Chemistry of Oils & Fats

• Made up of three
elements- Carbon, Atoms Carbon + Hydrogen
Oxygen and + Oxygen
Hydrogen.Combine
together form chains –
known as Fatty Acid
Molecules Fatty acids + glycerol
• Three fatty acid chains
join together and form
molecule known as
triglyceride, basis of
all oils and fats. Compounds Triglycerides

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Structure of Fatty Acid

• Saturated fats: Contain no double bond

• Monounsaturated: Contain one double bond
• Polyunsaturated: Contain More than One double bond

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Major Types of Fatty Acid

Stearic acid. A typical Saturated Fatty

saturated fatty acid. Acid

Oleic acid. A typical

monounsaturated fatty
acid.

Linoleic acid. An
omega-6 polyunsaturated Unsaturated
fatty acid Fatty Acids

Alfa Linolenic acid. An

omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acid

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Comparison of Dietary Fats

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General Composition

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Minor Components

Free Fatty Acids

Phospholipids (gums/lecithins)
Monoglycerides and diglycerides
Pigments (Carotenoids, Chlorophyll)
Trace Metals
Sulphur (in cottonseed oil)
Contaminants (e.g. pesticides,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
Undesirable taste components
(aldehydes, ketones)
Vitamins (Tocopherols) – desirable
minor constituent
Sterols – desirable minor
constituent

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Remove Impurities- Why

 Are not acceptable to the consumer

 Will cause the oil to become dark in colour
 Will cause the oil to smoke, foam or precipitate on
heating
 Will cause rancidity
 Will reduce keeping quality of the oil
 Will cause faster breakdown of oil

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Refining Process
Stage Impurities Removed
Degumming Phospholipids (Gums)
Neutralising Free Fatty Acid
Trace Metals
Pigments (Partially)

Bleaching Pigments
Oxidation Components
Trace metals and Soap
Contaminants

Deodorisation Free Fatty Acids

Oxy fatty Acids
Pigments

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9
 Frying

• Shallow frying is cooking process in highly heated oil, promoting browning of battered or non
battered foods

• Deep Fat frying is a cooking process that involves submerging a food in extremely hot oil in the
presence of air at a high temperature of 150°C to 190°C.

• Par-frying is a industrial process, food is partially dehydrated in a industrial fryer and flash frozen
at -20°C and packaged par-fried food stored at -5°C to -10°C before distribution in freezer trucks

• Frying oil plays a great role in quality of the fried product, acts as a heat transfer medium and
contributes to texture and flavor of fried food.

• Frying oil role in frying

 Texture
 Fried food flavor
 Mouthfeel
 Aftertaste

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 Selection basis
 Product flavor
 Product texture
 Product appearance
 Mouthfeel
 Aftertaste
 Shelf life of the product
 Availability of the oil
 Cost
 Nutritional requirements
To meet current market desire, frying oil must be
 Low in saturated fat
 Low in linolenic acid
 High oxidative and flavor stability
 Not hydrogenated (trans-fat free)

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Stages in Deep Frying

Convective flow of heat Stage 1 : Moisture Transfer

150-180°C Frying Oil in Fryer
• The moisture in the food is
gradually transported from the
103-150°C Boundary zone (crust) inside to the boundary layer.
100-103°C Evaporation zone • The thin layer of steam forms
100°C Migration zone between the oil and food
• Speed of transfer depend on the
75-100°C Liquid Water
structure of the outer crust
75°C Center of the food
Water

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Stages in Deep Frying

Convective flow of heat Stage 2 : Moisture replacement

150-180°C Frying Oil in Fryer
• Once Moisture transfer completed
temperature inside food starts to
rise above 100 dC.
103-150°C Boundary zone (crust)
• Moisture is replaced with hot oil into
100-103°C Evaporation zone
the core of food.
100°C Migration zone
• The moisture released from the food
75-100°C Liquid Water act as protective shield, preventing
direct contact of oxygen to the fat
75°C Center of the food surface.
Water

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Stages in Deep Frying

Convective flow of heat

150-180°C Frying Oil in Fryer Stage 3 : Crust Formation

• At this point typical deep frying

103-150°C Boundary zone (crust) aromas and flavours develop.
100-103°C Evaporation zone • Golden yellow colour begin to
100°C Migration zone develop.
• Crust with large number of pores
75-100°C Liquid Water and cavities forms at the surface.

