Defiance University Merger General

Mulugeta Buli Poly Technical Collage

Holata

Ethiopian TVET- System

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
SUPPORT SERVICE Level II
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 LO 1: Determine best practices for
equipment and software maintenance

1.Understanding Electricity, Electronic

devices, and Technician tools
The four basic units of electricity are
1. Voltage (V)
2. Current (I)
3. Power (P)
4. Resistance (R)
Voltage, current, power, and resistance are
electronics terms that a computer technician
must know:
2
1. Voltage is a measure of the force required
to push electrons through a circuit.
Voltage is measured in volts (V). A
computer power supply usually produces
several different voltages.
2. Current is a measure of the number of
electrons going through a circuit. Current
is measured in amperes, or amps (A).
Computer power supplies deliver different
amperages for each output voltage.

3
3.Power: is a measure of the pressure
required to push electrons through a
circuit, called voltage, multiplied by the
number of electrons going through that
circuit, called current.
The measurement is called watts (W).
Computer power supplies are rated in
watts.
4.Resistance: is the opposition to the flow of
current in a circuit. Resistance is measured in
ohms. Lower resistance allows more current,
and therefore more power, to flow through a
circuit. A good fuse has low resistance or a
5
measurement of almost 0 ohms.
.Transistor: A transistor regulates current or
voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for
electronic signals.

.Diode: a diode is a specialized electronic component with

the anode and the cathode.
two electrodes called
Most diodes are made with semiconductor
materials.

The fundamental property of a diode is its

tendency to conduct electric current in only
one direction.
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General Safety Guidelines:
Follow the basic safety guidelines to prevent
cuts, burns, electrical shock, and damage to
eyesight. As a best practice here are some
general safety guidelines:
Remove your watch or any other jewelry and
secure loose clothing.
 Turn off the power and unplug equipment
before opening the case and performing
service.

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Cover any sharp edges inside the computer
case with tape.
Never open a power supply or a monitor.
Do not touch areas in printers that are hot or
use high voltage.
Know where the fire extinguisher is located
and how to use it.
Know where the first aid kit is located.
Keep food and drinks out of your workspace.
Keep your workspace clean and free of clutter.
Lift heavy objects with your legs to avoid back
injury.
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 Follow these recommendations to
help prevent ESD damage:
 Keep all components in antistatic bags until
you are ready to install them.
 Use grounded mats on workbenches and on
the work area floor.
 Use antistatic wrist strap (bandage)
when working on computers.
 Climate also affects risks when working
with computer equipment.

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Identify Tools and Software Used with
Personal Computer Components and
Know Their Purpose
•For every tool there is the right job, and for
every job there is the right tool.
Ensure that you are familiar with the
correct use of each tool and that the right
tool is used for the current task.

This will reduce the chances of damage or

injury.
Skilled use of tools and software makes the
13
job less difficult.
 The Figure shows a sample tool kit
used to install, connect, remove, and
repair PC components.

There are two types of maintenance tools.

1. hardware tools,
2. software tools 15
that help diagnose problems and determine which
computer device is not functioning correctly.
 Identify Hardware Tools and Their Purpose
A tool kit should contain all the tools necessary to
complete hardware repairs. Hardware tools are grouped
into the following four categories:
1. ESD tools
2. Hand tools
3. Cleaning tools
4. Diagnostic tools

16
 1. ESD tools
There are also devices that enable us to protect ESD.
These devices include:
A.  Anti-static wristband: these devices have a strap
that you wrap around your wrist or ankle on one end.
The other end of the strap is attached computer case to
keep ground between the computer and you.

17
B . Anti-static mats: these are mats that you place on the
work surface and on the floor in front of work area.
They make an excellent place to place your tools and
components when you work on a system.

18
C . Anti-static bags (pouches):
they have special coating or filament that prevents
ESD. They are used to store any sensitive electronic
device like cards, RAM, drives, etc when they are not
installed in a computer.
 2. Hand Tools
Most tools used in the computer assembly process are
small hand tools.
The list that follows describes
Flat head screwdriver: Used to loosen or tighten
slotted screws.
Phillips head screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen
cross-head screws.
Torx screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen screws
that have a star-like depression on the top, a feature that
is mainly found on laptops.
Hex driver: Sometimes called a nut driver, this tool is
used to tighten nuts in the same way that a screwdriver
tightens screws.
 
