Advanced Database System(CoSc2042)

Chapter one

Object-oriented & object-relational databases

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 Objectives

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Definition of Terms

Database  is an organized collection of related data held in

a computer or a data bank, which is designed to
be accessible in various ways.

 The technology of storing and retrieving users’ data

DBMS with utmost efficiency along with appropriate
security measures.
 A software package/ system to facilitate the creation
and maintenance of a computerized database.

Database
 The DBMS software together with the
System:
data itself.
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Types of DBMS Models

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 Hierarchical Database Model.
• In a Hierarchical database model, the
data is organized in a tree-like
structure.
• Data is Stored Hierarchically (top
down or bottom up) format.
• Data is represented using a parent-
child relationship that are one to one
or one to many.
• In Hierarchical DBMS parent may
have many children, but children have
only one parent.

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Network Database Model
• The network database model allows each child to have multiple parents.
• More complex relationships such as the orders/parts many-to-many
relationship.
• The entities are organized in a graph which can be accessed through
several paths.

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Relational Database Model
• Most widely used DBMS model
• Easiest
• Based on normalizing data in the rows and columns of the tables.
• Data is stored in fixed structures and manipulated using SQL.

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Relational model (70’s):
 Clean and simple.

 Great for administrative and transactional data.

 Not as good for other kinds of complex data (e.g.,

multimedia, networks, CAD).
 Relations are the key concept, everything else is around
relations
 Primitive data types, e.g., strings, integer, date, etc.

 Great normalization, query optimization, and theory

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What is missing??
 Handling of complex objects
 Handling of complex data types
 Code is not coupled with data
 No inherence, encapsulation, etc.

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Object-Oriented Database Model
• In Object-oriented Model data stored in the form of objects.
• The structure which is called classes which display data within it.
• It defines a database as a collection of objects which stores both data
members values and operations.

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 Object-Oriented models (80’s):

 Complicated, but some influential ideas from Object

Oriented
 Complex data types.

Programming languages
Idea: Build DBMS have
based on evolved from Procedural to Object
OO model.
Oriented. So why not DBMSs ???

• Properties
• Name
• Height
• Weight……..
• Behaviors
• Eat
• Pray
• Walk …..
Application areas

: Computer aided software engineering

: Computer aided design

: Computer aided manufacture

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OO vs. EER Data Modeling
Object Oriented EER
Class Entity type
Object Entity instance
Association Relationship
Inheritance of attributes Inheritance of attributes
Inheritance of behavior No representation of
behavior

Object-oriented modeling is frequently accomplished using the

Unified Modeling Language (UML)
Logical & physical layers

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 OO concepts (mandatory concepts)
 The Golden Rules/1 DBMS concepts (mandatory concepts)
 Complex objects The Golden Rules/2
 Persistence
 Object identity
 Secondary storage management
 Encapsulation  Concurrency
 Recovery
 Types and/or Classes
 Ad Hoc Query Facility
 Class or Type Hierarchies

 Overriding, overloading

 Computational completeness

 Extensibility- user-defined types can be used in the same way as

15 system-defined types
The Goodies(Optional concepts that may be implemented)
 Multiple inheritance

 Type checking and type inferencing

 Distribution

 Design transactions

 Versions

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Two approaches of Object oriented DB
 Object-Oriented Model (OODBMS)
 Pure OO concepts

 Example: Orian, Iris

 Object-Relational Model (ORDBMS)

 Extended relational model with OO concepts

 Example: Oracle, 8i, SQL Server 2000

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Object Data Management Group(ODMG )
 ODMG— to define standards for OODBMSs.

 Its standard is 3.0 which is popular.

 provide a standard where previously there was none

 support portability between products

 standardize model, querying and programming issues

 Language of specifying the structure of object database

 ODL: Object Definition Language
 OQL: Object Query Language

 ODL is somehow similar to DDL (Data Definition Language) in

SQL
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Feature of OODBMS
 An object typically has two components:

 state (value) and

 behavior (operations).

 Objects can transient or persistent.

 To make the object persistent we need OODBMS.

