Basic Antenna Theory &

Communications Antenna
System

ComeC 513 2013

Agenda

Antenna definition
Antenna theory
Antenna parameters
Types of Antenna
Applications
Introduction

An ANTENNA is a conductor, or system of

conductors, that radiates or receives energy in
the form of electromagnetic waves.

Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into

space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from
space

The antenna converts radio frequency electrical

energy fed to it (via the transmission line) to an
electromagnetic wave propagated into space.
Antenna

An antenna is a circuit element that provides a transition from a

guided wave on a transmission line to a free space wave and it
provides for the collection of electromagnetic energy.
Antenna Definition-cont’d
In transmit systems the RF signal is generated,
amplified, modulated and applied to the
antenna
In receive systems the antenna collects
electromagnetic waves that are “cutting”
through the antenna and induce alternating
currents that are used by the receiver
Antenna Types
High Frequency
1.6 - 30 Mhz + 50 Mhz
160 - 6 meters

An antenna’s size/length depends on the

frequency
It’s functionality largely depends on the
height above ground, as well as the polarity
and it’s configuration
Antennas
 A good antenna works
 A bad antenna is a waste of time & money
 Antenna systems can be very inexpensive and simple
 They can also be very, very expensive

Antenna Considerations
–The space available for an antenna
–The proximity to neighbors
–The operating frequencies you will use
–The output power
–Money
Isotropic Antenna
 The isotropic antenna is a hypothetical point source.
 It does not exist in reality but is considered as an
important starting point considering different antennas
from the theoretical to the practical
 The pattern is a Cardioid - a donut shape or a sphere
Current and voltage distribution on an antenna.

1. A current flows in the

antenna with an amplitude
that varies with the generator
voltage. 

1. A sinusoidal distribution of
charge exists on the
antenna. Every 1/2 cycle, the
charges reverse polarity. 

2. The sinusoidal variation in

charge magnitude lags the
sinusoidal variation in current
by 1/4 cycle.
Standing waves
of voltage and
current on an
antenna.
Reciprocity
An antenna ability to transfer energy form the
atmosphere to its receiver with the same
efficiency with which it transfers energy from the
transmitter into the atmosphere.

Antenna characteristics are essentially the

same regardless of whether an antenna is
sending or receiving electromagnetic energy
Reciprocity

RECIPROCITY of
antennas means that
the various properties
of the antenna apply
equally to transmitting
and receiving
Polarization
Polarization is the direction of the electric field
and is the same as the physical attitude of the
antenna

A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically

polarized wave

The receive and transmit antennas need to

possess the same polarization
Antenna Polarization
- Vertical or horizontal
 Vertical waves travel @ 90 to the earths surface
 Horizontal waves travel parallel to the earth’s surface
 Usually wire antennas are horizontal but an inverted
‘V’ dipole has a vertical component
 Yagi type antennas can be either vertical or
horizontal
 Circular antennas can be both vertical and horizontal
 Usually, horizontally polarized antennas receives less
noise
Terms And Definitions
RADIATION RESISTANCE is the amount of
resistance which, if inserted in place of the
antenna, would consume the same amount of
power that is actually radiated by the antenna.

RADIATION PATTERNS can be plotted on a

rectangular- or polar-coordinate graph. These
patterns are a measurement of the energy
leaving an antenna.
Dipole antenna
Dipole Antenna

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: vertical  TV “Rabbit ears”
 Beamwidth: 80° x 360°  FM radio (folded dipole)
 Bandwidth: 10%  Radio mast transmitters
 Gain: 2 dB

EEE381B
Simplified Radiation Patterns
Elevation,
El

Azimuth,
Az

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3-D pattern

• Antenna radiation pattern is 3-

dimensional

 The 3-D plot of antenna pattern

assumes both angles θ and ϕ varying,
which is difficult to produce and to
interpret 3-D pattern

Source: NK Nikolova
 Reference antenna (λ/2 dipole)

• Isotropic antenna or isotropic radiator is a hypothetical (not

physically realizable) concept, used as a useful reference to describe
real antennas.

Isotropic antenna radiates equally in all directions. Its radiation

pattern is represented by a sphere whose center coincides with the
location of the isotropic radiator.
Source: NK Nikolova
Generally speaking, there are two ‘types’ of antenna:

1. Directional
- this type of antenna has a narrow beamwidth; with
the power being more directional, greater distances
are usually achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
- Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic antennae
2. Omni-Directional
- this type of antenna has a wide beamwidth and
radiates 3600; with the power being more spread out,
shorter distances are achieved but greater coverage
attained
- Omni antenna
Omni
- typical gains of 3 to 10 dBi
Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern is an indication of radiated field
strength around the antenna.