Needle-nose pliers: Used to hold small parts.
Wire cutters: Used to strip and cut wires.
Tweezers: Used to manipulate small parts.
Part retriever: Used to retrieve parts from locations
that are too small for your hand to fit in.
Flashlight: Used to illuminate areas that you cannot
see well.
 3. Cleaning Tools
The appropriate cleaning tools are essential when maintaining or
repairing computers.
The list that follows describes the cleaning tools that you will most
commonly use:
Soft cloth: Used to clean different computer components without
scratching or leaving waste.
Compressed air: Used to blow away dust and debris from
different computer parts without touching the components.
Cable ties: Used to put together cables neatly inside and outside
of a computer.
Parts organizer: Used to hold screws, jumpers, fasteners, and
other small parts to prevent them from getting mixed together.
 4. Diagnostic Tools
To test hardware, you will use the following diagnostic
tools:
Digital multi meter: Used to test the integrity of circuits and the quality of
electricity in computer components.
Loopback adapter: Used to test the basic
functionality of computer ports.
2. Identify Software Tools and Their Purpose
A technician must be able to use a range of software
tools to help diagnose problems, maintain hardware,
and protect the data stored on a computer.
The sections that follow describe the various disk
•Disk Management Tools
You must be able to identify which software to use in
different situations.
•Disk management tools help detect and correct disk
errors, prepare a disk for data storage, and remove
unwanted files.
Disk management software includes the following:

Fdisk: A command-line tool used to create and delete

partitions on a hard drive and set active , or boot,
partitions
Format: Used to prepare a hard drive to store
information.
Scandisk or Chkdsk: Used to check the
integrity of files and folders on a hard drive by
scanning the disk surface for physical errors.
Defrag: Used to optimize space on a hard drive
to allow faster access to programs and data.
Disk Cleanup: Used to clear space on a hard
drive by searching for files that can be safely
deleted.
Disk Management: Used to manage hard drives and
partitions, initialize disks, create partitions, and format
partitions
Use the Windows XP boot disk for troubleshooting and
repairing corrupted files.
The Windows XP boot disk is designed to repair
Windows system files, restore damaged or lost files, and
reinstall the operating system. Third-party software
tools are available to assist in troubleshooting problems.
 Protection Software Tools
Each year, viruses, spyware, and other types of malicious
attacks infect millions of computers. These malicious
attacks can damage an operating system, application, and
data. Computers that have been infected can experience
hardware performance problems or component failure.
To protect data and the integrity of the operating system
and hardware, you should use software designed to guard
against attacks and to clean out malicious programs.
 Here is a list of various types of software used to
protect hardware and data. protection software tools
include the following:
Windows XP Security Center:
Allows you to check the status of essential security
settings on the computer.
The Security Center continuously checks to make sure
that the software
• firewall and
• antivirus programs are running.
• It also ensures that automatic updates are set to
download and install automatically.
 Antivirus software: Protects a computer against virus
attacks that can infect other computers.
Spyware remover: Protects against software that sends
information about web surfing habits to an attacker.
Spyware can be installed without the knowledge or
consent of the user.
Firewall: A program that runs continuously to protect
against unauthorized communications to and from your
computer.
 2. Hardware basics
2.1. Describe a Computer System
A computer system consists of hardware and software
components.
Hardware is the physical equipment such as the case,
storage drives, keyboards, monitors, cables, speakers, and
printers.
The term software includes the operating system and
programs.
The operating system instructs the computer how to
operate.
 2.2. Computer Cases
Computer case is an area that holds all the primary
electronics of the PC. It is also called chassis (carcass).
Computer cases: house all the internal components offers
access to the external world through ports and connectors
prevent delicate circuits from damage and EMI
prevent EMI from pc from affecting surrounding devices
such as TV, telephone, etc
EMI-is a radio frequency that is emitted(produce) from
electronic or electrical device.
There are different types of cases:
Full-sized tower
Mid-size tower
Mini-tower
Desktop
Slim desktop
 Integrated I/Os
Rear panel on of a motherboard with many integrated inputs
and outputs (I/O's).

PS2 Mouse Used to connect a PS/2 pointing device.

