THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of the digestive system it to break food down into
small particles that can be absorbed and turned into energy.
The medical professions that study the structures, functions, and
disorders of the digestive tract are gastroenterology for the upper end of
the system and proctology for the lower end.

-Ingestion: Taking food

-Digestion: Breaking down
food into nutrients
-Absorption: Taking in
nutrients by cells
-Egestion: Removing any
leftover wastes
 COMPONENTS OF DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM

*Mouth *Small intestine

-Duodenum
*Salivary glands -Jejunum
-Ileum
*Esophagus
*Large Intestine
*Stomach -Appendix
-Cecum
*Liver -Colon
-Rectum
*Gallbladder -Anus

*Pancreas
MOUTH
Mouth: Food starts to
move through your GI
tract when you eat.
When you swallow,
your tongue pushes the
food into your throat. A
small flap of tissue,
called the epiglottis,
folds over your
windpipe to prevent
choking and the food
passes into your
esophagus.
 MOUTH
*In the mouth, saliva acts to start to break down
carbohydrates thanks to an enzyme called amylase.
The mouth is made up of the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft palate.
The oral cavity is bounded by the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft
palate. These structures make up the mouth and play a key role in the
first step of digestion: ingestion.
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive system, and, in fact,
digestion starts here before you even take the first bite of a meal. The
smell of food triggers the salivary glands in your mouth to secrete 
saliva, causing your mouth to water. When you actually taste the food, 
saliva increases.
Once you start chewing and breaking the food down into pieces small
enough to be digested, other mechanisms come into play. More saliva is
produced. It contains substances including enzymes that begin the
process of breaking down food into a form your body can absorb and
use. Chew your food more -- it also helps with your digestion.
Salivary
Glands
The salivary glands
produce saliva, which
keeps the mouth and
other parts of the
digestive system moist.
It also helps break
down carbohydrates
(with salivary amylase,
formerly known as
ptyalin) and lubricates
the passage of food
down from the oro-
pharynx to the
esophagus to the
stomach.
 SALIVARY GLANDS
Three Salivary glands are present in our mouth: 1) Parotid
gland: On the insides of the cheeks. 2) Submandibular gland: at
the floor of the mouth. 3) Sublingual gland: under the tongue.
The salivary glands make saliva and empty it into your mouth through
openings called ducts. Saliva helps with swallowing and chewing. It can
also help prevent infections from developing in your mouth or throat.
Food is tasted and mixed with saliva that is secreted by several sets of
glands. Besides the many minute glands that secrete saliva, there are
three major pairs of salivary glands: the parotid, the submandibular,
and the sublingual glands. The parotid glands, the largest of the pairs,
are located at the side of the face, below and in front of each ear. The
parotid glands are enclosed in sheaths that limit the extent of their
swelling when inflamed, as in mumps. The submandibular glands, which
are rounded in shape, lie near the inner side of the lower jawbone, in
front of the sternomastoid muscle (the prominent muscle of the jaw). The 
sublingual glands lie directly under the mucous membrane covering the
floor of the mouth beneath the tongue.
Salivary glands may be predominantly serous, mucous, or mixed in secretion. Mucus is a
thick, clear, and somewhat slimy substance. Serous secretion is a more liquid opalescent
fluid composed of water and proteins, such as the digestive enzyme amylase. Depending
on the types of cells present, the glands may be specific, giving off only one of these two
substances; or they may be mixed, giving off combinations of both secretions. Secretions
can be increased by the presence, thought, or smell of food and also by thermal stimulation.
In addition to numerous small glands in the tongue, palate, lips, and cheeks, human beings
have three pairs of major salivary glands that open into the mouth through well-developed
ducts. The parotid salivary glands, the largest of the three, are located between the ear and
ascending branch of the lower jaw. Each gland is enclosed in a tissue capsule and is
composed of fat tissue and cells that secrete mainly serous fluids. Each gland’s major duct
(Stensen’s duct) opens in the rear of the mouth cavity near the second upper molar. The
second pair, the submaxillary glands, also called submandibular glands, are located along
the side of the lower jawbone. The major duct of each (Wharton’s duct) opens into the floor
of the mouth at the junction where the front of the tongue meets the mouth’s floor. A
capsule of tissue also surrounds each of these glands, which give off mixed secretions
mostly serous in nature. The third pair, the sublingual glands, are situated beneath the 
mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth, near the chin region. They are not covered by
a capsule and are therefore more dispersed throughout the surrounding tissue. They have
many ducts (Rivinus’s ducts) that empty near the junction of the tongue and the mouth’s
floor; several unite to form Bartholin’s duct, the major duct of the sublingual gland, which
empties into or near the submaxillary duct. These glands secrete a mixed fluid that is
mainly mucus.
 PAROTID GLAND-The parotid gland is one of the major salivary
glands. These glands make saliva. This is the watery substance
used to lubricate your mouth and start the digestion process. The
parotid gland wraps around the back of your lower jaw.

