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    Steel Making Axle Forging Heat Treatment Machining

    Uploaded by

    Asif Ali PC
    The document describes the manufacturing process of axles which includes steel making, axle forging, heat treatment, and machining. Key steps include producing steel ingots with controlled chemistry and impurities to maximize fatigue strength, forging axles with a reduction ratio of at least 4:1, heat treating forged blanks to achieve the proper microstructure and properties, and machining to final dimensions with close tolerances and smooth fillets and surfaces. Mechanical testing of axles includes hardness, tensile, impact, and metallurgical tests to evaluate properties and identify any defects from the manufacturing process that could lead to fatigue failure during service.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Steel Making Axle Forging Heat Treatment Machining

    Uploaded by

    Asif Ali PC
    137 views41 pages
    The document describes the manufacturing process of axles which includes steel making, axle forging, heat treatment, and machining. Key steps include producing steel ingots with controlled chemistry and impurities to maximize fatigue strength, forging axles with a reduction ratio of at least 4:1, heat treating forged blanks to achieve the proper microstructure and properties, and machining to final dimensions with close tolerances and smooth fillets and surfaces. Mechanical testing of axles includes hardness, tensile, impact, and metallurgical tests to evaluate properties and identify any defects from the manufacturing process that could lead to fatigue failure during service.

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    Axle manufacturing

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    The document describes the manufacturing process of axles which includes steel making, axle forging, heat treatment, and machining. Key steps include producing steel ingots with controlled chemistry and impurities to maximize fatigue strength, forging axles with a reduction ratio of at least 4:1, heat treating forged blanks to achieve the proper microstructure and properties, and machining to final dimensions with close tolerances and smooth fillets and surfaces. Mechanical testing of axles includes hardness, tensile, impact, and metallurgical tests to evaluate properties and identify any defects from the manufacturing process that could lead to fatigue failure during service.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    137 views41 pages

    Steel Making Axle Forging Heat Treatment Machining

    Uploaded by

    Asif Ali PC
    The document describes the manufacturing process of axles which includes steel making, axle forging, heat treatment, and machining. Key steps include producing steel ingots with controlled chemistry and impurities to maximize fatigue strength, forging axles with a reduction ratio of at least 4:1, heat treating forged blanks to achieve the proper microstructure and properties, and machining to final dimensions with close tolerances and smooth fillets and surfaces. Mechanical testing of axles includes hardness, tensile, impact, and metallurgical tests to evaluate properties and identify any defects from the manufacturing process that could lead to fatigue failure during service.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    of 41

    MANUFACTURING OF AXLES

    •STEEL MAKING
    •AXLE FORGING
    •HEAT TREATMENT
    •MACHINING
    STEEL MAKING
    • FURNACE
    • OPEN HEARTH,ELECTRIC,BASIC OXYGEN
    • KILLED QUALITY (MAXIMUM FATIGUE STRENGTH UNDER
    CONDITION OF DYNAMIC LOADING)
    • NITROGEN =0.007% MAX
    • HYDROGEN =2ppm MAX
    • (THESE TWO ELEMENTS HAVE THE TENDENCY TO
    DEVELOP CRACKS/BRITTLENESS DURING SUBSIQUENT
    MANUFACTERING OPERATIONS OR SERVICE)
    • S & P =0.05% MAX
    • (FREEDOM FROM HOT SHOTNESS &COLD SHOTNESS)
    • STEEL SO PRODUCED IS IN FORM OF INGOT
    • SUFFICENT DISCARD IS NECESSARY TO AVOID PIPING
    AND SEGGRIGATION
    CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (C&W)
    (LADLE ANALYSIS)
    IRS R-16/95
    • C- 0.37 Max
    • Mn- 1.12 Max
    • Si- 0.15 TO 0.46
    • S- 0.04 Max
    • P- 0.04 Max
    • S+P- 0.07 Max
    • Ni/Cu- 0.30 Max
    • Mo/V- 0.05 Max
    CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (Loco)
    (LADLE ANALYSIS)
    IRS R-43/92
    • C- 0.40 TO 0.55
    • Mn- 0.60 TO 0.90
    • Si- 0.15 Min
    • S- 0.045 Max
    • P- 0.04 Max
    MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
    R-16 (NORMALISED)
    • UTS- 550 TO 650 N/mm2 Min.
    • YS- 320 N/mm2 Min.
    • ELONGATION %- 22 Min.
    • IMPACT (U NOTCH)- 25 J Min.
    MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
    R-16 (Q&T)
    • UTS- 550 TO 700 N/mm2 Min.
    • YS- 350 N/mm2 Min.
    • ELONGATION %- 24 Min.
    • IMPACT (U NOTCH)- 40 J Min.
    MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
    (R-43)
    • UTS- 570 TO 685 N/mm2 Min.
    • YS- NOT LESS THAN 50% OF UTS
    • ELONGATION %- 21-17.
    • IMPACT (U NOTCH)- 20 J Min.(NORM.) &
    35 J Min. (HARDENED & TEMPERED)
    GRAIN SIZE