PS2 Keyboard Used to connect a PS/2 keyboard.
Parallel Port (LPT1) Used to connect printers or other parallel
communications devices.
Serial Port Used to connect serial devices such as mice or
(COM1) fax/modems.
VGA Port Connect your monitor to the VGA port.
1394a Port Use the 1394a port to connect to any firewire device.
Video Ports and Connectors
A video port connects a monitor cable to a computer.
Video Graphics Array (VGA) has a three-row 15-pin
female connector and provides analog output to a monitor.
Digital Visual Interface (DVI) has a 24-pin female
connector or a 29-pin female connector and provides
compressed digital output to a monitor. DVI-I provides
both analog and digital signals. DVI-D provides digital
signals only.
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) has a 19-
pin connector and provides digital video and digital audio
signals.
• LAN Port Used to connect an RJ-45 cable to a Network
hub or router.
•USB Ports Used to connect USB devices such as printers,
scanners cameras, mouse, external hdd etc...
•Audio Ports Used to connect audio devices.
Audio Ports
An audio port connects audio devices to the computer. The
following audio ports are commonly used,
•Microphone In connects to a microphone.
•Line Out connects to speakers or headphones.
•Auxiliary In is an additional line in.
•Game port/MIDI connects to a joystick or MIDI-interfaced
device.
2.3. Motherboard
The motherboard is the main printed circuit board. It
contains the buses, or electrical pathways, found in a
computer. These buses allow data to travel between the
various components that comprise (include) a computer. A
motherboard is also known as the system board, backplane,
or main board.
 
The motherboard accommodates (hold) the central
processing unit (CPU), RAM, expansion slots, heat sink/fan
assembly, BIOS chip, chip set, and the embedded wires that
interconnect the motherboard components. Sockets, internal
and external connectors, and various ports are also placed on
the motherboard.
 2.3.1. Modern Mother board Form factors
The form factor of motherboards pertains to the board’s
size and shape. It also describes the physical layout of
the different components and devices on the
motherboard. Motherboards have various form factors:
Advanced Technology (AT)
Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
Smaller footprint than Advanced Technology Extended
(Mini-ATX)
Smaller footprint than Advanced Technology Extended
(Micro-ATX)
Low-Profile Extended (LPX)
New Low-Profile Extended (NLX)
Balanced technology Extended (BTX)
 2.3.1.1. Advanced Technology (AT)
They are distinguished by their shape and usually by the
presence of single full sized keyboard connector
soldered onto the motherboard.
All other devices are connected to the motherboard via
cards and expansion slots or cables.
The serial and parallel ports are attached using cables
that go between the physical connectors mounted on the
case and pin headers located on the motherboard.
AT motherboards get power through P8 and P9
connectors.
2.3.1.2. Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
The ATX motherboard is rotated 90 degrees; the
processor sits near the back of the board.
In ATX motherboards, the connectors COM1, COM2,
LPT, keyboard, mouse, and USB are directly mounted
on the motherboard. This motherboard requires a
specifically designed chassis with an I/O access
opening.
Some of the advantages of ATX over AT are:
1) Soft power support: the ATX power supply is turned
on and off using signaling from the motherboard, not a
physical toggle switch. This allows the PC to be turned on
or off under software control, allowing improved power
management.
2) Reduced expansion card interference: the CPU and
memory modules are relocated so they can’t interfere
with any bus expansion cards. This makes upgrade easy
because removing any installed cards is not necessary.
3)Reduced drive bay interference: since the board is
essentially 90 degrees form AT style, there is much less
overlap between the board and drive bays. This means
easier to access the motherboard and fewer cooling
problem.
4) Better Power Connector: ATX uses a single 20-pin
connector instead of two confusing connectors. You
don’t have the risk of blowing up your pc motherboard
by connecting the power cable backwards.
5) Better air flow(cooling effect): The ATX power
is intended to blow air into the case rather than out of
it. This cuts down dust. Further more,
• processor sockets and RAM are located next to power
supply. Because of this the power supply fan can cool
CPU heat sink. Current power supply fans blow air
into or out of the case.
6) Integrated I/O connectors:
AT motherboard uses pins and cables. In ATX, the port
is directly mounted on the motherboard. This
improvement saves cost, installation time, and
improved reliability.

