Introduction to linear programming

Dr. Pratyush Tripathi

Definition And Characteristics Of Linear Programming

Linear Programming is that branch of mathematical programming which is designed to solve optimization problems where all the constraints as will as the objectives are expressed as Linear function. It was developed by George B. Denting in 1947.

 Linear Programming is a technique for making decisions under certainty i.e.; when all the courses of options available to an organisation are known & the objective of the firm along with its constraints are quantified. That course of action is chosen out of all possible alternatives which yields the optimal results. Linear Programming can also be used as a verification and checking mechanism to ascertain the accuracy and the reliability of the decisions which are taken solely on the basis of manager's experience without the aid of a mathematical model.

Definitions of Linear Programming

"Linear Programming is a method of planning and operation involved in the construction of a model of a real-life situation having the following elements: (a) Variables which denote the available choices and (b) the related mathematical expressions which relate the variables to the controlling conditions, reflect clearly the criteria to be employed for measuring the benefits flowing out of each course of action and providing an accurate measurement of the organization s objective. The method maybe so devised' as to ensure the selection of the best alternative out of a large number of alternative available to the organization

 Linear Programming is the analysis of problems in which a Linear function of a number of variables is to be optimized (maximized or minimized) when whose variables are subject to a number of constraints in the mathematical near inequalities.

From the above definitions, it is clear that: (i) Linear Programming is an optimization technique, where the underlying objective is either to maximize the profits or to minimize the Cost. (ii) It deals with the problem of allocation of finite limited resources amongst different competing activities in the most optimal manner. (iil) It generates solutions based on the feature and characteristics of the actual problem or situation. Hence the scope of linear programming is very wide as it finds application in such diverse fields as marketing, production, finance & personnel etc. (iv) Linear Programming has be-en highly successful in solving the following types of problems : (a) Product-mix problems (b) Investment planning problems (c) Blending strategy formulations and (d) Marketing & Distribution management. (v) Even though Linear Programming has wide & diverse applications, yet all LP problems have the following properties in common:

(a)The objective is always the same (i.e.; profit maximization or cost minimization). (b) Presence of constraints which limit the extent to which the objective can be pursued/achieved. (c) Availability of alternatives i.e.; different courses of action to choose from, and (d) The objectives and constraints can be expressed in the form of linear relation. (VI) Regardless of the size or complexity, all LP problems take the same form i.e. allocating scarce resources among various compete ting alternatives. Irrespective of the manner in which one defines Linear Programming, a problem must have certain basic characteristics before this technique can be utilized to find the optimal values.

Characteristics or the basic assumptions of linear programming

1. Decision or Activity Variables & Their InterRelationship. The decision or activity variables refer to any activity which are in competition with other variables for limited resources. Examples of such activity variables are: services, projects, products etc. These variables are most often inter-related in terms of utilization of the scarce resources and need simultaneous solutions. It is important to ensure that the relationship between these variables be linear.

2. Finite Objective Functions. A Linear Programming problem requires a clearly defined, unambiguous objective function which is to be optimized. It should be capable of being expressed as a liner function of the decision variables. The single-objective optimization is one of the most important prerequisites of linear programming. Examples of such objectives can be: cost-minimization, sales, profits or revenue maximization & the idle-time minimization etc

3. Limited Factors/Constraints. These are the different kinds of limitations on the available resources e.g. important resources like availability of machines, number of man hours available, production capacity and number of available markets or consumers for finished goods are often limited even for a big organisation. Hence, it is rightly said that each and every organisation function within overall constraints 0 11 both internal and external. These limiting factors must be capable of being expressed as linear equations or in equations in terms of decision variables

4. Presence of Different Alternatives. Different courses of action or alternatives should be available to a decision maker, who is required to make the decision which is the most effective or the optimal. For example, many grades of raw material may be available, the same raw material can be purchased from different supplier, the finished goods can be sold to various markets, production can be done with the help of different machines.

5. Non-Negative Restrictions. Since the negative values of (any) physical quantity has no meaning, therefore all the variables must assume non-negative values. If some of the variables is unrestricted in sign, the non-negativity restriction can be enforced by the help of certain mathematical tools without altering the original information contained in the problem.

 6. Linearity Criterion. The relationship among the various decision variables must be directly proportional to Both the objective and the constraint, must be expressed in terms of linear equations or inequalities. For example. if--6ne of the factor inputs (resources like material, labour, plant capacity etc.) Creases, then it should result in a proportionate manner in the final output. These linear equations and in equations can graphically be presented as a straight line.