Power radiated from a /2 dipole occurs at right

angles to the antenna with no power emitting
from the ends of the antenna.

Optimum signal strength occurs at right angles or

180° from opposite the antenna
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of
an antenna
Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Beamwidth (or half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern
Radiation Pattern for Vertical Antennas

/4

/2

antenna
 Antenna Radiation Patterns
Common parameters
– main lobe (boresight)
– half-power beamwidth (HPBW)
– front-back ratio (F/B)
– pattern nulls

Typically measured in two planes:

• Vector electric field referred to E-field

• Vector magnetic field referred to H-field
Typical Radiation Pattern for an Omni
A LOBE is the area
of a radiation pattern
that is covered by
radiation.

A NULL is the area

of a radiation pattern
that has minimum
radiation.
Beamwidth

Beamwidth is the angular separation

of the half-power points of the
radiated pattern
Directional Antenna
beamwidth
Max power
• A Radiated energy is
focused in a specific
direction

antenna
2 dipole Power 3dB down
from maximum
point A
TYPES OF ANTENNAS
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all
directions
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or
Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna
(or Marconi antenna)
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
Antenna
HERTZ (half-wave) and MARCONI (quarter-
wave) are the two basic classifications of
antennas.
 HERTS ANTENNA OR HALFWAVE
DIPOLE -consists of two lengths of
rod or tubing, each a quarter-wave
long at a certain frequency, which
radiates a doughnut pattern.

 physical length - one-half wavelength

of the applied frequency
 called a Hertz antenna or a half-wave
dipole antenna.
 Hertz antennas are not found at
frequencies below 2MHz because of
the physical size needed of the
antenna to represent a half-wave.
 A QUARTER-WAVE
ANTENNA (Marconi) is a ¼
antennna (total of half-wave
antenna) cut in half with one
end grounded.
 Also called Vertical Antennas
are used for frequencies under
2 MHz.
 It uses a conducting path to
ground that acts as ¼
wavelength portion the antenna
above the ground.
 The above ground structure
represents a /4 wavelength
Types of Antennas
Simple wire
– Dipole
– Folded dipole
– Trap dipole
– Offset or Windom antenna
– Phased dipoles
– Vertical or horizontal (both)
– Beverage wave antenna
Types of Antennas
–Metal
–Vertical
–Yagi
–Trap Yagi
–Phased arrays
–Loops
–Vertical or Horizontal
–Horns for super ultra high frequencies
–Mobile antennas
Horizontal and Dipole Antennas
A “horizontal antenna” is an antenna that is a simple dipole
mounted so the elements are parallel to the earth's surface.
So what’s a dipole?

A dipole antenna consists of two sections that are

each approximately one-quarter of the wavelength
of that band, so that the total length is equal to
about one-half wavelength. It is a simple antenna
designed to work best on a single band.
The transmission line from the radio is connected
to this antenna in the middle of the two sections.

38
 Dipole Antenna

This is an example of a dipole antenna. Many hams getting on HF for

the first time often start with a dipole. If you have the room for one, the
dipole is cheap and easy to build.

39
Dipole Antenna
Vertical Antennas
 A “Vertical Antenna”- is an antenna that consists of a
single element mounted perpendicular to the earth's
surface.

 Most mobile antennas are verticals.

 Verticals usually require some sort of counterpoise to
work their best. In a fixed station, a vertical may either be
mounted on the ground or on a mast, and it may also
have several radials for counterpoise.
 These radials may be laid out on the ground, as in the
next slide, or mounted just underneath the vertical
element, as in an elevated ground plane.
 In a mobile installation, the metal body of the car usually
serves as the counterpoise.
Vertical (Marconi) Antenna – cont’d
Poor grounding conditions of the earth/soil
surrounding the antenna can result in serious
signal attenuation.

This problem is alleviated by installing a

counterpoise
Counterpoise
Counterpoise is a grounding grid established
where the earth grounding cannot satisfy
electrical requirements for circuit completion.

It is designed to be non-resonant at the

operating frequency
Counterpoise-cont’d
radius = ¼ 

antenna

supports
 Typical Ground-Mounted Vertical

This is a rough diagram of a ground-mounted vertical. The

orange radials you see may be laid along the top of the ground or
buried just beneath the surface.