 OO database provides a unique system-generated object

identifier (OID) for each object (similar to the concept of
primary key)

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 ODMG Objects and Literals
 The basic building blocks of the object model are:
 Objects
 Literals
Objects are described by four characteristics
1. Identifier : unique system wide identifier.
2. Name : is used to refer the objects. It is optional
3. Life time
 Transient - unstable and can be updated and deleted
 Persistent – permanent object like (oodb)
 Naming – giving name
 Reachable- Collecting similar objects under one name.
4. Structure: specifies how the object is constructed by using type constructors
 It also Specifies whether the object is atomic or collection type
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Objects type
 In ODBs, a complex type may be constructed from other

types by nesting of type constructors.

 The three most basic constructors are

 Atom,

 Struct (or tuple), and

 Collection.

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Atomic constructors

 Includes the basic built-in data types of the object

model, which are similar to the basic types in many
programming languages: integers, strings, floating
point numbers, enumerated types, Booleans.
 They are called single-valued or atomic types, since
each value of the type is considered an atomic
(indivisible) single value.

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struct (or tuple) constructor
 Create standard structured types, such as the tuples (record
types) in the basic relational model.
 Referred to as a compound or composite type

 Example

 struct Name<FirstName: string, MiddleInitial: char,

LastName: string>,
struct CollegeDegree<Major: string, Degree: string, Year:
date>.

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Collection (or multivalued)
 Collection is used to create complex nested type structures in
the object model.
 Collection type constructors includes;

 Set(T),

 List(T),

 Bag(T),

 Array(T), and

 Dictionary(K,T) type constructors.

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Collection Objects(types)
 Set<T>: unordered collections that do not allow duplicates.
 used to create objects such that the value of the object is set
whose elements are of type T.
 Operations : Intersection, union, & set difference.
 Bag<T>: allows duplicate elements in the collection and also inherits the
collection interface.

 Has three operations

 Create_union(b)
 Create_intersection(b) and
 Create_difference(b) that all return a new object of type Bag<T>

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 Con…
 List<T>: create collections where the order of the elements is
important.
 The value of object is an ordered list whose elements are of type
T.
 We can refer to the first, last, and ith element in the list.
 Operations
 O.insert_element_first(E)— inserts the element E before the first
element in the list O.
O.insert_element_last(E) &
 O.insert_element_after(E, I)—inserts the element E after the ith
element in the list O and Raise the exception InvalidIndex if no ith
element exists in O.
E = O.remove_first_element(),
 E = O.remove_last_element(), and
27 E = O.remove_element_at(I) remove the indicated element from the
Con…
 E = O.retrieve_first_element(),

 E = O.retrieve_last_element(), and

 E = O.retrieve_element_at(I) are used to retrieve an element

without removing it from the list
 To manipulate lists two operations are defined.

 P = O.concat(I) creates a new list P that is the concatenation

of lists O and I (the elements in list O followed by those in list
I), and
 28O.append(I) appends the elements of list I to the end of list O
 Con…
 Array<T>: set of sorted list referenced by index.

 Operations
 O.replace_element_at(I, E) replaces the array element at position
I with element E;
 E = O.remove_element_at(I) retrieves the ith element and
replaces it with a NULL value; and
 E = O.retrieve_element_at(I) simply retrieves the ith element of
the array.
 Any of these operations can raise the exception InvalidIndex if I is
greater than the array’s size.
 O.resize(N) changes the number of array elements to N.
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 Con…
 Dictionary<K,V>: allows the creation of a collection of
association pairs <K,V>, where all K (key) and V(values) are
unique.
 Operations

If O is a collection object of type dictionary<K,V>, then

 O.bind(K,V) binds value V to the key K

 O.unbind(K) removes the association with key K from O, and

 V = O.lookup(K) returns the value V associated with key K in O.

 The latter two operations can raise the exception KeyNotFound.