Advantages & Limitations Of Linear Programming

Advantages of Linear Programming .Following are some of the advantages of Linear Programming approach: 1. Scientific Approach to Problem Solving. Linear Programming is the application of scientific approach to problem solving. Hence it results in a better and true picture of the problems-which can then be minutely analysed and solutions ascertained. 2. Evaluation of All Possible Alternatives. Most of the problems faced by the present organisations are highly complicated - which can not be solved by the traditional approach to decision making. The technique of Linear Programming ensures that ll possible solutions are generated out of which the optimal solution can be selected. 3. Helps in Re-Evaluation. Linear Programming can also be used in reevaluation of a basic plan for changing conditions. Should the conditions change while the plan is carried out only partially, these conditions can be accurately determined with the help of Linear Programming so as to adjust the remainder of the plan for best results

4. Quality of Decision. Linear Programming provides practical and better quality of decisions that reflect very precisely the limitations of the system i.e.; the various restrictions under which the system must operate for the solution to be optimal. If it becomes necessary to deviate from the optimal path, Linear Programming can quite easily evaluate the associated costs or penalty. 5. Focus on Grey-Areas. Highlighting of grey areas or bottlenecks in the production process is the most significant merit of Linear Programming. During the periods of bottlenecks, imbalances occur in the production department. Some of the machines remain idle for long periods of time, while the other machines are unable toffee the demand even at the peak performance level. 6. Flexibility. Linear Programming is an adaptive & flexible mathematical technique and hence can be utilized in analyzing a variety of multi-dimensional problems quite successfully. 7. Creation of Information Base. By evaluating the various possible alternatives in the light of the prevailing constraints, Linear Programming models provide an important database from which the allocation of precious resources can be don rationally and judiciously. 8. Maximum optimal Utilization of Factors of Production. Linear Programming helps in optimal utilization of various existing factors of production such as installed capacity,. labour and raw materials etc.

Limitations of Linear Programming.

Although Linear Programming is a highly successful having wide applications in business and trade for solving optimization' problems, yet it has certain demerits or defects. Some of the important-limitations in the application of Linear Programming are as follows: 1. Linear Relationship. Linear Programming models can be successfully applied only in those situations where a given problem can clearly be represented in the form of linear relationship between different decision variables. Hence it is based on the implicit assumption that the objective as well as all the constraints or the limiting factors can be stated in term of linear expressions - which may not always hold good in real life situations. In practical business problems, many objective function & constraints can not be expressed linearly. Most of \he business problems can be expressed quite easily in the form of a quadratic equation (having a power 2) rather than in the terms of linear equation. Linear Programming fails to operate and provide optimal solutions in all such cases

2. Constant Value of objective & Constraint Equations. Before a Linear Programming technique could be applied to a given situation, the values or the coefficients of the objective function as well as the constraint equations must be completely known. Further, Linear Programming assumes these values to be constant over a period of time. In other words, if the values were to change during the period of study, the technique of LP would loose its effectiveness and may fail to provide optimal solutions to the problem. However, in real life practical situations often it is not possible to determine the coefficients of objective function and the constraints equations with absolute certainty. These variables in fact may, lie on a probability distribution curve and hence at best, only the Iikelil1ood of their occurrence can be predicted. Mover over, often the value s change due to extremely as well as internal factors during the period of study. Due to this, the actual applicability of Linear Programming tools may be restricted.

3. No Scope for Fractional Value Solutions. There is absolutely no certainty that the solution to a LP problem can always be quantified as an integer quite often, Linear Programming may give fractional-varied answers, which are rounded off to the next integer. Hence, the solution would not be the optimal one. For example, in finding out 'the pamper of men and machines required to perform a particular job, a fractional Larson-integer solution would be meaningless. 4. Degree Complexity. Many large-scale real life practical problems can not be solved by employing Linear Programming techniques even with the help of a computer due to highly complex and Lengthy calculations. Assumptions and approximations are required to be made so that $e, given problem can be broken down into several smaller problems and, then solve separately. Hence, the validity of the final result, in all such cases, may be doubtful:

5. Multiplicity of Goals. The long-term objectives of an organisation are not confined to a single goal. An organisation ,at any point of time in its operations has a multiplicity of goals or the goals hierarchy - all of which must be attained on a priority wise basis for its long term growth. Some of the common goals can be Profit maximization or cost minimization, retaining market share, maintaining leadership position and providing quality service to the consumers. In cases where the management has conflicting, multiple goals, Linear Programming model fails to provide an optimal solution. The reason being that under Linear Programming techniques, there is only one goal which can be expressed in the objective function. Hence in such circumstances, the situation or the given problem has to be solved by the help of a different mathematical programming technique called the "Goal Programming". 6. Flexibility. Once a problem has been properly quantified in terms of objective function and the constraint equations and the tools of Linear Programming are applied to it, it becomes very difficult to incorporate any changes in the system arising on account of any change in the decision parameter. Hence, it lacks the desired operational flexibility.