45
The GROUND SCREEN and the COUNTERPOISE are used to reduce
losses caused by the ground in the immediate vicinity of the antenna. The
ground screen is buried below the surface of the earth. The counterpoise
is installed above the ground.
 Ground Plane Antenna

Ground plane antenna – another type of vertical

antenna. It is designed to be mounted on a mast,
and usually has three or four radials coming from
the base of the antenna.
47
Whip Antenna

El

Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: vertical  Automobile radio and satellite
 Beamwidth: 45° x 360° signals
 Bandwidth: 10%  Military (army)
 Gain: 0 dB communications
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 Loop

El

Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: horizontal  AM Broadcasting
 Beamwidth: 80° x 360°
 Bandwidth: 10%
 Gain: -2 dB

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The FOLDED DIPOLE consists of a dipole
radiator, which is connected in parallel at its ends
to a half-wave radiator.
A LONG-WIRE ANTENNA is an antenna that is a
wavelength or more long at the operating
frequency.

These antennas have directive patterns that are

sharp in both the horizontal and vertical planes.
BEVERAGE ANTENNAS consist of a single wire
that is two or more wavelengths long.
A V ANTENNA is a bidirectional antenna consisting
of two horizontal, long wires arranged to form a V.
 The RHOMBIC ANTENNA uses four conductors joined to
form a rhombus shape. This antenna has a wide frequency
range, is easy to construct and maintain, and is noncritical as
far as operation and adjustment are concerned.
Helical

El & Az

Characteristics
 Polarization: circular (axial Typical Applications
 Mobile communications
mode)
 GPS
 Beamwidth: 50° x 50°
 Space communication
 Bandwidth: 70%
 Animal tracking
 Gain: 10 dB
The TURNSTILE ANTENNA consists of two
horizontal, half-wire antennas mounted at right
angles to each other.
 ANTENNA LOADING is the method used to change the
electrical length of an antenna.

 This keeps the antenna in resonance with the applied

frequency. It is accomplished by inserting a variable
inductor or capacitor in series with the antenna.
Antenna Array
Antenna array is a group of antennas or antenna
elements arranged to provide the desired directional
characteristics.

Generally any combination of elements can form an

array. However, equal elements in a regular geometry are
usually used.
AN ARRAY is a combination of half-wave elements operating together
as a single antenna. It provides more gain and greater directivity than
single element antennas.

A DRIVEN ARRAY derives its power directly from the source.

A PARASITIC ARRAY derives its power by coupling the energy from other
elements of the antenna.

The BIDIRECTIONAL ARRAY radiates energy equally in two opposing

directions.
The UNIDIRECTIONAL ARRAY radiates energy efficiently in a single
direction.

The COLLINEAR ARRAY has elements in a straight line. Maximum

radiation occurs at right angles to this line.
The BROADSIDE ARRAY has elements parallel and in the same plane.
Maximum radiation develops in the plane at right angles to the plane of the
elements.
•The BROADSIDE ARRAY has elements parallel and in the same
plane. Maximum radiation develops in the plane at right angles to the
plane of the elements.
The END-FIRE ARRAY has elements parallel to each other and in
the same plane. Maximum radiation occurs along the axis of the array.
Phased Array

El

Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: linear / circular  Radio broadcasting
 Beamwidth: 0.5° x 30°  Search & track radar
 Bandwidth: varies  Weather radar
 Gain: 10 to 40 dB
 (severe storm watch)
Military Phased Array Usage
Phased array antennas
Phased array antennas have become an
extremely important type of radar for military
use, particularly airborne use.
In radar applications, phased arrays permit
near instant switching from one target to
another, and from search to track mode.
Phased arrays combined with “smart skin”
technology have radically altered airborne
avionics designs.
 Basic phased array architecture
Steering angle, s

Element spacing

Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase

Shifter Shifter Shifter Shifter Shifter Shifter

Signal
Divider / EEE381B
Combiner
Phased array gain
The gain of a phase array antenna is a
function of the number of elements in the
array and the gain of the individual elements

For half-wavelength element spacing, the gain at

boresight is given by:
G = 10 log (N) + Ge
The gain off-boresight is reduced by the cosine of
the steering angle, s:
G = 10 log (N) + Ge + 10 log (cos s)

EEE381B
Phased array beamwidth
The beamwidth of a phased array antenna is a
function of the number of elements.
For a half-wavelength phased array of dipole
elements the half-power beamwidth is given by:

3-dB B = 102/N where N = no. of arrays

The beamwidth at off-boresight steering angles

increases with the cosine of s :

3-dB B = (102/N) / cos(s)

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Beam steering limitations
A phased array antenna with half-wavelength
spacing is limited to beam steering angles of
45 off boresight.

