Data and Computer

Communications

Tenth Edition
by William Stallings

Data and Computer Communications, Tenth

Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
Education - Prentice Hall, 2013
 CHAPTER 3

Data Transmission
“I have been trying to prove the following theorem: for any operators
T,R the length of an arbitrary message f1 multiplied by its essential
spectrum and divided by the distortion of the system is less than a
certain constant times the time of transmission of F multiplied by its
essential spectrum width or—roughly speaking—it is impossible to
reduce bandwidth times transmission time for a given distortion.
This seems to be true although I do not have a general proof as
yet.”

—Letter to Vannevar Bush,

February 16, 1939,
from Claude Shannon
Transmission Terminology
Transmission Terminology
 Transmission Terminology
 Simplex
 Signals are transmitted in only one direction
 One station is transmitter and the other is
receiver

 Half duplex
 Both stations transmit, but only one at a time

 Full duplex
 Both stations may transmit simultaneously
 The medium is carrying signals in both
directions at the same time
Amplitude
(volts)

Time
(a) Analog

Amplitude
(volts)

Time
(b) Digital

Figure 3.1 Analog and Digital Waveforms

 A

Amplitude (volts)
0
Time

–A

period = T = 1/f

(a ) S in e w a v e

A
Amplitude (volts)

0
Time

–A

period = T = 1/f

(b ) S q u a r e w a v e

F ig u r e 3 .2 E x a m p le s o f P e r io d ic S ig n a ls
 Sine Wave
 Is the fundamental periodic signal
 Can be represented by three parameters
 Peak amplitude (A)
• Maximum value or strength of the signal over time
• Typically measured in volts
 Frequency (f)
• Rate at which the signal repeats
• Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• Period (T) is the amount of time for one repetition
• T = 1/f
 Phase ()
• Relative position in time within a single period of signal
Wavelength ()
Frequency Domain Concepts
 Signals are made up of many frequencies
 Components are sine waves
 Fourier analysis can show that any signal
is made up of components at various
frequencies, in which each component is a
sinusoid
 Can plot frequency domain functions
Spectrum and Bandwidth
 Data Rate and Bandwidth

There is a direct relationship between

data rate and bandwidth
Analog and Digital Data
Transmission
 Upper modulating
frequency for FM radio

Upper modulating
frequency for AM radio

Telephone channel

0
Music
Power Ratio in Decibels

–20
Speech Approximate
dynamic range
Approximate –30 dB of music
dynamic range
of voice
–40

Noise

–60

10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz

Frequency

Figure 3.9 Acoustic Spectrum of Speech and Music [CARN99]

Digital Data
 Voltage at
transmitting end

Voltage at
receiving end

Figure 3.10 Attenuation of Digital Signals

Advantages and Disadvantages
of Digital Signals
 In this graph of a typical analog voice signal, the
variations in amplitude and frequency convey the
gradations of loudness and pitch in speech or music.
Similar signals are used to transmit television
pictures, but at much higher frequencies.

Figure 3.11 Conversion of Voice Input to Analog Signal

  To produce a video signal a TV
camera is used
 USA standard is 483 lines per
Video frame, at a rate of 30 complete
Signals frames per second
 Actual standard is 525 lines but about
42 are lost during vertical retrace
 Horizontal scanning frequency is
525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines
per second
 Max frequency if line alternates
between black and white as
rapidly as possible
 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
+5 volts

–5 volts

0.02 msec

User input at a PC is converted into a stream of binary

digits (1s and 0s). In this graph of a typical digital signal,
binary one is represented by –5 volts and binary zero is
represented by +5 volts. The signal for each bit has a duration
of 0.02 msec, giving a data rate of 50,000 bits per second (50 kbps).