SUBLINGUAL GLAND- They secrete saliva into your mouth from

under the tongue. Sublingual glands. The smallest of the three
major salivary glands, the sublingual glands are almond-shaped
and found under the floor of your mouth. They empty near the
junction of your tongue and the floor of your mouth.

SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND-The submandibular gland produces

saliva, which moistens the mouth and aids in chewing,
swallowing, digestion, and helps to keep the mouth and teeth
clean.
ESOPHAGUS
Esophagus. Located
in your throat near
your trachea
(windpipe), the
esophagus receives
food from your
mouth when you
swallow. The
epiglottis is a small
flap that folds over
your windpipe as
you swallow to
prevent you from
choking (when food
goes into your
windpipe).
 ESOPHAGUS
Your esophagus is an important part of your digestive system and your digestive
tract. Your digestive tract is a series of hollow organs that carry food from your
mouth to your anus. The food you eat can't be used for energy until your digestive
system breaks it down into small molecules that your body can absorb.
The esophagus functions to transport masticated and swallowed material (a bolus)
through the mediastinum from the pharynx to the stomach (Figures 1–3). In both
species, the esophagus has upper and lower esophageal sphincters at the proximal
and distal ends, which prevent retrograde movement of food by contracting and
closing the lumen of the esophagus. During swallowing, these sphincters relax to
allow forward passage of food. Mice, unlike humans, cannot vomit. In mice, the
esophagus is a straight tube that lies dorsal to the larynx in the cervical region,
traverses the thorax to the left of the trachea, and passes through the esophageal
hiatus in the diaphragm slightly left of midline. The esophagus enters the midpoint of
the mouse stomach at the lesser curvature near the limiting ridge (margo plicates), the
region where the nonglandular forestomach meets the glandular mucosa, elevated by
thickened forestomach lamina propria (Figure 4). In humans, the esophagus begins at
the cricoid cartilage, traverses the thoracic cavity in the posterior mediastinum, and
penetrates through the diaphragm for several centimeters before entering the
stomach. At the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ), the nonkeratinizing esophageal
squamous mucosa abruptly transitions to compact glandular secretory gastric mucosa.
This transition is seen macroscopically as a sharply demarcated line of contrast called
the Z-line
THE ESOPHAGUS
The esophagus functions primarily as a transport tube that directs the
progression of food and fluids from the mouth to the stomach. It is
not as complex when compared to other portions of the alimentary
tract. The esophagus is lined by stratified squamous mucosa and
submucosa, and it has a well-developed muscularis of striated muscle
in the upper third and smooth muscle in the lower two-thirds. It has
no serosa and its vascular supply is not as robust as the well-
vascularized intra-abdominal portions of the gut. The paucity of
vascular supply to the esophagus reduces its tolerance to injury and
diminishes the quality of the healed tissue. The primary function of
the esophagus requires that it maintain an ability to coordinate
peristaltic contraction in response to swallowing, to propel the bolus
of food into the stomach. Sphincters at the upper esophagus and
gastroesophageal junction reduce reflux and regurgitation. The
lower esophageal sphincter located at the gastroesophageal junction
acts to curtail reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus because
the acidic gastric secretion is injurious to the esophageal mucosa.
Stomach
The stomach has 3 main
functions: temporary
storage for food, which
passes from the
esophagus to the
stomach where it is
held for 2 hours or
longer. mixing and
breakdown of food by
contraction and
relaxation of the
muscle layers in the