75°C Center of the food

Water

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Stages in Deep Frying

Convective flow of heat

150-180°C Frying Oil in Fryer

Stage 4 : Interior cooking

103-150°C Boundary zone (crust)
• Once majority of moisture has
100-103°C Evaporation zone
evaporated hot oil enters the
100°C Migration zone
vacated cavities and cook inside.
75-100°C Liquid Water

75°C Center of the food

Water

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Chemical Changes in Oil During Frying
Causative agent Change effect New compounds

Moisture Hydrolysis Free fatty acids

Diaclyglycerol
Monoaclyglycerol
Air and Metals Oxidation Oxidized monomers
Oxidized dimers & polymers
Volatile compounds (aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons)
Sterol oxides
High Polymerizatio Dimers and non-polar polymers
temperature n Cyclic monomers
Trans isomers and position isomers

• While triglycerides are non polar, these breakdown compound are polar and
can be measured as TPM – Total polar material.
• Standard regulation on TPM is 25% Max in many country.

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Hydrolysis of Oil
• Hydrolysis in fats and oil due to lipolytic enzymes or moisture
• TAG + H2O Free fatty acids (FFAs) + di or monoacylglycerol
• More in oil with short-chain unsaturated fatty acids than long chain saturated fatty acids
• FFAs - Off flavors and decreases smoke point of the oil
• Frequent replacement of frying oil with fresh oil slows down the hydrolysis of frying oil.
• Large amount of water in food being fried hydrolyze the oil rapidly
• Oil and food both passes through an optimum stage after which quality of oil and product
flavor declines
• Unsaturated fatty acids decreases with increasing number or time of frying
 Oil and food both undergo severe changes due to frying, difficult to relate every change in
different frying process, because of the variables of oil, food and process conditions
 Understanding new compounds and their dependence on the main variables of the frying
process - Important

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 Oxidation of Oil

• Lipid oxidation during frying highly complex, since both oxidative and thermal
reaction occur simultaneously
• Oxidation during frying causes most significant changes in flavors of fried foods both
desired and undesired
• Thermal oxidation mechanism similar to autoxidation, but faster
• Autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids initiated by free radicals in the presence of
 Oxygen – during frying, air pulled into oil
 Metals (iron, copper, nickel etc.) – food or oil
• As the temperature increases, solubility of oxygen in oil decreases, although the
degradation reactions are accelerated

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 Polymerisation of Oil

• There are two type of Polymer may form in frying oil – oxidative Polymer and Thermal Polymer
• Oxidative polymer are formed in autooxidation when the free radicals and do not always
impart off flavor to the freshly fried food but within few days may exhibit rancid flavor
• Thermal polymers are formed under heat with or without oxygen where heat can cleave the
oil molecule and form large molecules.
• Polymeric compound formed with excessive heat and excessive fryer down time.
Polymers formed affects the quality of frying oil
 Accelerate further degradation of oil
 Increase oil viscosity
 Reduce heat transfer
 Induce foaming
 Develops undesirable color in fried food
 Increase absorption of oil in food

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 Physical and Chemical changes of oil during deep fat frying
Chemical Changes
• Increased free fatty acids
• Increased polar
compounds
• Increased saturation
• Increased high molecular
weight products
(polymerisation)
• Decreased flavour quality
• Decreased
polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fats

Physical Changes
• Increased viscosity and density
• Increased foaming and decrease smoke point
• Increased darkening of oil
• Increase oil absorption

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Deep Frying Quality Management

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Deep Frying Quality Management

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Deep Frying Quality Management

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