 O.contains_key(K) returns true if key K exists in O, and returns false

30otherwise.
Object types
 An object is made of two things:
 State: is defined by the values of an object carries for a set of
properties, which may be either an attribute of the object or a
relationship between the object and one or more other objects.
 Attributes (name, address, birthDate of a person)
 Behaviour: is defined by a set of operations that can be
performed on or by the object.
 operations (age of a person is computed from birthDate and
current date)

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Object types

• Department, Performance, Marriage,

Registration
Concept or
Event

• User interface, Controller, Scheduler

Artifact of the
Design
Process
Object Factory
 The object that helps to generate many objects through
operations.

Example:
 Date object – can generate many calendar dates
 Ethiopian calendar
 European calendar
 Arabic calendar
 Indian calendar
 Attributes

 An attribute is defined on a single object type.

 Takes as its value a literal or an object identifier.

Example: a Branch class has attributes for the branch number,

street, city, and postcode.

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Relationships

 Relationships are defined between types.

 Only binary relationships with cardinality 1:1, 1:*, and *:*.

 A relationship have a name &, is not a ‘first class’ object;

 Traversal paths are defined for each direction of traversal.

Example: a Branch Has a set of Staff and a member of Staff WorksAt a

Branch.

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Relationships

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Relationships

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 Operations
 A function or service that is provided by all instances of a class
 Types of operations:
 Constructor: creates a new instance of a class

 Query: accesses the state of an object but does not alter its
state
 Update: alters the state of an object

 Scope: operation applying to the class instead of an instance

Operations implement the object’s behavior

Powerful Type System
 Primitive types
• Integer, string, date, Boolean, float, etc.
 Structure type
• Attribute can be a record with a schema
• Struct {integer x, string y}
 Collection type
• Attribute can be a Set, Bag, List, Array of other types
 Reference type
• Attribute can be a Pointer to another object
Example Of UML Classes
Identity
 Identity: every object has a unique identity
 Object identity must be unique and non-volatile(immutable)
 In time: can not change and can not be re-assigned to another
object, when the original object is deleted
 In space: must be unique within and across database
boundaries
Types, classes, interfaces, and inheritance
 In the ODMG Object Model there are two ways to specify object
types:
 Interfaces, and
 classes.

 Interface --- defines only the abstract behavior of an object type,

using operation signatures.
 Allows behavior to be inherited by other interfaces and classes
using the ‘:’ symbol.
 properties (attributes and relationships) cannot be inherited.

42Interface is Noninstantiable
 Classes
 Class defines both the abstract state and behavior of an object
type.
 Class is instantiable (thus, interface is an abstract concept and
class is an implementation concept).
 Use the extends keyword to specify single inheritance between
classes. Multiple inheritance is not allowed.
 Classes encapsulate data + methods + relationships

 In OODBMSs objects are persistent (unlike OO programming

languages)
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 The interface part of an operation is sometimes called the signature, and the
 Extents and keys
 Extent and keys are Specified during class definition:

 Extent is the set of all instances of a given type within a particular

ODMS.
 Deleting an object removes the object from the extent of the type.

 Key uniquely identifies the instances of a type (similar to the concept

of a candidate key).
 A type must have an extent to have a key.

 A key is different from an object name; key is composed of

properties specified in an object type’s interface whereas an object
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name is defined within the database type.
Abstraction, Encapsulation, and Information Hiding
 Abstraction is the process of identifying the essential aspects of
an object by ignoring an irrelevant properties.
 Encapsulation -- also known as data hiding, is the mechanism
whereby the implementation details of a class are kept hidden
from the user.

 Hiding of ADT internals (implementation) is called

encapsulation.
 Information hiding-- separate the external aspects of an object
from its internal details, which are hidden from the outside world.
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 Focus more on data security
Encapsulation
 To encourage encapsulation, an operation is defined in
two parts.
 Signature or interface of the operation specifies the operation
name and arguments (or parameters).
 Method or body specifies the implementation of the operation,
 General purpose programming language.

 Operations can be invoked by passing a message.

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 Inheritance
Person
 A class can be defined in terms of another one.
name: {firstName: string,
middleName: string,
 Allows the definition of new types based on other lastName: string}
address: string
predefined types, leading to a type (or class) birthDate: date

age(): Integer
hierarchy. changeAddress(newAdd: string)

 Example

 Person is super-class and Student is sub- Student

class. regNum: string {PK}

major: string

 Student class inherits attributes and register(C: Course): boolean

operations of Person.
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Types of inheritance(Multiple and Selective Inheritance)

 Multiple inheritance: a class inherits features from more than

one superclass .
 Example: Engineer_Manager that is a subtype of both Engineer and
Manager.