stomach. digestion of
food.
 The core function of the human stomach is as an aid to digestion. This is
an adaptive process that has had to modify itself many times in human
history to adapt to changes in diet, lifestyle and microbiome.
This chapter elaborates stomach function and the parts of the stomach
including fundus, body, antrum, and pyloric sphincter. The main function
of the stomach is to store food and release it to the intestines at a rate
whereby the intestines can process it. The stomach mixes the food and
grinds it into a finely divided chyme that increases the surface area of
the food in preparation for digestion. The stomach also secretes mucin,
water, HCl, pepsinogen, and intrinsic factor. Pepsinogen begins protein
digestion, and intrinsic factor is necessary for the absorption of vitamin
B12 in the terminal ileum. Distension, irritation, acid, increased osmolarity,
amino acids, and fat digestion products in the duodenum all inhibit
gastric emptying. All of these regulate the rate of stomach emptying to
be commensurate with intestinal processing. Gastric glands in the
stomach secrete mucin, acid, intrinsic factor, and pepsinogen. The parietal
cells secrete acid and intrinsic factor. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen that is
activated to pepsin by stomach acid. It is found that stretch of the antrum
increases gastrin release through a long vagovagal reflex, and gastrin,
then, stimulates acid secretion.
The stomach
The stomach coats the food with a mixture of acid and
digestive enzymes to help break the food down further.
A layer of mucous protects the stomach lining from
being damaged by the acid.
The bottom of the stomach is able to contract, which
helps to speed up the process. When the food is broken
down sufficiently the stomach releases its contents into
the duodenum.
The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular
walls. In addition to holding food, it serves as the mixer
and grinder of food. The stomach secretes acid and
powerful enzymes that continue the process of
breaking the food down and changing it to a
consistency of liquid or paste. From there, food moves
to the small intestine. Between meals, the non-
liquefiable remnants are released from the stomach
and ushered through the rest of the intestines to be
eliminated.
LIVER
Liver. Your liver
makes a digestive
juice called bile
that helps digest
fats and some
vitamins. Bile ducts
carry bile from
your liver to your
gallbladder for
storage, or to the
small intestine for
use. Gallbladder.
Gallbladder

The gallbladder is an
organ that's found in
your abdomen. Its
function is to store bile
until it's needed for
digestion. When we eat,
the gallbladder
contracts, or squeezes, to
send bile into your
digestive tract.
Gallbladder disorders
such as gallstones are
common digestive
conditions.
PANCREAS
It's about the size
of your hand.
During digestion,
your pancreas
makes pancreatic
juices
called enzymes.
These enzymes bre
ak down
sugars, fats, and
starches. Your
pancreas also
helps your
digestive system
SMALL
INTESTINE
The small intestine
carries out most of the
digestive process,
absorbing almost all of
the nutrients you get
from foods into your
bloodstream. The walls
of the small intestine
make digestive juices,
or enzymes, that work
together with enzymes
from the liver and
pancreas to do this.
 SMALL INTESTINE
The duodenum is the first segment of the small
intestine. It's largely responsible for the continuous
breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum
lower in the intestine are mainly responsible
for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

The primary function of the jejunum is to absorb

sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. Both the
jejunum and ileum are peritoneal. The ileum
absorbs any remaining nutrients that did not get
absorbed by the duodenum or jejunum, in
particular vitamin B12, as well as bile acids that will
go on to be recycled.