    • R-16- MAY NOT BE COARSER THAN 5


    DETERMIND AS PER IS-2853.
    • R-43- SHALL NOT BE COARSER THAN
    ASTM GRAIN SIZE NO.-6.
    AXLE FORGING

    • REDUCTION RATIO FROM INGOT TO


    AXLE SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 4:1
    • USING CONCAST BLOOMS- REDUCTION
    RATIO 3:1 Min.
    • FORGED AXLE ARE ALLOWED TO COOL
    SLOWLY AFTER FORGING
    HEAT TREATMENT

    • THE FORGED BLANKS ARE THEREAFTER


    SUITABLY HEAT TREATED (NORMALISED
    OR QUENCHED & TEMPERED) TO
    OBTAINED DESIRED MICROSTRUCTURE
    AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
    MACHINING

    • FORGED AND HEAT TREATED BLANKS ARE


    MACHINED TO DRAWING DIMENSIONS
    • SPECIFIED SURFACE FINISH ESPECIALLY ON
    THE JOURNALS AND WHEEL SEAT AREAS
    • THE FILLET RADIA AT EACH CHANGE OF
    SECTION HAS TO BE GRADUAL TRANSISTION
    AND OF CORRECT DIMENSIONS
    • SHARP CHANGES IN SECTION , TOOL MARK,
    DENT MARK , MACHINING MARK ON THE
    SURFACE OF AXLES ARE UNDESIRABLE
    (FATIGUE PROPERTY ARE HIGHLY SENSITIVE
    TO THESE SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS
    MECHANICAL TESTING
    HARDNESS TESTING
    – ROCKWELL HARDNESS
    – BRINELL HARDNESS
    – VICKERS HARDNESS
    TENSILE TESTING
    - YIELD STRENGTH
    - TENSILE STRENGTH
    - % ELONGATION
    - % REDUCTION IN AREA
    IMPACT TESTING
    - CHARPY
    - IZOD
    ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
    • DEPTH OF PENETRATION IS MEASURED
    DIRECTLY FROM THE DIAL.
    • DEPTH OF PENETRATION IS MORE, HARDNESS
    IS LESS OR VICE VERSA.
    • NO MUCH PREPARATION IS REQUIRED.
    • MINOR LOAD REDUCES THE TENDENCY
    TOWARDS RIDGING OR SINKING IN.
    • IT CAN BE CARRIED OUT ON THE FINISHED
    PRODUCT.
    • THIS TEST IS NOT THAT ACCURATE AS OTHERS
    CONTINUED……….
    SCALE INDENTOR MAJOR MATERIALS TESTED
    LOAD

    A 120O DIAMOND 60 VERY HARD MATERIALS


    CONE

    B 1/16” 100 COPPER ALLOYS, Al


    STEEL BALL ALLOYS &
    UNHARDENED STEELS

    C 120O DIAMOND 150 HARDENED STEELS,


    CONE CAST IRONS, CASE
    HARDENED SURFACES
    ETC.
    BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
    P/D2 = 30 FOR STEEL,
    10 FOR NON FERROUS &
    2 FOR VERY SOFT METALS
    NOT MUCH PREPARATION
    OF SAMPLE IS
    REQUIRED.

    MOST USEFUL TEST ON


    THE SHOP FLOOR.
    VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
    • INDENTOR – SQUARE BASE DIAMOND
    PYRAMID.
    • INCLUDED ANGLE BETWEEN OPPOSITE
    FACES – 136O
    • LOAD – 1 KG TO 120 KG DEPENDING ON
    THE HARDNESS OF THE MATERIAL
    WITH SAME INDENTOR.
    • MOST ACCURATE BUT REQUIRE HIGH
    LEVEL SURFACE PREPARATION.
    ACCURACY OF INDENTATION
    TEST
    • CONDITION OF THE INDENTOR
    • ACCURACY OF LOAD APPLIED
    • AVOID IMPACT LOADING
    • SURFACE CONDITION OF THE SPECIMEN
    • THICKNESS OF SPECIMEN
    • SHAPE OF THE SPECIMEN
    • LOCATION OF THE IMPRESSION
    • UNIFORMITY OF THE MATERIAL
    TENSILE TESTING

    • TENSILE STRENGTH
    • YIELD STRENGTH
    • % ELONGATION
    • % REDUCTION AREA – CONDUCTED
    IN STRUCTURAL STEELS (NORMALLY
    LOW CARBON STEELS)
    IMPACT TESTING
    IT MEASURES THE STRENGTH
    UNDER DYNAMIC LOADING.
    IMPACT STRENGTH IS
    CAPABILITY OF MATERIAL TO
    ABSORB ENERGY WITHOUT
    FAILURE UNDER IMPACT
    LOADING.
    TYPES OF IMPACT TEST:
    – IZOD IMPACT TEST
    – CHARPY IMPACT TEST
    CONTINUED…….
     IZOD TEST
    – SPECIMEN CAN BE SQUARE OR ROUND WITH
    V NOTCH.
    – HAMMER STRIKES THE SPECIMEN TOWARDS
    NOTHED SIDE FIXED IN VERTICAL POSITION.
     CHARPY TEST
    - SQUARE IN SHAPE
    - V NOTCH & U NOTCH
    - HAMMER STRIKES THE SPECIMEN TOWARDS
    UNNOTHED SIDE FIXED IN HORIZONTAL
    POSITION
    MACROEXAMINATION