 
2.3.1.3. Balanced technology Extended (BTX)
The BTX, or Balanced Technology Extended form factor.
BTX was developed to take advantage of technologies
such as Serial ATA, USB 2.0, and PCI Express. Changes
to the layout with the BTX form factor include better
component placement for back panel I/O controllers and
it is smaller than micro ATX systems.
The BTX form factor provides the industry push to tower
size systems with an increased number of system slots.
One of the most talked about features of the BTX form
factor is that it uses in-line airflow.
In the BTX form factor the memory slots and expansion
slots have switched places, allowing the main
components (processor, chipset, and graphics controller)
to use the same airflow which reduces the number of
fans needed in the system; thereby reducing noise.
 2.3.2. Chipsets
An important set of components on the motherboard is the
chip set. The chip set is composed of various integrated
circuits attached to the motherboard that control how
system hardware interacts with the CPU and motherboard.
The CPU is installed into a slot or socket on the
motherboard.
Chipsets
A motherboard comes with a variety of support chips
soldered in place.
These chipsets are designed to work with CPU. These chips are
highly complex and coordinated ICs that help CPU
manage and control the computer system.
A basic chipset consists of:
1) Bus controller
2) Memory controller
3) Data and address controller
4) Peripheral controller
The number of chips a motherboard differs from one type
of motherboard to another.
When replacing CPU, you must make sure the CPU works
(compatible) with the chipset supported by the
motherboard. Otherwise the computer will not work.
All devices in a computer are in some way or another are
connected to motherboard.
Some of the key components found on a
motherboard include:
The CPU (microprocessor
Microchips that provide support for the CPU.
Random Access Memory (RAM) chips.
The system Bus
A Keyboard controller and connector.
A mouse connector.
Power connectors.
Serial and parallel communications ports.
Some of the most recent boards also contain:
Integrated IDE disk controller circuits.
USB Bus controller circuits.
Built in video controller/adapters.
Built in sound card circuits.
The motherboard also contains other components such as
BIOS chips, the CPU clock, cache chips, bus, etc. To see
every detail, you will need to get a "User's Manual" for
the specific motherboard you have, and to locate all
components on the board.
There are two different types of motherboards used in
computers today:
the AT and ATX. Each one uses different design
techniques depending on the CPU chip and bus type and
size used.
Each of the components on a motherboard serves
specific functions:
BUS- The bus is actually a set of circuits that run
throughout the board and connect all the expansion slots,
memory, and CPU, etc. together.
Expansion Slots - Used for connecting other
devices/controller cards to the motherboard bus.
Memory Slots - provides receptacles for adding
additional memory chips (SIMMs, DIMMs, or other
types of memory).
ZIF Socket -The processor slot on modern boards is a
grid of tiny holes in which the CPU is inserted. Older
model boards required a considerable amount of force
to install or remove the CPU chip. The Zero Insertion
Force (ZIF) socket required a minimal force to insert
and remove the chip. The ZIF socket has a lever at the
side of the socket that allows quick removal of the
CPU Chip.
BIOS Chips - The method used in DOS to communicate
with any device on the system such as disks, keyboard,
monitor, etc. Directs only system hardware, not network
hardware.
USB Port - some newer machines will have a port for
the Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection.
2.3. The Power Supply
A box-shaped device that converts wall-outlet AC power
to low-voltage DC used to power the devices in the
computer. DC power is required for all the components
inside the computer.
The basic function of power supply is to convert the type
of electrical power available or alternate current AC to
the type of computer circuitry can use direct current or
DC voltage and Address power good signal messages to
mother board.
Standard power supplies turn the incoming 110V or
230V AC (Alternating Current) into various DC (Direct
Current) voltages suitable for powering the computer's
components.
Power supplies are quote as having a certain power
output specified in Watts, a standard power supply
would typically be able to deliver around 250-350
Watts.
The quality of Power supply unit can be assured by their
wattage. Power supply having around 250 watt is good.
2.3.1 Power Connectors
Most power connectors today are keyed connectors.