Greater steering angles can be achieved by

reducing the element separation at the
expense of boresight gain.

EEE381B
Pointers in antenna design:

MATCHING STUBS are used between elements to maintain

current in the proper phase.

The GAIN OF A COLLINEAR ANTENNA is greatest when the

elements are spaced from 0.4 to 0.5 wavelength apart or when
the number of elements is increased.

The OPTIMUM GAIN OF A BROADSIDE ARRAY is obtained

when the elements are spaced 0.65 wavelength apart.

A PARASITIC ARRAY consists of one or more parasitic

elements with a driven element. The amount of power gain and
directivity depends on the lengths of the parasitic elements and
the spacing between them.
ARRAYS, such as the YAGI, have a narrow Frequency
response as well as a narrow beamwidth.
Yagi-Uda Antenna
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a simple form of a
directional antenna based on a reflector
placed /4 from the dipole antenna
placement.
Yagi-Uda Antenna-cont’d

reflector
 /2 /4

dipole
antenna
 Radiated Directed Signal

antenna

2 dipole radiated signal 2 dipole radiated signal

without reflector with reflector
The Antenna Formula

c

f = frequency of the signal

c = is the speed of light = 186,000 mi/sec
 = is the wavelength of the signal, use 3 x 108
when dealing in meters for the speed of light
 The Antenna Formula - applied
If a half-wave dipole antenna needed to be
constructed for a 60 Hz signal, how large
would it need to be?

  c  186,000 misec

= 3100 mi
60

2 = 1550 miles!

Radiation & Induction Fields

The mechanics launching radio frequencies

from an antenna are not fully understood.
The RF fields that are created around the
antenna have specific properties that affect
the signals transmission.
The radiated field is known as the radiation
field
Radiation & Induction Fields-cont’d
There are two induction fields or areas where
signals collapse and radiate from the antenna.
They are known as the near field and far
field.
The distance that antenna inductance has on
the transmitted signal is directly proportional
to antenna height and the dimensions of the
wave.
2
R 2D

Radiation & Induction Fields-cont’d

R  2D 2


Where: R = the distance from the antenna
D = dimension of the antenna
 = wavelength of the transmitted
signal
 Radiation Resistance
Radiation Resistance is the portion of the antenna’s
impedance that results in power radiated into space
(i.e., the effective resistance that is related to the power
radiated by the antenna.

Radiation resistance varies with antenna length.

Resistance increases as the  increases
Antenna Impedance
A proper Impedance Match is essential for maximum
power transfer. The antenna must also function as a
matching load for the Transmitter ( 50 ohms).

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), is an indicator

of how well an antenna matches the transmission line
that feeds it. It is the ratio of the forward voltage to the
reflected voltage.

The better the match, the lower the VSWR. A value of

1.5:1 over the frequency band of interest is a practical
maximum limit.
• Return Loss is related to VSWR, and is a measure of
the signal power reflected by the antenna relative to
the forward power delivered to the antenna.
• The higher the value (usually expressed in dB), the
better.
• A figure of 13.9dB is equivalent to a VSWR of 1.5:1.
• A Return Loss of 20dB is considered quite good, and
is equivalent to a VSWR of 1.2:1.
VSWR Return Loss Transmission Loss

1.0:1  0.0 dB

1.2:1 20.83 dB 0.036 dB

1.5:1 13.98 dB 0.177 dB

5.5:1 3.19 dB 2.834 dB

 Point-Source Radiator
 Consider a source of electro-magnetic radiation that
radiates in all directions equally.
 Such a source is called isotropic.
 Let the total power radiated by the source be PT .
 Let the source be surrounded by a sphere or radius d.
 If there are no objects inside the sphere to absorb or reflect
the radiation, all of the power from the source will hit or
cross the sphere.
 The surface area of a sphere is 4πd2.
Power Concentrator
• If a reflector were added to the point source, more of
the power would go in one direction that the others.

• This increase in power (over isotropic) can be

expressed as the power gain GT of the antenna.

• Since the antenna is a passive device, it cannot

actually increase the total power radiated.

• The higher the gain of the antenna, the more focused

is the power in one direction.