Figure 3.12 Conversion of PC Input to Digital Signal

 Analog Signals: Represent data with continuously
varying electromagnetic wave

Analog Data Analog Signal

(voice sound waves)

Telephone

Digital Data Analog Signal

(binary voltage pulses) (modulated on
Modem carrier frequency)

Digital Signals: Represent data with sequence

of voltage pulses

Analog Data Digital Signal

Codec

Digital Data Digital Signal

Digital
Transceiver

Figure 3.13 Analog and Digital Signaling of Analog and Digital Data
 Table 3.1

Analog and
Digital
Transmission
 Move to Digital
 Digital technology
 LSI and VLSI technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost and size of
digital circuitry
 Data integrity
 The use of repeaters has made it possible to transmit data longer distances over
lower quality lines while maintaining the integrity of the data
 Capacity utilization
 It has become economical to build transmission links of very high bandwidth,
including satellite channels and optical fiber, and a high degree of multiplexing is
needed to utilize such capacity effectively
 Security and privacy
 Encryption techniques can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data
that have been digitized
 Integration
 Economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating voice, video,
and digital data
 Asynchronous and
Synchronous Transmission
 Asynchronous  Synchronous
 Strategy is to avoid the timing  A block of bits is transmitted in a
problem by not sending long, steady stream without start and
uninterrupted streams of bits stop codes
 Data are transmitted one  Block may be many bits in length
character at a time, where each  To prevent timing drift between
character is 5 to 8 bits in length transmitter and receiver, their
 Timing or synchronization must clocks must somehow be
only be maintained within each synchronized
• Provide a separate clock line
character between transmitter and receiver
 The receiver has the • Embed the clocking information in
opportunity to resynchronize at the data signal
the beginning of each new  Frame
character • Data plus preamble, postamble, and
control information
 Transmission Impairments
 Signal
received may differ from signal
transmitted causing:
 Analog - degradation of signal quality
 Digital - bit errors
 Most significant impairments are
 Attenuation and attenuation distortion
 Delay distortion
 Noise
 ATTENUATION
 Signal strength falls off with distance over any transmission medium

 Varies with frequency

 10

1 Without

Attenuation (decibels) relative

equalization

to attenuatoin at 1000 Hz
5

2 With
equalization

–5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Herz)
(a) Attenuation

4000
Relative envelope delay (microseconds)

1 Without
3000 equalization

2000

1000

2
With
equalization

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Frequency (Herz)
(b) Delay distortion
Figure 3.14 Attenuation and Delay Distortion Curves for a Voice Channel
 Delay Distortion
 Occurs in transmission cables such as twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and optical fiber
 Does not occur when signals are transmitted through the
air by means of antennas
 Occurs because propagation velocity of a signal
through a guided medium varies with frequency
 Various frequency components arrive at different
times resulting in phase shifts between the
frequencies
 Particularly critical for digital data since parts of one
bit spill over into others causing intersymbol
interference
Noise
Categories of Noise
 Categories of Noise
Crosstalk:
 A signal from one line is
picked up by another
 Can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby
twisted pairs or when
microwave antennas pick
Impulse Noise: up unwanted signals
 Caused by external
electromagnetic interferences
 Noncontinuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or spikes
 Short duration and high
amplitude
 Minor annoyance for analog
signals but a major source of
error in digital data
Channel Capacity
 Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free:
 The limitation of data rate is simply the bandwidth of the signal
 If the rate of signal transmission is 2B then a signal with frequencies
no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate
 Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be carried is
2B
 For binary signals, the data rate that can be supported by B Hz
is 2B bps
 With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formula becomes: C =
2B log2M
 Data rate can be increased by increasing the number of
different signal elements
 This increases burden on receiver
 Noise and other impairments limit the practical value of M
 Shannon Capacity Formula
 Considering the relation of data rate, noise and
error rate:
 Faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise
corrupts more bits
 Given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors
 Shannon developed formula relating these to
signal to noise ratio (in decibels)
 SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
 Capacity C = B log2(1+SNR)
 Theoretical maximum capacity
 Get much lower rates in practice
 SNRd B
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30
10
Spectral efficiency (bps/Hz)

0.1

0.01

0.001
0.001 0.10 0.1 1 10 100 1000
SNR

Figure 3.16 Spectral Efficiency versus SNR

 Summary
 Transmission terminology  Transmission
 Frequency, spectrum, impairments
and bandwidth  Attenuation
 Analog and digital data  Delay distortion
transmission  Noise
 Analog and digital data
 Analog and digital signals
 Channel capacity
 Analog and digital
 Nyquist bandwidth
transmission  Shannon capacity
 Asynchronous and formula
synchronous transmission  The expression Eb/No