Keyed connectors are designed to be inserted in only one
direction. Each part of the connector has a colored wire
with a different voltage running through it; Different
connectors are used to connect specific components and
various locations on the motherboard:
AT-Style Connections to the Motherboard
A pair of almost identical connectors, designated P8 and
P9, links the power supply to the motherboard.
ATX-Style Motherboard Connections (P1)
A 20-pin or 24-pin slotted connector is used to
connect to the motherboard. The 24-pinslotted
connector has two rows of 12 pins each, and the 20-
pin slotted connector has two rows of 10 pins each.
Molex connector
This is the most commonly used power connector. It
provides both 12-volt and 5-volt power. Hard disk
drives, internal tape drives, CD-ROM drives, DVD
(digital video disc) drives, and older.
Mini connector.
Most power supplies provide one or more mini
connectors. The mini is used primarily for 3.5-inch
floppy disk drives. It has four pin-outs and, usually,
four wires. Most are fitted with keys that make it.
 Serial ATA Power Connector:
Molex offers power connectors for Serial ATA Solutions
Designed for Serial ATA disk drive power applications,
Molex's power connectors a variety of configurations to
meet various power supply requirements.
 Power adapter
These SATA Power Adapters convert your
existing Molex power connector into two Serial
ATA power connectors
 2.4. Adapter cards
Adapter card is a printed circuit card required to allow a
computer to support a new device or enable a computer to
communicate with a peripheral; also called controller card
2.4.1. Types of adapter card
PCI
A specification introduced by Intel that defines a local bus
system that allows up to 10 PCI-compliant expansion
cards to be installed in the computer. PCI video cards
were replaced by the newer AGP (Accelerated Graphics
Port) Specifications:
 PCIe
PCI Express is a computer system bus that allows
expansion cards with various capabilities to be added to
a system.
PCIe 1.1 transfers data at 250 MB/s in each direction
per lane.
AGP (Advanced Graphics Port)
The Accelerated Graphics Port (also called Advanced
Graphics Port, often shortened to AGP) is a high-speed
point-to-point channel for attaching a graphics card to a
computer's motherboard, primarily to assist in the
acceleration of 3D computer graphics. Some
motherboards have been built with multiple independent
AGP slots. AGP is currently being phased out in favor
of PCI Express.
 Modem
Short for modulator/demodulator, a hardware device that
converts the digital signals generated by computers into
analog signals suitable for transmission over a telephone
line and back again. Modems take the form of internal
devices that plug into one of a computer's expansion
slots, or external devices that connect to one of the
computer's serial ports.
2.5. Processor/CPU
The processor or CPU (central processing unit) is the
brain of the computer and also the most important
component on the motherboard.
The most important parts (components) of a CPU are:
Control unit (CU): which controls the processor in that it
instructs other parts of the processor telling them what to
do, what data to work on, where to find it and where to
put the results.
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): does all the simple
calculation addition, subtraction, division and so on. It
also use comparative logic to give a true or false decision
for a given criteria.
 Register: is the small memory units found in the
CPU that are used to store data and instruction
before and after execution.
All CPUs do the same thing – control the pc and doing
different operation, but physically, they differ in their
Packaging. Packaging is made from ceramic or plastic
material to protect the core of the microchip together
with an arrangement of pins through which (Electronic)
connection can be used.
 CPU packages
1. Dual in-line pin package (DIPP)
Some books call it DIP
The earliest chips with pins down two long sides of the
chip.
Pressured was needed to push these into place, and pins
could easily be damaged.
2. Pin Grid Array (PGA)
The pins are arranged in concentric squares on the
underside of the chip.
CPGA (ceramic) and PPGA (plastic) versions were
developed.
Early Pentiums adopted the SPGA (staggered PGA)
which fitted more.
Pin damage became less common but could still
happen, but then the ZIF (zero insertion force) sockets
solved this problem.
Another alternative to PGA is the PBGA (plastic ball
grid array) which doesn’t have mounting pins under
near the chip.
3. Single-Edge Contact (SEC)
Has a continuous edge of connection and is mounted
vertically on the motherboard (as with expansion cards
and memory modules)
Apart from the lack of pins that could not be bent or
damaged.
 
