, neutral, Performance can be greater than the
or negative sum of members’ contribution or
synergistic (e.g., 1 + 1 + 1 = 5)
Success is defined by the leader’s Success is defined by the members’
aspirations aspirations
 NATURE OF TEAMS
◦ COLLECTIVE PERFORMANCE
◦ POSITIVE SYNERGY
◦ MUTUAL ACCOUNTABILITY
◦ COMPLEMENTARY SKILLS
◦ SHARED LEADERSHIP
◦ COLLECTIVE WORK PRODUCTS

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 TEAM IMPORTANCE

◦ INCREASED EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION

◦ HIGHER LEVELS OF PRODUCTIVITY
◦ INCREASED SATISFACTION
◦ COMMON COMMITMENT TO GOALS

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 Common Types of
Work-Related Teams

Lead

Virtual

Global Problem-
Teams Solving

Self-Managed

Cross-Functional

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 Types of Teams
• Task forces

• Committees

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 Types of Teams

Small groups of individuals empowered to perform

certain activities based on procedures established
and decisions made within the team, with minimum
or no outside direction
Need to be consistent with the organization’s:
business requirements
values and goals
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competencies
 Types of Teams (cont’d)

Team Characteristics
1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues
2. A limited social context
12/08/2022 3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints
 Types of Teams (cont’d)

Problem-Solving Teams
Formed to deal with problems
i.e., specific and known problems (usually
temporary team)
i.e., potential future problems not yet
identified
Quality circle – permanent problem-solving
team
Quality Circles (QC) – a small group of employees who
work voluntarily on company time, typically one hour per
week, to address work-related problems
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 Types of Teams (cont’d)

Lead Teams

Lead team consists of managers

and direct subordinates.
Objective: Plan and execute business
activities in its specified area
of responsibility.
Approach: “do as I do” not “do as I say”

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 INTER-
PERSONAL
BEHAVIOUR
 Interpersonal Relationship: Meaning and
Definition

◦ Interpersonal relation is the study of why

beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors can cause
problems in personal and professional
relationships.
◦ Best-managed organizations…
◦ understand work is done through
relationships

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 The Importance of Interpersonal
Skills
◦ Interpersonal skills essential for success in
most jobs
◦ Technical competencies not sufficient for
success
◦ Recent trends in the workplace give new
importance to human relations

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 Interpersonal skills at workplace

◦ Wide range of interpersonal skills are

needed
◦ People must manage three types:
◦ Relationships with ourselves
◦ One-to-one relationships
◦ Group relationships

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Major Relationship
Management Challenges

118
 Manage Three Relationship

◦ Ourselves
◦ Positive self image and self-confidence
◦ One-to-one
◦ Client/customer focus
◦ Biases
◦ Group
◦ Cooperation among members
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 Transactional Analysis

◦ Transactional analysis, commonly known as

TA, is an integrative approach to the theory
of psychology and psychotherapy.

◦ It was developed by Canadian born US

Psychiatrist – Eric Berne during 1950.

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 What is a Transaction???
In the words of Eric Berne,
◦ The unit of social interaction is called a transaction.
◦ If two or more people encounter each other in a social
transaction, sooner or later one of them will speak or give
some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the
other. This is called the transactional stimulus.
◦ Another person will then say or do something which is in
some way related to this stimulus and that is called the
transactional response.

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 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS –
MEANING AND DEFINITION

• A basic approach to study interpersonal relations in an

organizational system .

• This analysis deals with understanding, predicting and

controlling interpersonal relationships.
• "Transactional analysis (TA) is a technique used to
help people better understand their own and other's
behavior, especially in interpersonal relationships."

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 Transactional Analysis
TA is primarily concerned with the following :
◦ (i) Analysis of Self Awareness
◦ (ii) Analysis of Ego states
◦ (iii) Analysis of Transactions
◦ (iv) Script analysis
◦ (v) Games analysis
◦ (vi) Analysis of life positions
◦ (vii) Stroking
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 Ego States – Meaning and
Definition
◦ “Ego state is a consistent mode of feeling and
experience directly related to a corresponding
consistent mode of behavior”.
-- Eric Berne
◦ An ego state is a pattern of behavior that a person
develops as he or she grows up, based on his or her
accumulated network of feelings and experiences.

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 Ego States (Cont.)

