Immunology and Serology

IMMUNOLOGY and SEROLOGY
 Innate immunity is also known as native immunity.

 Response in innate immunity remains the same for all pathogens
or foreign substances to which one is exposed. No prior exposure
is required, and the response does not change with subsequent
Innate exposures.
Immunity vs.
Adaptive
Immunity  Adaptive immunity, also known as acquired immunity
 only be produced after an antigenic challenge to human host. It is
characterized by the ability to remember a prior exposure, which
results in an increased response upon repeated exposure.
 T lymphocytes mediated cellular
immunity, while B lymphocytes mediated
humoral immunity.
 T lymphocytes – cytokines
 Cytokines are small proteins that are crucial in controlling the
growth and activity of other immune system cells and blood cells.
 B lymphocytes – antibodies
 Humor – body fluids
 Demonstrated that that a fraction of serum first called

gamma-globulin (now immunoglobulin) was shown to be
responsible for immunity.
Humoral
Immunity vs.  Cells – WBCs
Cellular
Immunity
 cells also contribute to the immune state of an animal. He
observed that certain WBCs, which he termed as
phagocytes, were able to ingest (phagocytose)
microorganism and other foreign material.
IMMUNOGLOB
ULINS
 Edward Jenner
 milkmaids who contracted the mild

disease cowpox were subsequently
CROSS- immune from the deadly smallpox.
IMMUNITY
 The phenomenon in which exposure to

one agent produces protection against
another agent.
 Louis Pasteur
 observe attenuation and coined the term “vaccine”.

Attenuation is the process of making something
weaker.
 He was also the first to demonstrate that it was

possible to attenuate, or weaken, a pathogen and
administer the attenuated strain as a vaccine.
 old cultures of the causative agent, when injected to

chickens, would not cause the disease.
 NON-TREPONEMAL ANTIBODY TESTS
 detection of syphilis.
ROUTINE
TESTS IN Syphilis
SEROLOGY  Sexual transmission is the primary mode of
LABORATOR dissemination, and this occurs through abraded skin or
Y mucous
 membranes coming in contact with an open lesion.
 Treponema pallidum, subspecies
 pallidum, a member of the family Spirochaetaceae.
Treponema
pallidum
 presumptive serologic screening test for
 syphilis.
 The serum of a person with syphilis contains a

RPR  non-specific anti-lipid antibody (termed
(Rapid Plasma  reagin), which is not found in normal serum.
Reagin)
 known RPR antigen consists of
 Cardiolipin, lecithin, and cholesterol bound to
 *charcoal particles
 Procedure:
  Place 50 μl of sample and one drop of each +ve and –ve
 controls into separate circles on the test slide.
  Swirl the RPR-carbon reagent gently before using.
  Place the micropipette in a vertical position and
 perpendicular to the slide, and add one drop (20 μl) of this
RPR  reagent next to the samples to be tested.
  Mix the drops with a stirrer, spreading them over the entire
 surface of the circle. Use different stirrers for each samples.
  Place the slide on a mechanical rotor (shaker)

at 80-100 r.p.m. for 8 minutes.
  Read the test results immediately.
RPR result
RPR Result
 1. The serum specimens to be tested are heated at 56ºC
for 30 minutes to inactivate complement
 into a ceramic ring of a glass slide. Three control sera—
 nonreactive, minimally reactive, and reactive—are pipetted
 into rings on the glass slide in the same manner. Sera and
 patient samples are spread out to fill the entire ring. One drop
Venereal Disease  (1/60 mL) of the VDRL antigen is then added to each ring.
Research
 The slide is rotated for 4 minutes on a rotator at
Laboratory
180 rpm.
(VDRL) Test  It is read microscopically to determine the presence of flocculation,
 or small clumps. The results are recorded as reactive
 (medium to large clumps), weakly reactive (small clumps),

