Database

Management
System
Dr. Shiv Kumar
Session Objectives
 Basic Concepts
 Data Models
 Advantages of Database Approach
 Overview of E-R Modeling
 Data Modeling
 Entity
 Attributes
 Relationships
 Key Concepts
 Normalization
 Basic Normal Forms (restricted up to 3 NF)
 Overview of SQL
Database Management System
 Imagine if you turned on a computer, started the
word processor, but could not save a document
 Imagine if you opened a music player but there
was no music to play
 Imagine opening a web browser but there were no
web pages

Without data, hardware and software are not very

useful! Data is the third component of an information
system.
Introduction

The goal of many information systems is to

transform data into information in order to
generate knowledge that can be used for decision
making. In order to do this, the system must be able
to take data, put the data into context, and provide
tools for aggregation and analysis. A database is
designed for just such a purpose
Cont…
Data
Data is raw fact or figures or entity
Data are the raw bits and pieces of information with no
context
Data can be quantitative or qualitative

Information
By itself, data is not that useful. To be useful, it needs to be
given context.
Processed data is called information
The purpose of data processing is to generate the meaningful
information
Cont…
Field, Record & File
In a database table, a field is a data structure for a single piece of data. A
combination of fields makes up a table, which contain all the
information within the table relevant to a specific entity. A record is
one instance of a set of fields in a table. Multiple data records make up
a table or data file. Files store data information

For example, in a table called Student, the Enrollment number would likely be
a field in a row that would also contain other fields such as Student Name,
Class, Address and Pin Code. The records make up the table rows and the
fields make up the columns
Database
Database
A database is an organized collection of related
information. It is an organized collection, because in
a database, all data is described and associated with
other data. All information in a database should
be related as well

A database that contains information about students should not

also hold information about company stock prices 
Database Management System

Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection

of programs that enable users to create, maintain
database and control all the access to the database.
The primary goal of the DBMS is to provide an
environment that is both convenient and efficient for
user to retrieve and store information.
Benefits of DBMS
Data Redundancy
In the Database approach, ideally each data item is stored in only one
place in the database
However, in some case redundancy is still exists to improving system
performance, but such redundancy is controlled and kept to minimum

Data Sharing
The integration of the whole data in an organization leads to the ability
to produce more information from a given amount of data

Data Independence
The system data descriptions are separated from the application
programs. Changes to the data structure is handled by the DBMS and
not embedded in the program.
Benefits of DBMS
Providing multiple views of data
A view may be a subset of the database. Various users may have
different views of the database itself.
Users may not need to be aware of how and where the data they refer
to is stored

Restricting Unauthorised Access

Not all users of the system have the same accessing privileges.
DBMS provides a security subsystem to create and control the user
accounts
Providing backup and recovery facilities
If the computer system fails in the middle of a complex update program,
the recovery subsystem is responsible for making sure that the
database is restored to the stage it was in before the program started
Functions of DBMS
 Data Definition
 Data Manipulation
 Data Security & Integrity
 Data Recovery and Concurrency
 Data Dictionary Maintenance
Architecture of DBMS
A commonly used views of data approach is the three-level
architecture suggested by ANSI/SPARC (American National
Standards Institute/Standards Planning and Requirements
Committee)

Three – level architecture for database system is

proposed to archive the characteristics of the
database approach. The goal of this architecture is
separate the applications and the physical
database so the actual details of how data is
organized are hided from the users
Architecture of DBMS
The three levels of the DBMS architecture are:

External Level - individual user view

Conceptual/Logical level - community user

view 

Internal Level- physical or storage view

External - individual user view

 In this highest level, there exists a number of

views which of is defined a part of the actual
database

 Each view is provided for a user or a group of

users so that it helps in simplified the interaction
between the user and system
Conceptual - community user view
This level describes the logical structure of the
whole database.

The entire database is described using simple

logical concepts such as objects, their properties
or relationships. Thus the complexity of the
implementation detail of the data will not be
available for users.
Internal - physical or storage view
This level describes how the data are actually stored,
how to access the data?

The internal level involves how the database is

physically represented on the computer system. It
describes how the data is actually stored in the
database and on the computer hardware
Architecture of DBMS
Schema
A schema is an overall description of a database, and it is
usually represented by the entity relationship diagram (ERD).