◦ According to TA, there are three ego

states that people consistently use:
◦ Parent Ego
◦ Adult Ego
◦ Child Ego

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 The Ego-State (or Parent – Adult
– Child, PAC) model
• In reality, we do not have a Parent, a
Child or an adult inside us
• What we essentially have are Adult,
Parent and Child ways of thinking,
behaving and feeling.

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 Parent Ego State
◦ Forms around one Year of age
◦ Completely formed at age Eight or Nine
◦ Patterned after Parents/caretakers (unconscious mimicking of how their
parents acted).
◦ The data in the Parent was taken in and recorded ‘straight’ without ‘editing’.
◦ The parent is the place where we house our value systems- the shoulds, the
should nots, the rights, the wrong, the goods, the bads, the musts, and the
must nots.
◦ Comprises the judgmental, value laden, rule making and moralizing
components of personality
◦ Parent is the “taught concept of life”.

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 Types of Parent Ego States
◦ The parent ego states has two sides:
• Nurturing Parent (Loving, caring and helpful)
• Critical Parent (Controlling, disciplining, restricting)

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 Nurturing Parent Ego State
◦ Understanding and caring
◦ Sends a ‘You’re OK’ message
◦ Sets limits in a reasonable, firm and effective manner.
◦ Which behavior is OK and which is not.
◦ Soothing tone
◦ Soft and caring gestures
◦ Tendency to give “Do” messages rather than Don’t.
◦ Subconscious mind perceives negative messages as
positive
◦ Do’s are clearly better than do nots.
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 Critical Parent Ego State

◦ You are not OK

◦ Message supported by Tone, facial expression, gestures and words
◦ Not focused on Behavior
◦ Instead, says that You are not OK.
◦ Tends to use don’t instead of Do
◦ Sarcastic
◦ Tells people what is wrong with them
◦ Exaggerates and Generalizes
◦ Deals with Opinions rather than Facts
◦ YOU Oriented.
◦ Voice louder and harsher
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◦ Finger pointed 130
 Words and Phrases used

NURTURING PARENT CRITICAL PARENT

◦ Don’t be afraid… ◦ What will people

◦ I’ll help you… say…
◦ Don’t be late… ◦ That’s the limit!
◦ If I were you… ◦ Why haven’t you…
◦ Why do you do that?
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 Adult Ego State
◦ First Year-30 Months
◦ Continues developing lifelong
◦ Logical, Reasonable, Rational & Unemotional
◦ Does not have feelings of Anger, joy, sadness, fear and
frustration
◦ Sender & receiver of factual Information.
◦ Words used are descriptive rather than opinionated
◦ Stores data, computes probabilities, processes information

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 Adult Ego State
◦ Typical postures and gestures – eyes level and
direct, straight rather than stiff, open rather then
defensive.
◦ Tones of voice e.g. confident, calm, clear,
information-seeking.
◦ Facial expressions – attentive, thoughtful rather
than judgemental.

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 Words and Phrases used
◦ Let’s find out.
◦ Let’s experiment
◦ Let’s define it.
◦ How can we handle it best?
◦ What are the resaons.

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 Child Ego State

◦ The child within, is us as a little kid, probably

somewhere between the ages of Two and Six
Years.
◦ Have same needs, wants, feeling as of a child.
◦ Constitutes the emotional, creative,
spontaneous and impulsive component of
personality.
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 Child Ego State

◦ Typical postures and gestures – biting nails,

jumping up, raising hand to speak, singing,
whistling
◦ Tones of voice e.g. laughing, teasing,
swearing
◦ Facial expressions – excited, eyes downcast,
sad, rebellious, happy etc.
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 Types of Child Ego State

◦ Child ego has three types:

• The Natural Child
• The Little Professor
• The Adapted Child

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 The Natural Child
◦ Part of personality I am born with
◦ We are born with Needs, wants and feelings.
◦ Needs-Constant
◦ Wants-Vary
◦ When the needs and wants are met he/she responds
with a warm feeling
◦ When these are not met, he/she responds with
anger, sadness and fear.
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 The Natural Child
◦ Primitive
◦ Impulsive
◦ Instinctive
◦ Undisciplined
◦ Demanding
◦ Joyful
◦ Spontaneous
◦ Free
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 Little Professor
◦ One who is between natural child and adapted child.
◦ Intuitive
◦ Manipulative
◦ Creative
◦ Clever
◦ Gut Feeling
◦ Tunes in to subtle messages from other people
◦ Figure out loopholes
◦ Evasive tactics