Mathematical model of LPP.

Linear Programming is a mathematical technique for generating & selecting the optimal or the best solution for a given objective function. Technically, Linear Programming may be formally defined as a method of optimizing (i.e.; maximizing or minimizing) a linear function for a number of constraints stated in the form of linear in equations. Mathematically the problem of Linear Programming may be stated as that of the optimization of linear objective function of the following form :

These are called the non-negative constraints. From the above, it is linear that a LP problem has: (I) linear objective function which is to be maximized or minimized. (ii) various linear constraints which are simply the algebraic statement of the limits of the resources or inputs at the disposal. (iii) Non-negatively constraints. Linear Programming is one of the few mathematical tools that can be used to provide solution to a wide variety of large, complex managerial problems.

Linear Programming problem Formation

Steps In Formulating A Linear Programming Model Linear programming is one of the most useful techniques for effective decision making. It is an optimization approach with an emphasis on providing the optimal solution for resource allocation. How best to allocate the scarce organisational or national resources among different competing and conflicting needs (or uses) forms the core of its working. The scope for application of linear programming is very wide and it occupies a central place in many diversified decisional problems. The effective use and application of linear programming requires the formulation of a realistic model which represents accurately the objectives of the decision making subject to the constraints in which it is required to be made

The basic steps in formulating a linear programming model are as follows: Step I. Identification of the decision variables. The decision variables (parameters) having a bearing on the decision at hand shall first be identified, and then expressed or determined in the form of linear algebraic functions or in equations. Step II. Identification of the constraints. All the constraints in the given problem which restrict the operation of a firm at a given point of time must be identified in this stage. Further these constraints should be broken down as linear functions in terms of the predefined decision variables. Step III. Identification of the objective. In the last stage, the objective which is required to be optimized (i.e., maximized or memorized) must be dearly identified and expressed in terms of the pre-defined decision variables.

 Example 1 High Quality furniture Ltd. Manufactures two products, tables & chairs. Both the products have to be processed through two machines Ml & M2 the total machine-hours available are: 200 hours ofM1 and 400 hours of M2 respectively. Time in hours required for producing a chair and a table on both the machines is as follows: Time in Hours Machine Table Chair MJ 7 4 M2 5 5 Profit from the Sale of table is Rs. 40 and that from a chair is Rs. 30 determine optimal mix of tables & chairs so as to maximized the total profit

Let x1 = no. of tables produced and X2 = no. of Chairs produced Step I. The objective function for maximizing the profit is given by maximize Z=50x1 +30x2 ( objective function ) ( Since profit per unit from a table and a chair is Rs. 50 & Rs. 30 respectively). Step II. List down all the constraints. (i) Total time on machine M1 can not exceed 200 hours. 7x1 + 4x2 200 ( Since it takes 7 hours to produce a table & 4 hours to produce a chair on machine M1) (ii) Total time on machine M2 cannot exceed 400 hours. 7x1 + 4x2 200 ( Since it takes 5 hours to produce both a table & a chair on machine M2) Step III Presenting the problem. The given problem can now be formulated as a linear programming model as follows: Maximise Z = 50x1 + 30x2 Subject: : 7x 4x 200 1 2 + 5x 5x 400 1 2 + Further; x1 x 0 2 + (Since if x1 & x2 < 0 it means that negative quantities of products are being manufactured which has no meaning).

Example 2 Chocolate India Ltd. Produces three varieties of Chocolates Hard, mild & soft from three different inputs I , I & I one unit of Hard requires 2 units of I and 4 unit of I . One unit of mild requires 5 units of I , 4 units of I and 3 units of I and one unit of soft requires 10 units of I & 15 units of I . The total available of inputs in the company s warehouse is as under: I - 100 units I - 400 units I - 50 units The profit per unit for hard, mild & soft are Rs. 20, Rs. 30 and Rs. 40 respectively. Formulate the problem so as to maximize the total profit by using linear programming.
1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 3