• The gain only applies along the bore sight of the

antenna.
Antenna Gain

• The antenna power gain is defined as

• Since an antenna is a passive device, it has the

same gain whether it is transmitting or receiving.
 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
The Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) of
an antenna is power input required of an isotropic
antenna to produce the same power density on the
bore sight as the actual antenna.
PERIP = PT GT
Power Density at d = (PERIP )/ (4πd2)
= (PT GT )/(4πd2) (w/m2)
d = distance from the antenna

The EIRP is the transmitted power multiplied by the

gain of the transmitting antenna.
 Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

ERP = the power input value multiplied by the

gain of the antenna

dBi = isotropic radiator gain

dBd = dipole antenna gain
Effective Area

If the receiving antenna is placed d meters from

the transmitting antenna, it will act like a catcher’s
mitt and intercept the power in an effective area
of Ae (m2).

watt
Effective area - Related to physical size and shape of
antenna
Antenna Gain

Antenna gain is the measure in dB

how much more power an antenna
will radiate in a certain direction with
respect to that which would be
radiated by a reference antenna
Antenna Gain

Directive Gain – ratio of the power density in a particular

direction of one antenna to the power density that would
be radiated by an omnidirectional antenna (isotropic
antenna).

Directivity – refers to the ability of an antenna to send

and/or receive signals over a narrow horizontal
directional range.

Gain of Hertzian Dipole with respect to an isotropic

antenna = 1.5:1 or 10 log 1.5 = 1.76 dB gain over
isotropic source.

The gain of a half-wave dipole compared to the isotropic

antenna = 1.64:1 or 10 log 1.64 = 2.15 dB.
Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective
area
4Ae 4f Ae 2
G 2 
 c2
 G = antenna gain
 Ae = effective area
 f = carrier frequency
 c = speed of light (3 X 108 m/s)
  = carrier wavelength
 Antennas – Gain
Gain

The power gain, G, of an antenna is very much like its

directive gain, but also takes into account efficiency

G   ,    eD   ,  

The maximum power gain

Gmax  eDmax

The maximum power gain is often expressed in dB.

Gmax  dB   10 log 10  Gmax 
Antenna Height
Antenna height above the ground is directly related to
radiation resistance. Ground reflections causing out-
of-phase signals to be radiated to receiving antennas
will degrade the transmission.

Physical length and electrical length of most antennas

are approximately 95% of the physical length. Ideal
antenna height is usually based on trial and error
procedures
Dipole Length:

Antenna is a frequency sensitive device.

λ = c/f
λ = 984/f(MHz); λ/2 = 492/f(MHz) (feet)

Example:

f = 122 MHz
λ/2 = 492/f(MHz) = 492/122 = 4.033 feet.

End Effect:
λ/2 = 492/f(MHz) x 0.95 = 468/f(MHz)

If f= 27 MHz. L = 468/27 = 17.333 feet,

therefore λ/4 = 8.66 feet.
Antenna Q and Bandwidth:

Bandwidth is determined by the frequency of operation while “Q” is the

quality of the antenna circuit.

BW = f/Q

If Q is high bandwidth is narrow, if Q is low, BW is wider.

For resonant circuit Q>10, which makes the circuit more selective.
SWR below 2:1 – good design

Q and BW- are determined primarily by the ratio of the length to the
diameter of the conductor. Also affected by the number of conductors
used and their spacing to the dipole.

Q= XL / R
BW = F/Q
Note: Lowering Q increases the BW; lower Xl reduces Q and increases BW. UHF
antenna- short and fat conductors are used to improve Q and BW.
Problem:

Determine the length of an antenna operating at

frequency 500 KHz.

λ = c/f c= velocity of EMW

L = c/f x 0.95 Vf= 0.95 c (end effect)

L = (3x 108 / 5 X 105)X 0.95 = 570 meters

or 2244 feet
Antenna Characteristics:

1.The longer the antenna length, the higher the directive gain.
HW dipole Gain = 1.64 (2.15dB); 8λ dipole Gain = 7.1
(8.51dB)
2. Non-resonant antenna have higher directive gain than
resonant antenna.

Non-resonant Antenna (Directional Antenna) – similar to a

properly terminated transmission line, produces no standing
waves. Reflected waves are suppressed by the terminating
resistance (resistor) at the point farthest from the feed point.

Resonant Antenna – standing waves exist; a multiple of half-

wavelenghts of the signal frequency.
Directivity and Power Gain

Power Gain – comparison of the output power of an

antenna in a certain direction to that of an isotropic
antenna.