Sockets and slots
Two general types of mountings are used to mount processors to
the motherboard: sockets and slots. Most processors are available
in only one mounting style, disregarding ceramic versus plastic.
Other processors, such as the Celeron, are available in either a
PGA-type or an SEC-type package.
 
Slots type:
Slot type connections use a single slot mounting on the
motherboard that mounts the processor in the same manner that is
used for memory modules or expansion cards.
Common CPU manufacturers
Intel
AMD
Cyrix
 CPU speed and Multipliers
All modern CPUs are clock multiplies. So in reality,
every CPU now has two clock speeds: the speed that it
runs internally and the speed that it runs when talking to
the address bus and the external data bus. Multipliers run
from 2X up to almost 30X multipliers don’t expect
always whole numbers, you may find a CPU with a
multiplier like 6.5x.
 CPU Cooling
Specialized cooling system became serious starting from
486. Earlier chips ran at a low speed and contained
relatively few transistors. Because of this they needed no
specialized cooling. Heat sinks conduct heat from CPU to
heat sink and then radiate it to air. Good cooling depends
on the transfer of heat between the CPU and heat sink.
The heat sin and CPU should contact each other to the
maximum surface area possible. This allows heat to flow
easily.
 There are two cooling mechanism
Passive Heat Sink
Passive heat sinks have no moving parts. They are made
up of aluminum. An aluminum extrusion creates fins.
They cool the CPU by using thermal conduction and
radiation. The heat sink draws heat from the CPU
and air flowing through the heat sink cools the heat
sink itself.
 Active Heat Sink
Active heat sink adds a small fan that blows directly onto
the heat sink metal to ensured direct air flow. An active
heat sink cools better than passive heat sink by forcing air
flow. Unfortunately, the fans have short life span and they
are the first thing to fail in most PCs.
Overheated CPU causes:
1. System crash
2. Random reboot
3. Memory errors
4. Disk problems
5. Application errors
2.6. Random Access Memory
What is RAM?
Simply stated, Random Access Memory is a name applied
to microchips designed to store and address information
while a computer is actually using it.
RAM is volatile, which means that it needs a constant
current in order for it to retain information. Once the
current is removed, the information disappears. This is
why you have to save a document that you're working on
before you shut off your computer. When you hit "save,"
the document is transferred from the RAM (temporary
storage), to permanent storage (hard drive, floppy disk,
CD-RW, etc.).
There are two major classes of memory:
•non-volatile and
•volatile.
 Non-volatile memory keeps the content even if
the computer is off or power is gone. The set up
data held in CMOS uses this technique. In volatile
memory, the data is lost when the computer loses
power. It keeps data as long as only computer is on.
Types of RAM
There are two types of RAM based on the way they keep
data:
Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1) DRAM
This memory type is dynamic. Because of this, it must be
constantly refreshed periodically(every few milliseconds).
Otherwise the memory will drain and the data is lost.
During the process of refreshing, the CPU can’t access the
memory. It is called wait state. Refreshing caused DRAM
to be slower than SRAM. They also use much power than
SRAM. But because of their cheapness, they are the
primary RAM in all computers.
The memory cells in DRAM use tiny capacitors that hold
charge. Capacitors are devices that can keep charge for
some time until discharged. They use one transistor per bit.
Because of this they can be densely packed. This allows
more memory capacity per chip than other types of
memory.
Disadvantage:
DRAM is slow, much slower than CPU. This affects the
speed of CPU. It may take as much as 10% of CPU time.
2) SRAM
It is called because it does not require periodic refreshing
unlike DRAM. It is much faster than DRAM and able to
keep pace with processor. As long as there is power,
SRAM keeps what is stored.
 
SRAM uses transistors for storage purpose, no capacitors
are used. Because of this, no recharging required. It uses
6 transistors (flip flops) per bit. DRAM is lower in
density which means they are larger physically and store
fewer bits overall. The high number of transistors used
per bit makes it more expensive and physically larger.
This prevented its wide use as computer memory. SRAM
is used to build cache memory.

Type speed density cost

DRAM slow high low

SRAM fast low high

RAM Modules
There are two types of RAM modules (memory packages)
Single Inline Memory Module(SIMM)
Dual Inline Memory Module(DIMM)

1) SIMM
SIMMs are available in two forms:
30 pin and
72 pin
 
The 30 pin SIMMs are available in sizes 1-16MB. They
transmit one byte of data (8 bits) at a time. They are
older standard.
The 72 pin SIMMs are available in 1-32MB. They
transmit 4 bytes (32 bits) at a time.
SIMMs are inserted into a socket on the motherboard
that will tightly hold them. They are available in single
sided or double sided which means DRAM chip is
available in both sides of the SIMM or not.
30 pin—single side
72 pin—both single and double sided
2) DIMM
DIMM is used in latter versions of computer system.
DIMM has 168 pins. They transmit 64 bits of data at a
time. They are becoming very popular. They are not
available in smaller sizes such as 1MB or 4MB. They are
available in capacities from 8 MB to 256MB.
 
DIMMs are inserted into special sockets on the
motherboard similar to those used for SIMMs. They differ
from SIMM in:
they are larger and wider
 
SIMMs have contact on both sides of the circuit board but
they are tied together. A 30 pin SIMM has 30 contacts on
each side of the circuit board but each pair is connected.
This is true for 72 pin SIMMs. DIMMs, however, have
different connections on each side of the circuit board. So,
168 pin DIMM have 84 contacts on each side and they are
not redundant
A small version of DIMM is seen which is called Small
Outline DIMM (SODIMM). They are used for laptop
PCS. Two types:
144 pin SODIMM-64 bits wide
72 pin SODIMM-32 bits wide
Asynchronous and Synchronous DRAM
Conventional DRAM, the type that has been used in PCs
since the original IBM PC days, is asynchronous. In
asynchronous memory, the memory is not synchronized to
the system clock. A memory access is begun and at
certain period of time later, the memory value appears on
the bus. It works in low speed memory bus system but not
suitable for use in high speed systems.
A newer type of DRAM called synchronous DRAM
(SDRAM) is synchronized to the system clock. As a
result, timing is much tighter and better controlled. This
memory is much faster than asynchronous DRAM. It is
suitable for high speed systems.
 
