RESEARCH METHODS AND

PROJECT WRITING

G.D. Amasa PhD

Chief lecturer
Department of Mechanical and Production Technology
College of Technical and Vocational Education (CTVE)
Kaduna Polytechnic.
 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
• A systematic and controlled enquiry directed
towards solving identified problems
• A formal application of systematic, logical
procedures that guides the investigation of
phenomena of interest.
• A systematic investigation that is rooted in
objective reality and that aim to develop
general knowledge about natural phenomena
 SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF ENQUIRY
• Identification of a problem.
• Definition of the problem in precise and clear terms.
• Formulation of appropriate hypotheses.
• Collection of data necessary for testing the
hypotheses.
• Analysis of data collected for testing the hypotheses.
• Drawing necessary inference or conclusion based on
the data analysis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

• Empirical: Data collected which provides concrete evidence

adduced from carefully investigated phenomena
• Theoretical: Producing a set of inter-related propositions
which can explain certain phenomena among variables.
• Cumulative: To build up the existing facts and theories and
help in refining and extending the existing principle.
• Non-ethical: Finding explanation for any action, Not whether
an action is right or wrong.
• Verifiable: Verifiable result when research is conducted
anywhere approximately same result.
 Research Process
Problem

Generalization Hypothesis

Theory
Data Analysis Research Design

Data Collection Measurement

 RESEARCH PROCESS
• Identifying and defining the problems.
• Reviewing literature.
• Formulating research question/hypotheses.
• Selecting a design for the study to collect necessary
data.
• Collecting pertinent data for answering the research
questions and testing hypotheses.
• Analyzing the data collected.
• Drawing necessary inference/conclusion based on
the data analysis.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Purpose-based research.
• Method-based research.
 PURPOSE-BASED CLASSIFICATION

• Basic research: Aims at advancement of knowledge- the

result or findings leads to the development of theories.
• Applied research: Is concern towards solving specific
problems at the classroom level or in the school.
• Research and Development (R & D): Aims at developing
and testing more products:- equipment, curricula,
textbooks etc.
• Evaluation research: Concern with making decisions
relating to the value or worth of materials, methods and
programs bases on empirical datas.
 METHOD-BASED CLASSIFICATION
• Historical research.
• Survey research.
• Case study.
• Causal comparative or ex-post factor
research.
• Experimental research.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEACH
• Scientific research can be classified under two broad
categories: qualitative research and quantitative
research. Quantitative research relies on statistical
tests and can be easily replicated. It is the preferred
type of research in the physical sciences.
• Qualitative research is a valuable tool in social
sciences such as psychology and anthropology
because it provides a deeper, more rounded view of
the subject matter, which often cannot be analyzed as
thoroughly and methodically as a proton
 NATURE OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
• An unsatisfactory state of affairs: When people are not satisfied
with the state or the position of things in education e.g.
condition of service, management styles etc.
• An unanswered question: Why is male enrollment in
engineering more than that of females? What teacher
characteristics facilitate learning? etc.
• A missing link: Maybe a gap either in educational thought,
process or practice e.g. curriculum development.
• A need: Literature has shown that there is paucity of standard
science resources, therefore there is a need for improvisation.
• An imbalance: Poses problems when facilitates at the primary
school level are expanded without the corresponding expansion
in other levels of education.
 A PROBLEM IN RESEARCH
• Research is concerned with
finding solutions to problems.
• The first step in conducting
research is identification of the
problems to be solved.
 STEPS IN PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

• Identifying and choosing a broad

problem area:

• Pinning it down to a specific

problem
 SOURCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
• Literature: Like books, encyclopedia, journals, periodicals,
website, etc.
• Theory: Is a set of proposition which can account for or explain
certain phenomena or event. It is a system of providing
explanations about phenomena, e.g. In education, theory gives
rise to deductions which need to be tested, theory of
motivation; learning theories; etc.
• Personal Experience: By carefully observing and interacting
with the subjects of the school community and environment
experiences are gathered which lead to problem location.
• Reports of previous research project: Research that have
been conducted in the same or similar area of study.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Researchable: Means that pertinent data for solving