Let x1, x2 & x3 denote the no. of units of the three varies of chocolate Hard, mild & soft respectively. Step 1 The objective function for maximizing the profit is: Maximise Z = 20x1 + 30x2 + 40x3 ( objective function ) Step II List down all the constraints: (i) 2X +5X +10X <_100 (Since Input I required for the three products is 2, 5 & 10 units respectively subject to a maximum of 100 units). (ii) 4X +4X +0X <- 400 ( Since input I2 required for the three products is 4,4 & 0 units respectively subject to a maximum of 400 units). (iii) 0X +3X +15X <_50 ( Since input I3 required for he three products is 0, 3 & 15 units respectively subject to a maximum of 50 units). Step III. Presenting the problem. The given problem can now be formulated as a linear programming model as follows: Maximise Z = 20x1 + 30x2 + 40x3 Subject to: 2X +5X +10X <_100 4X +4X +0X <_ 400 0X +3X +15X <_ 50 Further, X ,X ,X >_0
1 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3

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Graphical Method of solving Linear Programming Problems

The graphic solution procedure is one of the method of solving two variable Linear programming problems. It consists of the following steps:Step I Defining the problem. Formulate the problem mathematically. Express it interms of several mathematical constraints & an objective function. The objective function relates to the optimization aspect is, maximisation or minimisation Criterion. Step II Plot the constraints Graphically. Each inequality in the constraint equation has to be treated as an equation. An arbitrary value is assigned to one variable & the value of the other variable is obtained by solving the equation. In the similar manner, a different arbitrary value is again assigned to the variable & the corresponding value of other variable is easily obtained. These 2 sets of values are now plotted on a graph and connected by a straight line. The same procedure has to be repeated for all the constraints. Hence, the total straight lines would be equal to the total no of equations, each straight line representing one constraint equation. Step III Locate the solution space. Solution space or the feasible region is the graphical area which satisfies all the constraints at the same time. Such a solution point (x, y) always occurs at the comer. points of the feasible Region the feasible region is determined as follows: (a) For" greater than" & " greater than or equal to" constraints (i.e.;), the feasible region or the solution space is the area that lies above the constraint lines. (b) For" Less Then" &" Less than or equal to" constraint (ie; ). The feasible region or the solution space is the area that lies below the constraint lines. Step IV Selecting the graphic technique. Select the appropriate graphic technique to be used for generating the solution. Two techniques viz; Corner Point Method and Iso-profit (or Iso-cost) method may be used, however, it is easier to generate solution by using the corner point method.

Corner Point Method.

(i) Since the solution point (x. y) always occurs at the corner point of the feasible or solution space, identify each of the extreme points or corner points of the feasible region by the method of simultaneous equations. (ii) By putting the value of the corner point's co-ordinates [e.g. (2,3)] into the objective function, calculate the profit (or the cost) at each of the corner points. (iii) In a maximisation problem, the optimal solution occurs at that corner point which gives the highest profit. In a minimisation problem, the optimal solution occurs at that corner point which gives the lowest profit.

IMPORTANT TERMS
Some of the important terms commonly used is linear programming are disclosed as follows: (i) Solution Values of the decision variable x;(i = 1,2,3, in) satisfying the constraints of a general linear programming model is known as the,solution to that linear programming model. (ii) Feasible solution Out of the total available solution a solution that also satisfies the nonnegativity restrictions of the linear programming problem is called a feasible solution. (iii) Basic solution For a set of simultaneous equations in Q unknowns (p Q) a solution obtained by setting (P - Q) of the variables equal to zero & solving the remaining P equation in P unknowns is known as a basic solution.. The variables which take zero values at any solution are detained as non-basic variables & remaining are known as-basic variables, often called basic. (iv) Basic feasible solution A feasible solution to a general linear programming problem which is also basic solution is called a basic feasible solution. (v) Optimal feasible solution Any basic feasible solution which optimizes (ie; maximise or minimises) the objective function of a linear programming modes known as the optimal feasible solution to that linear programming model. (vi) Degenerate Solution A basic solution to the system of equations is termed as degenerate if one or more of the basic variables become equal to zero.

 Example 1. X Ltd wishes to purchase a maximum of3600 units of a product two types of product a. & b are available in the market Product a occupies a space of 3 cubic feet & cost Rs. 9 whereas b occupies a space of 1 cubic feet & cost Rs. 13 per unit. The budgetary constraints of the company do not allow to spend more than Rs. 39,000. The total availability of space in the company's godown is 6000 cubic feet. Profit margin of both the product a & b is Rs. 3 & Rs. 4 respectively. Formulate as a linear programming model and solve using graphical method. You are required to ascertain the best possible combination of purchase of a & b so that the total profits are maximized.

Simplex Method