Memory Banks
Manufacturers arrange memory slots on motherboard in electronic
groups of one, two, or four RAM slots according to the type of
RAM and processor. This grouping is called memory banks. The
memory bank matches the processors’ data bus.
the number of slots to form a bank= bus width of CPU
bus width of RAM slot
E.g. CPU bus=64 bits
RAM bus=8 bits
Bank=64/8=8 slots. 8 slots form one bank in such case.
The basic rule of bank is you need to fill a bank completely with
identical RAM modules. Banks should be filled completely or left
completely empty. You should fill at least one bank on the
computer for it to work properly. For 64 bit CPU, one 168 pin
DIMM slot makes a bank. For the same CPU, two 72 pin SIMM
slots form a bank.
 
Types of RAM
There are many types of RAM:
1) Conventional DRAM:
the oldest and slowest DRAM technology is called regular
or conventional DRAM. It uses standard memory
addressing method, where first the row address is sent to
memory and then column address is sent.
2) Fast Page Mode RAM (FPM RAM)
FPM is slightly faster than conventional DRAM. This
memory works by sending row addresses just once for
many accesses to memory locations in near each other.
 
This improves access time. In older ones, you have to
specify the row and column address. Despite its name,
FPM is the slowest memory technology used in modern
PCs.
3) Extended Data Out RAM (EDORAM)
it is the most common type of asynchronous DRAM. It
is slightly faster than FPM. This is because its timing
circuits are modified. The architecture allows to
simultaneously read new data while discharging the old.
It allows to begin a new column address instruction
while it is reading data at the current address. To use
EDO, your motherboard chipset must support it. It has
72 pins (SIMM module). It has one notch in the center.
Cache Memory
Cache is a high speed buffer made up of SRAM that directly feeds
the processor. It runs at the speed close or equal to the processor.
This enables the CPU to use its full potential by getting data and
instructions from the cache memory without any wait state. RAM is
slow and slows down the processor because the processor has to
wait during memory refreshing. To avoid wait states, data is
preloaded from RAM (DRAM) to cache memory and the CPU can
continue to process during wait states by getting data from cache
memory though RAM is not available.
There are two types of cache memory:
L1 cache
L2 cache
 
L1 Cache (Level 1)
It is directly built into the processor and is actually part of the
processor. Starting from 486, there are internal caches in CPU. All
commands for the processor go through this cache. It stores a
backlog of commands so that if wait state is encountered, the CPU
continues to process using commands from the cache.
Fig CPU and L1 cache
L2 Cache
This cache is mounted directly on the motherboard, outside CPU. It
is called Level 2 cache. It is same as L1 cache but larger. It can be
expanded (add additional capacity) on some motherboards. If you
install additional L2 cache, check the CMOS set up and enable the
cache. Some L2 caches are found on the processor itself. L2 caches
located on the motherboard run at the speed of motherboard.
 Fig EDO RAM

Troubleshooting Memory
If there is a memory problem in your computer, your computer
does not display anything on the monitor the same as when CPU
failed. When it is turned on, the BIOs gives you a beep sound-
continuous beep sound.
Upgrading And Replacing RAM
Before you buy a new chip for upgrading/replacing,
check what type of RAM fits into the RAM slots of the
motherboard. What type of RAM does the motherboard
support?
EDO RAM
SDRAM
DDR RAM
RDRAM, etc
Buy one that is supported by the motherboard.
 
Steps to install RAM:
open the system following safety cautions.
check in which direction the memory fits into the slot i.e.
it does not fit in the wrong direction. To determine
direction, check the notches of the RAM and slot.
Properly align the RAM on the slot. On some systems
especially older ones, the RAM is inserted in some angle
to the motherboard, not straight. Newer RAMs fit
perpendicular to the motherboard.
Push the RAM proportionally form both edges. A holder
on both edges of the slot should hold the RAM.
2.7. Identify the Names, Purposes, and Characteristics
of Storage Drives
A storage drive reads or writes information to magnetic or
optical storage media. It can be used to store data
permanently or to retrieve information from a media disk.
Storage drives can be installed inside the computer case,
such as a hard drive. For portability, some storage drives
can connect to the computer using a USB port, a FireWire
port, or a SCSI port.
These portable storage drives are sometimes called
removable drives and can be used on multiple computers.
Floppy drive
Hard drive
Optical drive
Flash drive
Network drive
The following sections describe these storage drives in
greater detail.
 Floppy Drives
A floppy drive, or floppy disk drive, is a storage device
that uses removable 3.5-inch floppy disks.
These magnetic floppy disks can store 720 KB or 1.44
MB of data.
In a computer, the floppy drive is usually configured as
the A: drive.
The floppy drive can be used to boot the computer if it
contains a bootable floppy disk.
 