External schemas: multiple and multiple subschemas also,

these display multiple external views of the data
Conceptual schema: there is only one. This schema includes
data items, relationships and constraints, all represented in
an ERD.
Physical schema: there is only one
Data Independence
Data Independence is the ability to modify the
schema in one level without affecting the schema
in the higher level

Levels

Logical Data Physical Data

Independence Independence
Data Independence:
Logical Data Independence
Logical data independence is the ability to make
change in the conceptual schema without causing
a modify in the user views or application program

For example, the addition or removal of new entities, attributes or

relationships to this conceptual schema should be possible without
having to change existing external schemas or rewrite existing
application programs.  

Changes to the logical schema (e.g., alterations to the structure of

the database like adding a column or other tables) should not
affect the function of the application (external views)
Data Independence:
Physical Data Independence
Physical data independence is the ability to make
change in the internal schema without causing a
modify in the conceptual schema or application
program
Physical data independence seem to be easier to achieve since the way
the data is organized in the memory affect only the performance of the
system

The logical schema stays unchanged even though changes are

made to file organization or storage structures, storage devices or
indexing strategy
Data Model

Data Model is a collection of concepts that can

be used to describe the structure of database.
Structure of database means data types,
relationships and constraints
Data Modeling
Data modeling is the first step in the process of database design. This
step is sometimes considered to be a high-level and abstract design
phase, also referred to as conceptual design. The aim of this phase
is to describe:

The data contained in the database (e.g., entities: students, lecturers,

courses, subjects)
The relationships between data items (e.g., students are supervised by

lecturers; lecturers teach courses)

The constraints on data (e.g., student number has exactly eight digits; a

subject has four or six units of credit only)

Data Models
The most common data models are:

Relational Model
Network Model
Hierarchical Model
Relational Model
The relational model represents data as relations, or tables.
Relationships between data items are expressed by means
of tables. It is a database that maintains a set of separate,
related files (tables), but combines data elements from the
files for queries and reports when required

Example:
Relational database comprising of two tables
Customer –Table
Account –Table
Relational Model
Customer –Table
Customer Customer ID Address City Account
Name Number
Amit Kumar 345678 Sector 8 Gurugram K-100
Mohit Dutta 345679 Dwarka Delhi K-302
Pawan Singh 345122 Salt Lake Kolkata K-113
Pooja Garg 345103 First Lane Agra K-201
Amy 345221 3/114 C Chandigarh K-415

Account –Table
Account Number Balance

K-100 5000.00
K-302 12000.00
K-113 3500.00
K-201 250000.00
K-415 12000.00
Network Model
The network model represents data as record types. The relationships
between data are represented by links. The network database model is
very similar to the hierarchical model. However, instead of using a single-
parent tree hierarchy, the network model uses set theory to provide a
tree-like hierarchy with the exception that the child tables were allowed
to have more than one parent
Hierarchical Model
The hierarchical database stores data in a series of records. These records
have a set of field values attached to them. All instances of a specific
record are collected together as a "record type". It uses "Parent Child
Relationships" to create links between record types. It does this by using
trees
Database Management Systems:
Classification

Classification Based on Data Model

 Relational Model
 Network Model
 Hierarchical Model
Classification Based on User Numbers
 Single-user database system
 Multi user database system
Classification Based on Database Distribution
 Centralized systems
 Distributed database system
 Homogeneous
use the same DBMS software from multiple sites
 Heterogeneous
different sites might use different DBMS software
Database Management Systems:
Classification Based on Database Distribution
Centralized systems
DBMS and database are stored at a single site that is used by several other systems
too
Database Management Systems:
Classification Based on Database Distribution
Distributed database system
The actual database and the DBMS software are distributed from various
sites that are connected by a computer network
Overview of ER Modeling
(The Entity Relationship Data Model)
ER models, also called an ER schema, are
represented by ER diagrams
ER modeling is based on two concepts:
 Entities, defined as tables that hold specific
information (data)
 Relationships, defined as the associations or
interactions between entities
Overview of ER Modeling
(The Entity Relationship Data Model)
 Entity
 Attributes
 Relationship

Teacher Teaches Subject

Entity
An entity is an object in the real world with an
independent existence that can be differentiated
from other objects. An entity might be

 An object with physical existence (e.g., a lecturer, a

student, a car)
 An object with conceptual existence (e.g., a course, a job,
a position)

An entity is something of importance to a business or organization. When

the entity is something an organization or business wants to store, it
becomes a database table
Entity Set
 An entity set is a collection of entities of an entity type at a particular
point of time

For example, an Employee set may contain all the employees of an

organisation
Attributes
 Each entity is described by a set of attributes (e.g., Employee
= (Name, Address, Birthdate, Salary).
 Each attribute has a name, and is associated with an entity and
a domain of legal values

For example, a employee's name cannot be a numeric value. It has

to be alphabetic. An employee's age cannot be negative, etc.
Types of Attributes
 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are those drawn from the atomic
value(cannot be divided further) domains; they are also called single-valued
attributes.
For example, an Employee's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.

 Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one

simple attribute.
For example, Address may consist of House Number, Street and Area
Types of Attributes
 Derived attribute − Derived attributes are attributes that contain values
calculated from other attributes. These don’t exist in the physical database
For example, Age can be derived from the attribute Birthdate

 Multi-value attribute − Multivalued attributes are attributes that have a set of

values for each entity.
For example, an employee can have more than one Degree, phone number,
email address, etc.
Relationship

 Association between entities

 The glue that holds the tables together
 Used to connect related information between
tables.

For example, a teacher works at a department, a

student enrolls in a course. Here, Works at and Enrolls
are relationships.
Relationship

Relationships are represented by diamond-

shaped box. Name of the relationship is
written inside the diamond-box. All the
entities (represented as rectangles)
participating in a relationship, are connected
to it by a line.
Relationship
There are three different relationships between entities

 One-to-one − This exists when one entity is related to only one

other entity of a particular type.

For example, a business has multiple stores, each store location

has a single manager, the relationship between store and
manager is 1:1

1 Relationship
1
Entity Entity
Relationship
 One-to-many − These are the most common relationships and exist
when one entity can be related to more than one other entity

For example, if a supplier supplies more than one product to the

company, the relationship between the supplier and the products is
O:M

O M
Entity Relationship Entity
Relationship
 Many-to-Many − This relationship exists when one entity can be
related to multiple entities of the same type of the original entity

For example, if an order can contain multiple products and one

product can appear on many orders, the relationship between
orders and products is M:M

M M
Entity Relationship Entity
Keys
An important constraint on an entity is the key. The key is an attribute or a
group of attributes whose values can be used to uniquely identify an individual
entity in an entity set.
Types of Keys
 Candidate
 Composite
 Primary
 Foreign
 Alternate
Types of Keys
 Candidate Key
A candidate key is a simple or composite key that is unique.  It is unique
because no two rows in a table may have the same value at any time

 Composite Key
It consists of more than one attribute to uniquely identify rows (tuples) in a
table is called composite key
Keys
 Primary Key
The primary key is a candidate key that is selected by the database designer to be used as an identifying
mechanism for the whole entity set. It must uniquely identify tuples in a table. A table cannot have more than
one primary key

 Foreign Key
A foreign key (FK) is an attribute in a table that references the primary key in another table. They act as a cross-
reference between tables

 Alternate Key
Alternate keys are all candidate keys not chosen as the primary key.
ER Modeling Steps
 Identify the entities
 Find relationships
 Identify the key attributes for every entity
 Identify other relevant attributes
 Complete E-R diagram
 Review
ER Diagram Notations
Entity Weak Entity

Relationship

Attribute Key Attribute

Multivalued Derived
Attribute Attribute

O M
Cardinality Entity Entity
Normalization
 An entity relation diagram (ERD) provides the big picture,
or macro view, of an organization’s data requirements and
operations. This is created through an iterative process
that involves identifying relevant entities, their attributes
and their relationships

 Normalization procedure focuses on characteristics of

specific entities and represents the micro view of
entities within the ERD
Normalization
Normalization is basically to design a database schema such that duplicate and
redundant data is avoided. If some piece of data is duplicated several places in
the database, there is the risk that it is updated in one place but not the other,
leading to data corruption.
Normalization levels:
1NF
2NF
3NF
Each level describes how to get rid of some specific problem, usually related to
redundancy.
Normalization
Normalization is a method or database design technique which
organizes tables in a perfect way that reduces redundancy and
dependency of data. It divides larger tables to smaller tables and links
them using relationships.