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 Adapted Child
◦ First Year of life
◦ Reactive not spontaneous
◦ Modifies his behavior under the parental
influence.
◦ Compliant- Doing what others want
◦ Rebellious-Refusing to do what others want

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 Words and phrases used

• NATURAL • LITTLE • ADAPTED

CHILD PROFESSOR CHILD

• I like… • You always try to.. • I will be a

• I won’t… • Let’s play moment
• I feel • Wow! • If only
• If she can so
can I

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 EXAMPLE
◦ When game is at climax and the child is called home for
lunch,
◦ The ‘natural may rebel and respond: “I am not coming”
◦ The ‘little professor’ may make excuses: “I’ll come in a
minute’
◦ The ‘adapted child’ will leave the game and come directly
to home.

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 Analysis of Self Awareness

Self awareness is a cognitive concept, it

describes the self in terms of image, both
conscious and unconscious.
Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham have
developed a diagram to look at one's
personality including behaviors and attitudes
that can be known and unknown to self and
known and unknown to others.
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 JOHARI WINDOW
◦ Is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and
improving self-awareness, and mutual
understanding between individuals within a group.
◦ It can also be used to assess and improve a group's
relationship with other groups.
◦ The Johari Window is a model for getting and
giving feedback.

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 FOUR REGIONS OF JOHARI
WINDOW
◦ what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known
by others - open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the
arena'
◦ what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others
know - blind area, blind self, or 'blindspot'
◦ what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know -
hidden area, hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade'
◦ what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also
unknown by others - unknown area or unknown self

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 Johari Window

INFORMATION INFORMATION NOT

KNOWN TO SELF KNOWN TO SELF

I I
OPEN BLIND
INFORMATION
KNOWN TO OTHERS

3 4
HIDDEN UNKNOWN
INFORMATION NOT
KNOWN TO OTHERS

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 Johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public area', or
'arena'

◦ Information about the person - behaviour, attitude, feelings,

emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc - known by
the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others').
◦ Can be expanded horizontally into the blind space - seeking and
actively listening to feedback from other group members
(Feedback Solicitation).
◦ Can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden
space by the person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc
about him/herself to the group and group members.
◦ Also, group members can help a person expand their open area
into the hidden area by asking the person about him/herself.
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 Quadrant 1 in groups
◦ The aim in any group should always be to develop
the 'open area' for every person, because when we
work in this area with others we are at our most
effective and productive, and the group is at its
most productive too. The open free area, or 'the
arena', can be seen as the space where good
communications and cooperation occur, free from
distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict and
misunderstanding.
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 Johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'

◦ Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the

group, but is unknown by the person him/herself.
◦ By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should
be to reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area
(SELF AWARENESS)
◦ This blind area is not an effective or productive space for
individuals or groups.
◦ This blind area could also be referred to as ignorance about
oneself, or issues in which one is deluded.
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 Quadrant 2 in groups

◦ Group members and managers can take some

responsibility for helping an individual to reduce
their blind area - in turn increasing the open area -
by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging
disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of
non-judgemental feedback, and group response to
individual disclosure, which reduces fear and
therefore encourages both processes to happen.

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 Johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden
area' or 'avoided self/area' or 'facade'

◦ Johari region 3 is what is known to

ourselves but kept hidden from, and
therefore unknown, to others.
◦ It’s that closet of feelings, insecurities, and
not-so-great experiences. It’s the private
information.

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 Quadrant 3 in groups

◦ Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved

into the open area through the process of 'disclosure‘ (self-
disclosure).
◦ By telling others how we feel and other information about
ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area,
which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-
working effectiveness and productivity.
◦ Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion,
misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all distract
from and undermine team effectiveness.

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 Johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of
unknown activity' or 'unknown area'

◦ Johari region 4 contains information, feelings,

latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that
are unknown to the person him/herself and
unknown to others in the group.
◦ Large unknown areas would typically be
expected in younger people, and people who
lack experience or self-belief.

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 Examples
◦ an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of
opportunity, encouragement, confidence or training
◦ a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realize they possess
◦ a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have
◦ an unknown illness
◦ repressed or subconscious feelings
◦ conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood
◦ Can be uncovered through self-discovery or observation by others, or
in certain situations through collective or mutual discovery.
◦ Counselling can also uncover unknown issues, but this would then be
known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group.

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THANK YOU