the problem are available and accessible.
• Significant: The solution to the problem under the
study should make valuable contribution to either
the theory or practice of education.
• Novel: Original, new, or not solved before.
• Consistent with the researcher’s competence,
interest and circumstances.
• Should have two or more measurable variables.
 VARIABLES
• As the name implies, something that
varies:- weight, height, age, color,
qualification, experience, performance,
weather, temperature, sex, etc.
• A variable is any quality of an organism,
group, or situation that takes on different
values.
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
• Continuous variable: E.g. Age take on values from zero to 100
(starting from days, weeks, months, years).
• Categorical variables: Takes a handful of discrete values e.g.
Gender (male or female), blood group (A, B, AB & 0): When
categorical variable take on only two values, they are
sometimes referred to as Dichotomous variables e.g.
asleep/awake; academic/nonacademic etc.
• Attribute variables: Are often inherent of characteristics of
research subject e.g. age, experience, believe, etc.
• Active variables: Fits the situation of some group of
individuals positively, while it is negative in the same situation
with others e.g. medicines.
• Dependent and independent variable
 Dependent and Independent Variable
• An independent variable is an input variable, that
which causes, in part or in total, a particular
outcome; it is a stimulus that influences a
response, an antecedent or a factor which may be
modified (e.g. under experimental or other
conditions) to affect an outcome.
• A dependent variable, on the other hand, is the
outcome variable, that which is caused, in total or
in part, by the input, antecedent variable. It is the
effect, consequence of, or response to, an
independent variable.
 CONSIDERATION FOR WORDING A RESEARCH
TOPIC

 There should be two or more variables.

 There should be dependent and independent
variable.
 Use measurable variables.
 Make sure you can identify the variables in the topic.
 Make sure the variables are arranged and re-
arranged again and again to bring out the focus of
the research.
 CONSIDERATION FOR ACCEPTING A
RESEARCH TOPIC

• Who are the primary subjects of this

study?
• Where are these subjects?
• How readily available are these
subjects?
• How easily accessible are these
subjects?
 EXAMPLE OF RESEARCHABLE TOPICS
• Improvement of Drainage System for Lower
Settlement in Narayi Bayan Dutse Kaduna
Metropolies
• Inter-Professional Conflicts Among Environmental
Science Workers in Nigeria.
• Evaluation of the Environmental Act Policy in Nigeria.
• Generating Database for alternative Bridge
Construction in reduction of traffic hold-up in
Ahmadu Bello Way Kaduna.
 RESEARCH PROJECT OVERVIEW
PERLIMINARY PAGES
CHAPTER I: Introduction.
CHAPTER II: Review of related literature.
CHAPTER III: Methodology.
CHAPTER IV: Data Presentation and Analysis
CHAPTER V: Summary, Discussion, Conclusion and
Recommendation.
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
 PERLIMINARY PAGES
• Title Page.
• Declaration.
• Approval
• Dedication
• Acknowledgement
• Table of Content
• List of Tables
• Abstract
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
• Background of the study.
• Statement of the problem.
• Purpose/objective of the study.
• Significance of the study.
• Research Question/Hypothesis.
• Scope Delimitation of the study.
• Definition of terms (if necessary).
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• Sub-topics depends on the nature

of the problem of the study
under investigation.
• Summary of review of related
literature.
 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
• Design of the study.
• Area of the study.
• Population.
• Sample.
• Instrument for data collection.
• Validation of the instrument.
• Reliability of the instrument.
• Method of data collection.
• Method of data analysis.
 CHAPTER IV: DATA ANALYSIS AND
PRESENTATION

• Analysis of data are presented in

tables either item by item, Charts or
according to research question .
• Best tables presentation is according
to research questions.
 CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
• Restatement of the problem.
• Summary of procedure.
• Major findings.
• Discussion of findings.
• Implication of the findings.
• Conclusion.
• Recommendation.
• Limitation of the study (if any).
• Suggestions for further study.
 RUDIMENTS OF THE INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

• Concepts of the topic should be clearly
defined.
• Trace the root of the problems.
• Cite trends of attempts in solving the
problems.
• Show that the problems under study is
existing
 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• Deduced from a well written
background of the study.
• Defend with concrete evidence that
the problem under investigation
exist.
• Should be written in declarative or
interrogative statement
 PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
• Is a breakdown of the problem of the study to
specific units to be solved during the
investigation;
• Should be written to address to the problem
under study.
• E.g. The purpose of this study is to:
1. ------------------
2. ------------------
3. ------------------
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• Who will benefit from the findings of this study?
• What will be the benefit from the findings of
the study to the identified beneficiaries?
• How will the identified beneficiaries benefit
from the findings of the study?
• If these three questions are correctly answered
by the researchers, the significance of the study
has been established.
 RESEARCH QUESTION
• Are replica of the purpose of the study in question form.
• The number of research question must be the exact number
of purpose.
• Avoid using verbs like- is, do, etc. That will lead to answers
yes/no in stating research question. Use how, what, etc.
• There is a difference between research question and
questionnaire items.
• Research hypotheses may be stated instead of research
question.
• Scientific or statistical hypotheses should be stated in null
form, along side with one or more of the research question.
 SCOPE/DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