Database with normalization errors means the risk of

getting invalid or corrupt data into the database

Normalization is a step by step process for transforming a table into

simpler tables, by removing a certain type of dependency at each step.
Normalization is usually performed when a table is being designed
Normalization
Imperfect database design may contain following anomalies:
Update anomalies 
anomalies that cause data inconsistencies
Deletion anomalies 
unintended loss of data
Insert anomalies
inability to add data
Normalization prevents data anomalies and bring the database to a consistent state.
Normalization: Example
Video Library

Customer Address Movies Salutation Category

Name Rented

Amit Jain Sector 4 DDLJ, Don Mr. Romantic,

Action

Yash Dev Model Town Karz, Bazigar Mr. Drama,

Thriller

Yash Dev 5th Avenue Yarana Mr. Drama

Movies Rented Column has multiple values

Normalization Levels
In the first normal form, only single values are permitted at the intersection of
each row and column; hence, there are no repeating groups. Each record needs
to be unique

Table: Customer
Customer Address Movies Salutation Category
Name Rented
Amit Jain Sector 4 DDLJ Mr. Romantic
Amit Jain Sector 4 Don Mr. Action
Yash Dev Model Town Karz Mr. Drama
Yash Dev Model Town Bazigar Mr. Thriller
Yash Dev 5th Avenue Yarana Dr. Drama
Normalization Levels
For the second normal form, the relation must first be in 1NF and there should be
single column Primary Key.

Membership ID Customer Name Address Salutation

1 Amit Jain Sector 4 Mr.

2 Yash Dev Model Town Mr.
3 Yash Dev 5th Avenue Dr.

Membership ID Movies Rented

1 DDLJ
1 Don
2 Karz
2 Bazigar
3 Yarana
Normalization Levels

Membership ID Customer Name Address Salutation

1 Amit Jain Sector 4 Mr.

2 Yash Dev Model Town Mr.

3 Yash Dev 5th Avenue Dr.

Normalization Levels
To be in third normal form, the relation must be in second normal form. Also all transitive
dependencies must be removed; a non-key attribute may not be functionally dependent on
another non-key attribute.

Membership ID Customer Name Address Salutation ID

1 Amit Jain Sector 4 1
2 Yash Dev Model Town 1
3 Yash Dev 5th Avenue 2

Membership ID Movies Rented Salutation ID Salutation

1 DDLJ
1 Don 1 Mr.
2 Karz
2 Bazigar 2 Dr.

3 Yarana
Overview of SQL
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is used to
communicate with a database. According to ANSI
(American National Standards Institute), it is the standard
language for relational database management systems

 SQL is a descriptive, entity-oriented query language for

data manipulation
 Today SQL is used either as a stand-alone programming
language or within other languages like C, C++, Java, ADA,
COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/1, PASCAL etc
Overview of SQL
 Structured Query Language (SQL) is a database language
designed for managing data held in a relational database
management system

 SQL was initially developed by IBM in the early 1970s and the
initial version was SEQUEL(Structured English Query Language)

 In the late 1970s, Relational Software Inc., which is now Oracle

Corporation, introduced the first commercially available
implementation of SQL
Overview of SQL
Some common relational database management
systems that use SQL
Overview of SQL
SQL statements are used to perform following tasks
Overview of SQL
SQL language is divided into four types of primary language
statements: DML, DDL, DCL and TCL

These statements are used to………

 Create the database and table structures
 Perform basic data management chores (add, delete and
modify)
 Perform complex queries to transform raw data into useful
information
 Control which user can read/write data or manage
transactions
Overview of SQL
 The four main categories of SQL
statements are as follows:

 DML (Data Manipulation Language)

 DDL (Data Definition Language)
 DCL (Data Control Language)
 TCL (Transaction Control Language)
SQL Commands
 DML statements include

SELECT – select records from a table

INSERT – insert new records
UPDATE – update/Modify existing records
DELETE – delete existing records

 DDL Statements include

CREATE – create a new Table, database, schema

ALTER – alter existing table, column description
DROP – delete existing Table from database
SQL Commands
 DCL statements control the level of access

GRANT – allows users to read/write on certain database objects

REVOKE – revoke users’ read/write permission on database objects

 TCL statements allow us to control and

manage transactions

COMMIT  – commits a transaction

ROLLBACK  – Rollback a transaction
Sources/References
https://opentextbc.ca/dbdesign01/

https://cnx.org/contents/tXuHYGiY@1/Database-System-Concepts

https://bus206.pressbooks.com/chapter/chapter-4-data-and-databases/

https://www.guru99.com/er-diagram-tutorial-dbms.html