The ileum is the final portion of the small intestine,

measuring around 3 meters, and ends at the cecum.
It absorbs any final nutrients, with major
absorptive products being vitamin B12 and bile
acids.
Large Intestine

The purpose of the large

intestine is to absorb
water and salts from the
material that has not
been digested as food,
and get rid of any waste
products left over. By
the time food mixed
with digestive juices
reaches your large
intestine, most digestion
and absorption has
already taken place.
 LARGE INTESTINE
APPENDIX- Researchers deduce that the appendix is designed to protect good bacteria
in the gut. That way, when the gut is affected by a bout of diarrhea or other illness that
cleans out the intestines, the good bacteria in the appendix can repopulate the digestive
system and keep you healthy.

CECUM- The main functions of the cecum are to absorb fluids and salts that remain after
completion of intestinal digestion and absorption and to mix its contents with a
lubricating substance, mucus. The internal wall of the cecum is composed of a thick
mucous membrane, through which water and salts are absorbed.

COLON- The large intestine, or colon, is responsible for processing waste so that
emptying the bowels is easy and convenient. It's a 6-foot long muscular tube that
connects the small intestine to the rectum.

RECTUM- Rectum. The lower end of your large intestine, the rectum, stores stool until it
pushes stool out of your anus during a bowel movement.

ANUS- The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of
the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of
the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents
are liquid, gas or solid.
The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you
eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body.
Although the small intestine is the workhorse of the system, where
the majority of digestion occurs, and where most of the released
nutrients are absorbed into the blood or lymph, each of the digestive
system organs makes a vital contribution to this process.
The digestive system is the the group of organs that changes food to
             carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and used by our body. Digestion takes
             places begins form our mouth and ends with our anus. the function of our
             digestion system are to ingest food, digest into nutrients, cross our plasma
             mambranes, absorb nutrients and eliminate indigestible remains. our stomach
             is our main organ because it mixes the food and breaks down into unis tha
             can be taken into carbohydrates, fats and proteins which can be used by our
             There are different parts of main organs of our digestive system, esophagus,
             stomach, large intestines, small intestine, liver, pancrea and finally our
             anus. As our digestion begins in our mouth, the food is cut an dchopped by
             our teeth. Our tongue helps mix the food with saliva so it can be swallowed
             easily. From our mouth, the food is swalllowed into a transportube called
             esophagus. Esophagus actually carried food to our stomach, through before
             that there is a flap called epiglottis which is an air passage and the food
             passage in the pharynx.  when you swallow, the air passage will
             automatically blocked by itself so the food won't enter the esophagus though
             Our stomach is shaped as a J- shaped organs, when food is present, the
             stomach will mixing food with gastric juice, after that it will churns food
             into a liquid called chyme, and it will leaves the stomach enters the small
             intestine. the small intestine is a longest part of our digestive tract of
             human.  food remains in the small intestine for several hours. Two lasrge
             galnds are the liver and the pancreas, which connect with the small
             intestine by ducts or tubes. Fluid from the ancreas is called pancreatic
             juice. fluid from the liver is called bile. bile is stored in the
             gallblader helps digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Inside the small
             intestine, there's a lot of fingerlike folds C.
 CONCLUSION
The digestive system starts working as soon as the food touches the
lips and is ingested. The various organs work together to run this
machinery. The nerves and hormones control the actions of the
internal organs. There are mechanical and chemical processes that
work simultaneously to digest the food and provide energy to the
body. All the steps in this process are necessary and important for
this machine to run in a healthy manner.
As soon as food reaches the lips and is swallowed, the
digestive system gets to work. The different organs
collaborate to power this machinery. The actions of the
internal organs are controlled by nerves and hormones.
To digest food and provide energy to the body,
mechanical and chemical processes operate concurrently.
All of the steps in this process are required and important
for this system to function properly, and after all nutrients
have been absorbed into the body, the waste is expelled
through the anus at predetermined intervals.