Antenna Gain – is the power ratio comparison between

an omnidirectional and unidirectional radiator.

A(dB) = 10 log (P2/P1)

Where: P1 = power of unidirectional antenna

P2 = power of the reference antenna

Problem:

A half-wave dipole antenna is capable of radiating 1-kW

and has a 2.15 dB gain over an isotropic antenna. How
much power will be delivered to the isotropic
(omnidirectional) antenna, to match the filed strength of
a directional antenna?

A(dB) = 10 log (P2/P1)

2.15 dB = 10 log (P2/1000)

P2/1000 = log -1 (2.15/10)

P2 = 1.64 x 1000 = 1640 watts

ERP (Effective Radiated Power) - field gain of the
antenna and the efficiency of the transmitter.

ERP = Po x (Field Gain)2

Example:

If an antenna has a field gain of 2 and the transmitter

has an overall efficiency of 50% (circuit and x’mission
line losses) then, if a 1-kW signal is fed to the finals,
this will results in 500 w being fed to the antenna.
What is the ERP?

ERP = Po x (Field Gain)2 = 500 x 2 2

= 2000 w
Radiation and Field Intensity

Field Intensity – the field of an antenna’s radiation at a

given point in space, is equal to the amount of voltage
induced in a wire antenna 1 meter long, located a that
given point.

Factors affecting FI: time, atmospheric condition and

distance.

Antenna Resistance – hypothetical value which, if

replaced by an equivalent resistor, would dissipate exactly
the same amount of power that the antenna would
radiate. This is the ration of the power radiated by the
antenna to the square of the current at the feed point.
Antenna Losses and Efficiency

Antenna Losses – due to the ground resistance, corona effects,

imperfect dielectric near the antenna, energy loss due to eddy current
induced into nearby metallic objects, and I2R losses in the antenna
itself.

Pin = Pd + Prad
Pin – power delivered to the feed point
Pd – power lost
Prad – power actually radiated

I2 Rin = I2Rd + I2Rrad

Rin = Rd+ Rrad

Antenna Efficiency = η = (Rrad / (Rd + Rrad )

Low and medium frequency antenna approximately 75 to 95 %

efficiency. HF antenna have approximately 100% efficency.
 Antennas – Efficiency
Efficiency
Power is fed to an antenna through a T-Line and
the antenna appears as a complex impedance
Z ant  Rant  jX ant .
where the antenna resistance consists of
radiation resistance and and a dissipative
resistance.
Rant  Rrad  Rdis
j
For the antenna is driven by phasor current I o  I s e

The power radiated by the antenna is The power dissipated by ohmic losses is
1 1
Prad  2
I Rrad
o
Pdiss  I o2 Rdiss
2 2
An Antenna Efficiency “e” can be defined as the ratio of the radiated
power to the total power fed to the antenna.
Prad Rrad
e 
Prad  Pdiss Rrad  Rdiss
Example
Suppose an antenna has directivity (gain) D = 4, Rrad = 40 
and Rdiss = 10 . Find antenna efficiency and maximum power
gain.

Antenna efficiency is
Rrad 40
e   0.8 (or) 80%
Rrad  Rdiss 10  40

Maximum power gain is

Gmax  eDmax   4   0.8   3.2

Maximum power gain in dB is

Gmax  dB   10log 10  Gmax   10 log 10  3.2   5.05

Polarization
An antennas polarization is relative to the E-
field of antenna.
– If the E-field is horizontal, than the antenna is
Horizontally Polarized.
– If the E-field is vertical, than the antenna is
Vertically Polarized.

No matter what polarity you choose, all antennas in

the same RF network must be polarized identically
regardless of the antenna type.
Polarization may deliberately be used to:
– Increase isolation from unwanted signal sources (Cross
Polarization Discrimination (x-pol) typically 25 dB)
– Reduce interference
– Help define a specific coverage area

Horizontal

Vertical
More on Dipoles
Dipoles may be mounted either horizontally or
vertically, depending on the intended use.
May be made from wire or metal tubing, and are
very easy for a new ham to construct.
Wire dipoles are also fairly inexpensive and
simple to design.

With an antenna tuner, they can also be made

to work on several bands. For these reasons,
they are very popular with new hams (amateur
radio) on the HF bands.

110
Beam Antennas

A “beam antenna” is an antenna that concentrates signals in one direction.