 Hard Drives
Hard disk is the data center of PC. It is here that all your
programs and data are stored. A hard disk drive contains
rigid, disk-shaped platters. The platters are usually
constructed of aluminum or glass; so they can’t bend or
flex unlike floppy disk. The platters are coated by
magnetic substance on both sides. Data is written to hard
disk by magnetizing and demagnetizing the surface of
the platters. Data is stored on both sides of the platter.
Types of Hard Disks and Interface
Based on the connectors used to connect hard disks to motherboard,
there are three types of hard disks:
1. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
2. SATA (Serial ATA)
3. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) or ATA or PATA(Parallel
ATA)
1) IDE
It is also called ATA (AT Attachment). IDE is an evolutionary
version of earlier interfaces that used separate drives and controllers.
Today, IDE is used to connect not only hard disk, but also CD-ROM
drives, tape drives, and high capacity super Disk floppy drives.
Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE), also called ATA-2,
is an updated version of the IDE drive controller interface. An EIDE
interface uses a 40-pin connector.
2) SCSI
Stands for "Small Computer System Interface," and is
pronounced "scuzzy." SCSI is a computer interface used
primarily for high-speed hard drives.
 

3) SATA
Serial ATA (SATA or Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
is a computer bus interface for connecting host bus adapters to
mass storage devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives.
2.8. Identify the Names, Purposes, and Characteristics of
Internal Cables
Drives require both a power cable and a data cable. A power
supply has a SATA power connector for SATA drives, a Molex
power connector for PATA drives, and a Berg four-pin connector
for floppy drives. The buttons and the LED lights on the front of
the case connector the motherboard with the front panel cables.
Data cables connect drives to the drive controller, which is located
on an adapter card or the motherboard. Some common types of
data cables are as follows:
Floppy disk drive (FDD) data cable has up to two 34-pin drive
connectors and one 34- pin connector for the drive controller.
2.10. BIOS
BIOS stand for Basic Input Output System.
When you power on your PC, electricity flows into the pc
and it wakes up.
First, the power good wire wakes up the CPU.
The CPU then starts a set of essential programs called the
Basic Input/output Services (BIOS).
A single beep at boot up signals all is well and the system
is ready to load the operating system.
A long, repeating beep often signals a problem with RAM.
A series of beeps one long and three short usually point t a
problem with the video card or connection.
 BIOS perform the following four functions:
1. POST (power on self test): The POST tests your computer’s
processor, memory, chipset, video Adapter, disk controllers, disk
drives, keyboard, and other crucial components.
2. Setup: System configuration and setup program. This is usually a
menu-driven program activated by pressing a special key during
the POST, chipset settings along with the date and time,
passwords, disk drives, and other basic system settings? You also
can control the power-management settings and boot-drive
3. Bootstrap loader: a routine that reads the disk drives looking for a
valid master boot sector
4. BIOS (basic input/output system): this refers to the collection of
actual drivers used to act as a basic interface between the
operating system and your hardware when the system is booted
and running.
 The Booting Process
Booting is the process of starting a computer. When you turn on
the computer, it passes through many steps before becoming ready
for use. All these processes are performed one after the other. This
process is termed as booting (boot process).
Most computers execute what is found in the ROM. But operating
systems are stored on hard disk.
This is what happens during starting your computer.
1) Electric power is turned on
2) The CPU starts executing ROM BIOS
3) The BIOS performs tests to verify basic system functionality.
This test is called POST. Any error during this stage is reported
using “beep” sound because video is not initialized yet.
4) Any new device is installed and configured if they are plug and
play compliant.
5) The BIOS performs Video ROM scan. BIOS look for
video adapter BIOS found in video adapters. If
successful, video is initialized.
6) The ROM searches for boot records at cylinder 0,
head 0, sector1. The BIOS loads Master Boot Record
form the specified location. MBR is part of the OS that
loads the OS. The MBR in turn loads the OS.
CMOS
CMOS is a memory area with battery backup used to
store system configuration settings. The CMOS chip
retains configuration information such as the date and
time, and specifics about components common to all
PCs, such as serial and parallel ports, keyboard settings,
and more