• Address the content coverage of the

problem under study not the area of the
study.
• Let the objectives of the study guide the
researchers in writing the scope.
• Remember that delimitation and
limitation are not the same.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Only concept that are used in context in the
study should be defined.
• Don’t define concept using there dictionary
meaning here.
• Some scholars suggest that concept be
defined within the body of the study.
Therefore, there should be no page for
definition of terms.
 RUDIMENTS OF REVIEW OF RELATED
LITTERATURE
What is literature review
• Systematic identification, location and analysis of
documents such as periodicals, abstracts, reviews,
books, and other reports.
• It is a summary of the writings of recognized
authority and of previous research findings relating
to the research problem one is investigating.
• Only studies that are relevant to the problem
under study completely, executed and clearly
reported are included in the review.
 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
• Provides theoretical background or framework
to the study.
• Clarity fundamental, key concepts involved in
the study.
• Helps to find out what other people have done
in the area of study (empirical frame work).
• Provides adequate information on items to be
included in the instrument for data collection.
 DIFFICULTIES IN LITTERATURE REVIEW
• Beginner researchers often have problems in
determining how broad their literature reviews
should be.
• They feel all literature related to the problem
should be reviewed.
• They don’t know when and where to stop.
• Have trouble determining which articles are
related enough to their problem to be included.
 PROCEDURE FOR REVIEWING LITTERATURE
• Researchers often waste their time searching for references in an unsystematic
manner.
• It is a simple process if the researchers understands the procedures for doing
it.
• The researchers should avoid the temptation of including everything he/she
finds around in his work.
• Using library
- The catalogue
- Abstracts
- Use of journals
- Unpublished materials (conference papers, project)
• Electronic literature search
- Computer software
-Internet system (website).
 WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A
LITERATURE REVIEW
• The statement of the problems.
• The design of the study: procedures, data
gathering and analysis techniques.
• Variables defined and used in testing the
hypotheses or in answering the research
questions.
• Result obtained
• Recommendations made for further study.
 DEVELOPING SKILLS FOR REVIEWING
LITTERATURE
• From the habit of reading widely with understanding.
• Consult and document related articles to your study from
related journals.
• Develop interest in reading other research project thesis
in your field of study.
• Always plan, organize, co-ordinate and assemble all
materials.
• Subject your work to review by your lectures, peer and
accept criticisms made.
• Share your work to review others. They may help you
obtained materials needed.
 STRUCTURING THE REVIEW
• Areas to be reviewed should be adequate
enough to cover the major variables of the
study.
• Sub-topics derived explicitly are those that are
evident from the topic of the research work.
• Implicit, are those sub-topics that are implied
in the topics of the research work.
• The purpose of the study also may constitute
the sub-topics of the review.
 EXAMPLE:
TOPIC- EVALUATION OF INTEGRATED
SCIENCE CURRICULUM OF JUNIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA
• Conceptual Frame work
• Theoretical Framework
• Program evaluation models.
• The integrated science curriculum.
• Junior Secondary schools in Nigeria.
• Empirical related studies.
• Summary of literature reviewed.
 WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN AN EMPIRICAL
RELATED STUDY
• The author and the year of publication
• The topic of the study
• The objective/research questions of the study and
hypotheses (if any)
• The methodology (design, population, sample, instrument,
validity, reliability, data collection and tools for data analysis)
• The Findings
• The recommendations
• Then state areas of similarities and areas of difference
between the reviewed study and your study.
 DOCUMENTATION IN RESEARCH
• Acknowledging and documenting
the work of others used in the
study.
- Intellectual honesty.
- Conformity to copyright law.
 REFERENCING STYLES
• The APA (American Psychological
Association).
• The MLA (Modem Language Association).
• The number system.
• The footnotes system.
• The Harvard styles.
 THE APA STYLE
• Wide acceptance in education and social
sciences.
• Only surname of the author and year of
publication is cited in the text.
• Listing the reference, surname of authors are
in alphabetical order.
 THE MLA STYLE
• Use of surname of author and the page from
where the reference is obtained for citation.
• Also a list of reference is provided at the end
of the text.
 THE NUMBER SYSTEM
• Widely used in the natural sciences.
• Uses username and an allotted number in the
body of the report.
• The list of references is then arranged
following the serial number allotted to the
citation and not necessarily in alphabetical
order.
 THE FOOTNOTE SYSTEM
• Widely used in engineering and humanities
• In-text quotations are documented by means of an
Arabic numeral written in superscript immediately
following the last word of the citation.
• This number is documented at the bottom of the
page.
• The use of op. cit, loc. Cit and ibid for the second
and the later reference characterizes the footnote
system.
 THE HARVARD STYLE

• Provides more details in-text.