It is designed to focus all of the energy produced by your transmitter in the

direction you want to work. Focusing your signal power in one direction
makes for a stronger signal in that direction. Beams are effective, but
depending on the bands covered and type, they can be expensive.
112
 Beam Antennas - Quad

The quad, Yagi, and dish are all examples of beam

antennas. A quad antenna looks something like a metal
frame for a box kite. If you look closely, you can see the
antenna wires supported by the “X” framework.
113
Quad antenna
 Beam Antennas - Yagi

The yagi is a one dimensional beam antenna

consisting of several elements. It may be mounted
horizontally, as shown here, or vertically.

115
Log Periodic
El

Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: vertical / horizontal  Amateur radio
 Beamwidth: 80° x 60°
 Bandwidth: 10 to 1
 Gain: 6 to 8 dB

EEE381B
Yagi
El

Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: horizontal  WWII airborne radar
 Beamwidth: 90° x 50°  Amateur radio
 Bandwidth: 5%
 Gain: 5 to 15 dB

EEE381B
 Yagi
- better suited for shorter links
- lower dBi gain; usually between 7 and 15 dBi
Typical Radiation Pattern for a Yagi
LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA
Cavity Backed Spiral

El & Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: circular  Radar altimeter
 Beamwidth: 80° x 80°  Electronic warfare
 Bandwidth: 9 to 1
 Gain: -15 to +3 dB

EEE381B
Conical Spiral

El & Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: circular  Ground penetrating radar
 Beamwidth: 60° x 60°  Electronic warfare
 Bandwidth: 4 to 1
 Gain: 5 to 8 dB

EEE381B
Horn
El

Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: linear / circular  Radio astronomy
 Beamwidth: 40° x 30°  Electronic warfare
 Bandwidth: 4 to 1  Antenna testing
 Gain: 4 to 10 dB

EEE381B
Largest Horn Antenna

It was from this historic radio astronomy horn

antenna that microwave background radiation
was discovered, helping to confirm the “Big
Bang” theory
EEE381B
 Beam Antennas - Dish

Another beam antenna is the dish or parabolic

reflector. It is often used to receive UHF signals or
TV signals beamed from satellites, such as Dish
Network ® antennas.
127
Parabolic
El & Az

Characteristics Typical Applications

 Polarization: depends on feed  Satellite TV
 Beamwidth: 0.5° x 30°  Cellular telephony, Wi-Fi
 Bandwidth: varies  Radio astronomy
 Gain: 10 to 55 dB  Search & track radar

EEE381B
PARABOLIC ANTENNA
The parabolic dish antenna -
consists of one circular
parabolic reflector and a point
source situated in the focal
point of this reflector. This
point source is called „primary
feed” or „feed”.

The circular parabolic

(paraboloid) reflector is
constructed of metal, usually a
frame covered by metal mesh
at the inner side. The width of
the slots of the metal mesh
has to be less than λ/10. This
metal covering forms the
reflector acting as a mirror for
the radar energy.
Parabolic
- used in medium to long links
- gains of 18 to 28 dBi
- most common
Typical Radiation Pattern for a Parabolic
PARABOLIC ANTENNA
RADIATION PATTERN
THE CASEGRAIN ANTENNA

In telecommunication and radar use, a Cassegrain antenna is an antenna in

which the feed radiator is mounted at or near the surface of a concave main
reflector and is aimed at a convex subreflector. Both reflectors have a common
focal point. Energy from the feed unit (a feed horn mostly) illuminates the
secondary reflector, which reflects it back to the main reflector, which then forms
the desired forward beam.
QUESTIONS
Isotropic Source

1. What is an isotropic antenna? hypothetical

point source
2. Describe the antenna radiation pattern for an
isotropic radiator? A sphere
3. What determines the polarization of an
antenna? the electric field
4. What does horizontal wave polarization mean?
The electric lines of force of the radio wave
is parallel to the earth's surface
5. What does vertical wave polarization mean?
The electric lines of force of a radio wave
are perpendicular to the earth's surface
1. What electromagnetic wave polarization does a Yagi
antenna have when its elements are parallel to the
earth's surface? Horizontal
2. What electromagnetic wave polarization does a half-
wavelength antenna have when it is perpendicular to
the earth's surface? Vertical
3. VHF signals from a mobile station using a vertical whip
antenna will normally be best received using a:
vertical ground-plane antenna
4. A dipole antenna will emit a vertically polarized wave if
it is: Parallel with the ground mounted vertically
5. If an electromagnetic wave leaves an antenna vertically
polarized, it will arrive at the receiving antenna, by
ground wave: vertically polarized
6. Compared with a horizontal antenna, a vertical antenna
will receive a vertically polarized radio wave:
at greater strength
 Microwave Parameters:
B. Parabolic Antenna Gain, G
General Equation:
2
 D 
G   
  

where:
D = antenna diameter in m
λ = signal wavelength in m
η = efficiency

141
 Microwave Parameters:

Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η (0.55 to 0.75):