    • ETCHING BY NITAL
    • ETCHING IN HOT ACID
    • OVERNIGHT ETCHING IN 5%
    SULPHURIC ACID TO REVEAL
    FORGING LINES
    NITAL ETCHING SHOWING
    RECLAMATION

    HEAT AFFECTED
    ZONE
    DEEP ETCHING SHOWING
    LAMINATION
    OVERNIGHT ETCHING
    SHOWING FORGING LINES
    MICROEXAMINATION
    • INCLUSION RATING
    • GRAIN SIZE
    • MICROSTRUCTURE & PHASE
    ANALYSIS
    • DEPTH OF DECARBURISATION
    • MICROSTRUCTURE AT FRACTURE
    INITIATION ZONE
    INCLUSIONS
    NORMALISED FERRITE
    PEARLITE STRUCTURE IN AXLE
    FATIGUE FRACTURE
    • STRESS RAISERS WHICH CAUSES FATIGUE
    INITIATION:
    – CHANGES IN GEOMETRY OF THE PART, SUCH AS
    HOLES, KEYWAYS, THREADS, STEPS OR CHANGES
    IN DIAMETER IN SHAFTS & BOLT HEADS ETC.
    – SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES SUCH AS NOTCHES,
    MACHINING MARKS, PITTING, CORROSION ETC.
    – INHERENT DEFECTS IN THE MATERIAL, SUCH AS
    NON METALLIC INCLUSIONS, MINUTE CRACKS,
    VOIDS ETC.
    DEFECTS OBSERVED & THEIR

    ORIGIN
    OPERATION DEFECTS
    STEEL MAKING PIPING,SEGGREGATION,SLAG
    & SHAPING INCLUSIONS, CRACKS, LAPS,
    SEAMS
    HEAT NON UNIFORM MICRO-STRUCTURE,
    TREATMENT OVER HEATED OR BURNT
    STRUCTURE, DECARBURISATION
    MACHINING TURNING MARKS, TOOL MARKS
    INSUFFICIENT FILLET RADII
    DEFECTS OBSERVED & THEIR
    ORIGIN (CONT…)
    OPERATION DEFECTS
    ASSEMBLY INSUFFICIENT
    PRESSING IN PRESSURE

    LUBRICATION Heats are generated


    CORROSION Areas exposed to
    atmosphere are prone to
    corrosion pits formation
    which work as stress
    raiser.
    AXLE DEFECTS

    • Pressing in pressure : The pressing in


    pressure has to be as per the drawings
    issued by RDSO for BG/MG wheel sets
    and IRS: R-19-1987. Improper
    pressing in pressure gives rise to
    wrong interference fit which gives
    unwanted echoes.

    AXLE DEFECTS (Cont..)
    • Sometimes cracks initiate in the axle
    body ( between the wheel ) due to
    corrosion or indentations accidentally
    formed . In some axles at times with
    as forged state between the wheels is
    put in service the same are
    susceptible to this type of failure,
    partly as forged skin has lower
    fatigue strength than machined axles.
    AXLE DEFECTS (Cont..)
    • Axles are critically stressed item of
    rolling stock. FATIGUE CRACK
    develops in service which are
    TRANSVERSE in nature at vulnerable
    locations as wheel seat , gear seat,
    bearing seat ,inner / outer fillets, and
    journal. Fatigue cracks are caused by a
    combination of fretting due to relative
    movement between two parts.
    AXLE DEFECTS (Cont..)
    • for example, wheel hub and axle, and the
    stress concentration introduced as a result
    of the sudden change of flexural stiffness
    produced by the pressed on wheel. Failure
    of axles causing derailment in service is
    not uncommon and Railway systems
    throughout the world have introduced
    ultrasonic method for detection of such
    cracks in time so that failure of axles in
    service leading to catastrophic
    consequences is minimized , if not
    altogether avoided.
    AXLE DEFECTS (Cont..)

    • If heat treatment is not proper, axles are


    liable to be coarse grained. Axles with
    coarse grained structure exhibits poor
    fracture toughness, reduced impact
    resistance ,and higher rate of crack
    growth and as such should not be
    certified to continue in service. For
    ascertaining the suitability or otherwise in
    respect of grain size of the axles , proper
    testing is done.
    FATIGUE FRACTURE FACE
    FATIGUE FRACTURE FACE
    BATTERED FRACTURE FACE.
    BATTERED FRACTURE FACE.
    BRITTLE FAILURE
    BRITTLE FAILURE

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