• Combines APA and MLA.
 RUDIMENTS OF THE METHODOLOGY.

What Is Methodology
• Referred to as a systematic procedure to be
followed in data collection.
 RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Historical design.
• Survey design.
• Case Study design.
• Casual-comparative or ex-post factor.
• Design.
• Experimental Design.
• Research and development.
 HISTORICAL DESIGN
• Is concerned with a systematic and objective
way of enquiry into events, development and
experiences of the past.
• Data for this design are obtained from two
sources:- Primary and secondary sources.
 SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
Survey research design is one in which a group
of people or items is studied by collecting and
analyzing data from the entire population or a
representative of the population.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEY RESEARCH
DESIGN
• Procedure classification by this classification it
refers to the procedure, technique or
instrument employed in data collection. E.g.
I. Questionnaire survey.
II. Interview survey.
III. Observational survey.
IV. Panel survey.
 PANEL SURVEY
• Is concerned about collecting data from an
estimate in two or more different time
periods. These data are analyzed to show the
trends, changes or fluctuations in the
opinions, attitudes or behavior of the subject.
It is good for studies relating to “Stability of
people attitude or opinion towards an
intervening variable over a period of time”.
 PURPOSE-BASED CLASSIFICATION
• Developmental survey.
• Descriptive survey.
• Correlative survey.
• Public opinion survey.
 DEVELOPMENTAL SURVEY
• Seek to ascertain how dimension variables or
characteristic, cross-sectional studies of a given
parameter change with time.
• Longitudinal studies:- Subjects are observed within a
period for change in those characteristics under
study.
• Cross-sectional studies:- The characteristics of the
subjects at different age levels are examined and
analyzed to reveal the development of the
characteristics.
 DISCRIPTIVE SURVEY
• Studies that aim at collecting data and describing in a
systematic way, the characteristics, features or facts
about a given parameter.
• Descriptive survey is only interested in describing
certain variables in relation to the parameter. E.g.
topics like
 In-service needs of lectures in Kaduna polytechnic.
The performance of students in NABTEB examination.
The incidence of examination malpractice in
-------------------- .
 CORELATIVE SURVEY
• Study seeks to establish relationship that exist
between two or more variables.
• This survey indicates the direction and
magnitude of the relationship between the
variables.
• Correlation studies do not establish causation.
For the fact that two variable are highly related,
that does not wholly mean that the one
variable cause the other.
 PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY
• Designed to find out the opinion of people in
an identified area towards an issue of event
bordering majority of the people living in that
area. E.g. It is used for predicting the result of
an election in an area.
• The findings of this study always show how
the people generally feels about the event or
issues.
 CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN
• Is carried out towards a through understanding and
solving an identified social unit or problems.
• Case study employ a variety of data collection
technique to achieve the objectives of the study.
• The findings of this study provides an in-depth,
comprehensive and well-ordered information
concerning the problems under the study.
• Case study are not used because the researcher wants
to study a specific geographical area. Except otherwise
the problem under study exist in such area.
CASUAL COMPARATIVE OR EX-POST FACTOR
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Seeks to establish cause effect relationship
between variables.
• Usually, unlike the experimental design the
researcher here has no control and cannot
manipulate the variables.
• Ex-post-factor designs yield preliminary
information regarding the possible causes of
some events. On the experimental designs are
used.
CASUAL COMPARATIVE OR EX-POST FACTOR
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Seeks to establish cause effect relationship
between variables.
• Usually, unlike the experimental design the
researcher here has no control and cannot
manipulate the variables.
• Ex-post-factor designs yield preliminary
information regarding the possible causes of
some events. On the experimental designs are
used.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
• Aims at establishing cause and effect relationship between
variables, but in this study the researcher manipulates the
variables under study.
• One or more independent variables (s) is/are manipulated
by the researcher and the effect (s) are observed.
• Experimental design cannot be complete without using
control group (the group that is not administered with any
treatment) and the experimental group (treatment group).
• The use of control also help in handling or checking the
influence of the extraneous variables.
 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Three broad categories of experimental
design.
- The true experimental.
- Quasi experimental.
- Pre-experimental.
 THE TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• True experiments offer the most convincing
evidence concerning the effect one variable
can have on another.
• A true experiment is a scientific investigation
characterized by the following properties.
- Manipulation
- Control
- Randomization.
 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Not randomly selected.
• Investigates a situation in which random selection and
assignment are not possible.
• Determine the influence of a variable introduced only
after a series of initial observations and only where
one group is available.
• Bolster the validity of the QE design with the addition
of a control group.
• Controls history in time design with a variant of the QE
design.
 PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Loose in structure, could be biased.
• Attempts to explain a consequent by an
antecedent.
• Evaluates the influence of a variable.
• Determines the influence of a variable on one
group and not on another.
 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)