or nonreactive (no clumps or slight roughness).
 PROCEDE TO QUANTITATIVE
VDRL result
VDRL
Quantitative
 The VDRL test and some of the
newer ELISA tests are the only
VDRL ones routinely used for the testing
of spinal fluid.
 is a general term that means
inflammation of the liver. It can be
caused by several viruses and by
Hepatitis noninfectious agents, including
ionizing radiation, chemicals, and
autoimmune processes.
 The hepatitis A virus (HAV) and the hepatitis E virus
(HEV) are transmitted primarily by the fecal-oral route,
Types and
modes of
 while the hepatitis B virus (HBV), the hepatitis D virus
transmission (HDV), and the hepatitis C virus (HCV) are transmitted
mainly by the parenteral route (i.e., through contact
with blood and other body fluids).
 Hepatitis B is a major cause of morbidity and mortality
throughout the world.
 A protein called the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)

is found in the outer envelope of the virus.
Hepatitis B
 The hepatitis B surface antigen, or HBsAg, is the first
marker to appear, becoming detectable 2 to 10 weeks
after exposure to HBV.
 HBsAg is thus an indicator of active
infection and is an important marker in
detecting initial infection, monitoring
the course of infection and progression
HBV to chronic disease, and screening of
donor blood.
 As the host develops an immune response to the virus,
antibodies appear. First to appear is IgM antibody to
the core antigen, or IgM anti-HBc.
 This antibody indicates current or recent acute

infection. It typically appears 1 to 2 weeks after
HBV HBsAg during acute infection and persists in high
titers for 4 to 6 months and then gradually declines.
 This marker is useful in detecting infection in cases in

which
 Antibodies to HBsAg, or anti-HBs,
also appear during the recovery period
of acute hepatitis B, a few weeks after
HBsAg disappears. These antibodies
HBV persist for years and provide
protective immunity. Anti-HBs are
also produced after immunization
with the hepatitis B vaccine.
Current infection with Hepatitis
HBsAg B virus is indicated by the
(Hepatitis B presence of HBsAg. Presence
Surface
Antigen) Test of HBs also indicates that the
patient is infectious
The presence of anti-HBs is
Anti-HBs
(Hepatitis B generally interpreted as
Surface indicating immunity from
Antibody) Test
Hepatitis B virus infection.
 Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, is a
potentially fatal multisystemic illness caused
primarily by Salmonella
enterica serotype typhi and, to a lesser
extent, S enterica serotypes paratyphi A, B,
TYPHOID and C.
FEVER
 Typhoid fever has a wide variety of presentations that
range from an overwhelming multisystemic illness to
relatively minor cases of diarrhea with low-grade
fever. The classic presentation is fever, malaise,
diffuse abdominal pain, and constipation
Salmonella
Antigens
Diagnostic tool for the
detection of Enteric fever and
Typhoid fever. This test detects
WIDAL TEST
the presence of antibodies to
disease-causing Salmonella
organisms.
WIDAL TEST
 This test is used as screening test for dengue viral
infection and as an aid for the differential diagnosis
of primary and secondary infection.
 Results:
DENGUE  IgG Positive Only: indicative of past dengue
IgG/IgM infection
TEST  IgM Positive Only: indicative of primary (first-time)
dengue infection
 Both IgG and IgM Positive: indicative of secondary
dengue infection
 This test detects of the presence of
Non-Structural protein NS1 of the
dengue virus.
DENGUE NS1
 The antigen (NS1 antigen) is
TEST
detectable during the acute phase of
dengue virus infection, especially
during the first seven (7) days of
symptoms.
Designed to detect both
dengue virus NS1 antigen
DENGUE and antibodies to dengue
DUO KIT
virus (Dengue IgG and
IgM).

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IMMUNOLOGY and SEROLOGY

 Innate immunity is also known as native immunity.

 Demonstrated that that a fraction of serum first called

 milkmaids who contracted the mild

 The phenomenon in which exposure to

 observe attenuation and coined the term “vaccine”.

 He was also the first to demonstrate that it was

 old cultures of the causative agent, when injected to

 The serum of a person with syphilis contains a

  Place the slide on a mechanical rotor (shaker)

 (medium to large clumps), weakly reactive (small clumps),

 A protein called the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)

 This antibody indicates current or recent acute

 This marker is useful in detecting infection in cases in

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