CS252.HACD: Fundamentals of Relational Databases Section 1: Introduction

Introduction to Relational
Databases
CS252.HACD: Fundamentals of Relational Databases

Section 1: Introduction
1
Some Preliminaries
The theory taught in this part of the course was originally
devised by Edgar F. Codd in 1969. His seminal paper (1970)
was entitled A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared
Data Banks.
We will use a language called Tutorial D for examples and

exercises.
We will use Rel, an implementation of Tutorial D, for our on-

line work.
2
What Is a Database?
An organised, machine-readable collection
of symbols, to be interpreted as a true
account of some enterprise.
Machine-updatable, too …
… so a database is also a collection of variables.
A database is typically available to a community

of users, with possibly varying requirements.
3
“Organised Collection of
Symbols”
For example:
StudentId Name CourseId
S1 Anne C1
S1 Anne C2
S2 Boris C1
S3 Cindy C3
The symbols are organised into rows and columns, thus

forming a table. One of the rows is different in kind from the
others.
4
“To Be Interpreted as a True
Account”
For example (from the table just shown):

S1 Anne C1
Perhaps those green symbols, organised as they are with

respect to the blue ones, are to be understood to mean:
“Student S1, named Anne, is enrolled on course C1.”
5
“Collection of Variables”
ENROLMENT
S1 Anne C1
S1 Anne C2
S2 Boris C1
S3 Cindy C3
S4 Devinder C1
ENROLMENT is a variable. Perhaps the table we saw

earlier was once its value. If so, it (the variable) has been
updated since then (the row for S4 has been added).
6
What Is a Relational Database?
A database whose symbols are organised into a
collection of relations. Here is a relation, shown in
tabular form:
S1 Anne C1
S1 Anne C2
S2 Boris C1
S3 Cindy C3
S4 Devinder C1
Might be the value currently assigned to ENROLMENT, a
relation variable (“relvar”).
7
“Relation” not equal to “Table”
This table is different from the one we have just seen,
but it represents the same relation:
Name StudentId CourseId
Devinder S4 C1
Cindy S3 C3
Anne S1 C1
Boris S2 C1
Anne S1 C2
In other words, the relation represented does not
depend on the order in which we place the rows or the
columns in the table.
8
Anatomy of a Relation
S1 Anne C1
attribute name attribute values n-tuple, or tuple.

This is a 3-tuple.
The tuples
constitute the body
of the relation.
Heading (a set of attributes) The number of
The degree of this heading is 3, tuples in the body
which is also the degree of the relation. is the cardinality of
the relation.
9
What Is a DBMS?
A piece of software for managing databases
and providing access to them.
A DBMS responds to imperatives (“statements”)
given by application programs, custom-written
or general-purpose, executing on behalf of users.
Imperatives are written in the database language
of the DBMS (e.g., SQL).
Responses include completion codes, messages and
results of queries.
10
What Does a DBMS Do?
In response to requests given by application programs:
• creates and destroys variables
• takes note of integrity rules (constraints)
• takes note of authorisations (who is allowed to do
what, to what)
• updates variables (honouring constraints and
authorisations)
• provides results of queries
• and more
Now, how does a relational DBMS do these things? …
11
Create and Destroy Variables
Creation (in Tutorial D):
VAR ENROLMENT BASE RELATION
{ StudentId SID ,
Name CHAR,
CourseId CID }
KEY { StudentId, CourseId } ;
Destruction:
DROP VAR ENROLMENT ;
12
Take Note of Integrity Rules
E.g., can’t have more than 20,000 enrolments altogether. In
Tutorial D:
CONSTRAINT MAX_ENROLMENTS
COUNT ( ENROLMENT ) <=20000 ;
And if a constraint ceases to be applicable:
DROP CONSTRAINT MAX_ENROLMENTS ;
13
Take Note of Authorisations
E.g. (perhaps – but not in Tutorial D):
PERMISSION U9_ENROLMENT FOR User9
TO READ ENROLMENT ;
PERMISSION U8_ENROLMENT FOR User8

TO UPDATE ENROLMENT ;
Permissions sometimes need to be withdrawn:
DROP PERMISSION U9_ENROLMENT ;
14
Updates Variables
E.g.:
DELETE ENROLMENT WHERE StudentId =
SID ( ‘S4’ ) ;
UPDATE ENROLMENT WHERE StudentId =

SID ( ‘S1’ ) Name := ‘Ann’ ;
INSERT ENROLMENT
RELATION {
TUPLE { StudentId SID ( ‘S4’ ) ,
Name ‘Devinder’ ,
CourseId CID ( ‘C1’ ) } } ;
15
Provides Results of Queries
E.g.: Who is enrolled on course C1?
(ENROLMENT WHERE CourseId = CID(‘C1’))
{ StudentId, Name }
The result is another relation! In tabular form:
StudentId Name
S1 Anne
S2 Boris
S4 Devinder
16
EXERCISE
Consider this table:
A B A
1 2 3
4 5
6 7 8
9 9 ?
1 2 3
Give three reasons why it cannot be representing a relation.
17

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Introduction to Relational

CS252.HACD: Fundamentals of Relational Databases

We will use a language called Tutorial D for examples and

We will use Rel, an implementation of Tutorial D, for our on-

A database is typically available to a community

The symbols are organised into rows and columns, thus

StudentId Name CourseId

Perhaps those green symbols, organised as they are with

“Student S1, named Anne, is enrolled on course C1.”

ENROLMENT is a variable. Perhaps the table we saw

attribute name attribute values n-tuple, or tuple.

DROP VAR ENROLMENT ;

And if a constraint ceases to be applicable:

DROP CONSTRAINT MAX_ENROLMENTS ;

PERMISSION U8_ENROLMENT FOR User8

Permissions sometimes need to be withdrawn:

DROP PERMISSION U9_ENROLMENT ;

UPDATE ENROLMENT WHERE StudentId =

Give three reasons why it cannot be representing a relation.

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