• Refers to creative work undertaken on

systematic basis in order to increase the stock
of knowledge of man, and the use of this stock
of knowledge to device new applications.
• It is concern with new product design and
development especially in industry.
 AREA OF THE STUDY
• Describe the geographical location with
distinct boundaries where the study will be
carried out
• If the area of study is not very well known, the
maps with clear description is necessary.
 POPULATION
• Sometimes referred to as parameter or
subject of the study – detailed description is
very necessary.
• Citation of where the population figures is
obtained is obtained is also very important.
 SAMPLE
• Referred to as estimate of the parameter
which is representative of the subject.
• Basically two types of sampling technique:
- Probability sampling technique.
- Non-probability sampling technique.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
• The researcher must know the population.
• All subjects must be given equal chance to be part of
the sample.
• The findings of the study can be generalized .
Example: simple random sampling technique.
- Proportionate stratified Random sampling technique
- Disproportionate stratified random sampling
technique.
- Cluster or area sampling technique.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
• The knowledge of the subjects is not necessary.
• The subjects are not given equal chance to be
part of the sample.
• Result cannot be generalized. Example:-
- Systematic sampling technique
- Quota sampling technique.
- Purpose or judgmental sampling technique.
- Accidental sampling technique.
 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

• Questionnaire.
• Interview.
• Observation.
• Checklist.
• Measuring scales.
 VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT
• The ability of the instrument to measure.
• What it is suppose to measure.
• Face validation.
• Content validation.
 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
• The consistency or the stability of the
instrument to measure what is suppose to
measure.
• Test-retest.
• Split halve.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
• This refers to a description of how the
researcher will collect data from the
respondents.
• It could be personally.
• The use of research assistant.
• Posting.
• Telephoning.
• E-mail.
 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
• A description of the statistical to be used for
analyzing the data collected from the
respondents according to the research
questions that guided the study.
• A description of the statistic to be used for the
hypotheses testing if any.
• A statement of decision rule for both research
question/hypothesis.
 RUDIMENTS OF DATA ANALYSIS AND
PRESENTATION
• Introduction of the chapter.
• Presentation of data analysis in tables.
• Result according to tables
• Findings.
 RUDIMENTS OF SUMMARY, DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• Restatement of the problem
- Overview of the problem of the study.
• Summary of procedure used
- A brief summary of all the procedures used be
explain.
• Major findings
- The major findings in each of the tables.
 DISSCUSSION OF FINDINGS
• Discussion should be done according to the
findings in each of the tables.
• Implication of the findings for theory and
practice be stated.
• Conclusion.
• Recommendations.
• Limitations of the study (if any).
• Suggestion for further research.
 REFRENCES
• All references in educational research are
arranged according to the APA style e.g. Umoh,
I.E (2007), student perception of lecturers in
college of Administration studies and social
science, Kaduna polytechnic. A post Graduate
Diploma (technical) Research project.
Department of education (Technical) Kaduna
Polytechnic, Kaduna.
 APPENDICES
• A copy of instruments be attached
• Attachment of pictures, tables, documents etc.
 SUPERVISION OF RESEARCH PROJECTS
• Assist students to discover researchable problem (Topic).
• Ensure that the introductory chapter is well written.
• Review of related literature should be well organized.
• Appropriate and detailed plan for data collection and
analysis are written.
• Ensure that data collected and analyzed are well presented.
• Ensure that findings are clearly state and recommendations
made.
• References should conform to current APA style.
• Ensure that appendices are orderly arranged.
 GROUP TASK
• Write down the steps a supervisor will ensure
that his/her students follow in selecting a
researchable problem.
• Develop a topic and write down a
corresponding research method appropriate
for it.
• Develop an appropriate format for conducting
research for medical students.
 THANK YOU
• For listening
• For your patience
• God bless you.