 This leads to the creation of a type lattice rather than a type hierarchy.

 Selective inheritance: occurs when a subtype inherits only some

of the functions of a super type.
 The mechanism of selective inheritance is not typically
provided in ODBs,
 It is used more frequently in artificial intelligence applications.
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 Polymorphism - the ability to appear in many forms.
 Ability to process objects differently depending on their data
type or class.
 It is the ability to redefine methods for derived classes.

 Overloading –
 allows the name of a method to be reused within a class
definition.

 Overriding –

 allows the name of a property to be redefined in a subclass.

 Dynamic binding - allows the determination of an object’s type

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Overloading Overriding
Extensibility
 Extensibility allows the creation of new data types, i.e. user-
defined types, and operations from built-in atomic data types and
user defined data types using the type constructor.
 A type constructor is a mechanism for building new domains.

 A complex object is built using type constructors such as sets,

tuples, lists and nested combinations.
 A combination of an user-defined type and its associated
methods is called an abstract data type (ADT).

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Versioning
 The process of maintaining the evolution of objects is known as
version management.
 An object version represents an identifiable state of an object;
a version history represents the evolution of an object.
 Versioning should allow changes to the properties of objects to
be managed in such a way that object references always point
to the correct version of an object.

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Overview of ODL & OQL
 The Object Definition Language (ODL) is a language for
defining the specifications of object types for ODMG-compliant
systems.

 The ODL defines the attributes and relationships and signature of

the operations, but it does not address the implementation of
signatures.

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Overview of ODL & OQL
 The Object Query Language (OQL) provides declarative
access to the object database using an SQL-like syntax.

 It does not provide explicit update operators, but leaves this to

the operations defined on object types.

 An OQL query is a function that delivers an object whose type

may be inferred from the operator contributing to the query
expression.

 OQL can be used for both associative and navigational access.

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Querying object-relational database
 Most relational operators work on the object-relational tables

 E.g., selection, projection, aggregation, set operations

 Several major software companies including IBM, Informix,

Microsoft, Oracle, and Sybase have all released object-relational
versions of their products.
 SQL-99 (SQL3): Extended SQL to operate on object-relational
databases

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Defining Generalization
OQL following the given classes;
Con…

Suppose we want to find the title and credit hours for MBA 664.

Find the age of John Marsh

 returns a collection (bag) of
student objects for which the gpa
Con… is greater than or equal to 3.0.

• Finding student objects having gpa 3;

• select s from students s where s.gpa = 3.0;
• Finding Distinct Values
• select distinct s.age from students s where s.gpa =3.0;
• Querying Multiple Classes
• select distinct y.crse_code from courseofferings x,
x.belongs_to y where x.term = “Fall 2005”;
Con…
Suppose that we want to find the number of students enrolled in section 1 of the MBA664
course. The enrollment operation is available in CourseOffering, but the course code is
available in Course.
• select x.enrollment from courseofferings x, x.belongs_to y where
y.crse_code = “MBA 664” and x.section = 1;

This query traverses two paths, one using the takes relationship and the other using
the belongs_to relationship, to find the codes and titles of all courses taken by Mary
Jones.
• select c.crse_code, c.crse_title from students s, s.takes x, x.belongs_to
c where s.name = “Mary Jones”;

We can also select a structure consisting of multiple components. For example,

the following query returns a structure with age and gpa as its attributes.
Calculating Summary Values
• count(students) ;
We could have also written this query as
• select count (*) from students s;
• select avg_salary_female: avg (e.salary) from employees e
where e.gender = female;
 To find the maximum salary paid to an employee, we use the
max function:
• max (select salary from employees); OR
• Select max(e.salary) from employees e;
 To find the total of all employee salaries, we use the sum
function:
• sum (select salary from employees);
Calculating Group Summary Values
select min (e.salary) from employees e group by e.gender;