2
D
G  6 

Parabolic Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η (0.55 to
0.75) in Metric system:

G  42.4  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 D( m )

G  17.8  20 log10 f (GHz )  20 log10 D( m )

142
 Microwave Parameters:

Parabolic Antenna Gain for Typical Values of

η (0.55 to 0.75) in English system:

G  52.6  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 D( ft )

G  7.5  20 log10 f (GHz )  20 log10 D( ft )

143
 Sectoral
- directional in
nature, but can be
adjusted anywhere
from 450 to 1800
- typical gains vary
from 10 to 19 dBi
 0 0

-15 -15
-20 -20
-30 -30
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90 270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90

180 180

Typical Radiation Pattern for a Sector

Smart Antennas
Beamforming Antenna
Beamforming Antenna Array
Smart Antennas
Smart antennas (also known as adaptive
array antennas, multiple antennas and,
recently, MIMO)

are antenna arrays with smart signal

processing algorithms used to identify spatial
signal signature such as the direction of
arrival (DOA) of the signal, and use it to
calculate beamforming vectors, to track and
locate the antenna beam on the mobile/target.
The antenna could optionally be any sensor.
Smart Antennas
 Smart Antennas are base station antennas with a
pattern that is not fixed, but adapts to the current
radio conditions
 Smart Antennas have the possibility for a large
increase in capacity: an increase of three times
for TDMA systems and five times for CDMA
systems has been reported.
 Major drawbacks and cost factors include
increased transceiver complexity and more
complex radio resource management
 Smart Antennas
The idea of smart antennas is to use base station
antenna patterns that are not fixed, but adapt to
the current radio conditions.
This can be visualized as the antenna directing a
beam toward the communication partner only
Smart antenna techniques are used notably in
acoustic signal processing, track and scan
RADAR, radio astronomy and radio telescopes,
and mostly in cellular systems like W-CDMA
and UMTS.
Smart Antennas
Smart antennas add a new way of separating
users, namely by space, through SDMA
(space division multiple access)

By maximizing the antenna gain in the desired

direction and simultaneously placing minimal
radiation pattern in the directions of the
interferers, the quality of the communication
link can be significantly improved
Smart Antenna
Elements of a Smart Antenna
Smart antennas consists of a number of radiating
elements, a combining/dividing network and a
control unit
Phased Array Antenna
Phased Array antennas are a
combination of antennas in which
there is a control of the phase and
power of the signal applied at each
antenna resulting in a wide variety
of possible radiation patterns
Types of Intelligent Antennas
Switched lobe (SL):
 This is also called switched beam.
 It is the simplest technique, and comprises only a
basic switching function between separate
directive antennas or predefined beams of an
array.
 The setting that gives the best performance,
usually in terms of received power, is chosen
Intelligent Antennas-
Dynamically phased array (PA):

By including a direction of arrival (DoA) algorithm

for the signal received from the user, continuous
tracking can be achieved and it can be viewed as
a generalization of the switched lobe concept
Intelligent Antennas-
 Adaptive array (AA): In this case, a DoA algorithm for
determining the direction toward interference sources
(e.g., other users) is added.
 The radiation pattern can then be adjusted to null out
the interferers.
 In addition, by using special algorithms and space
diversity techniques, the radiation pattern can be
adapted to receive multipath signals which can be
combined.
 These techniques will maximize the Signal To
Interference Ratio (SIR)
SMDA
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

(SDMA) implies that more than one user can be

allocated to the same physical communications
channel simultaneously in the same cell, only
separated by angle.

In a TDMA system, two users will be allocated to

the same time slot and carrier frequency at the
same time and in the same cell
SMDA-
In systems providing full SDMA, there will be
much more intracell handovers than in
conventional TDMA or CDMA systems, and more
monitoring by the network is necessary
 Antenna Installation Considerations

Safety
standard operating procedure priority
Grounding
lightning strikes
static charges
Surge protection
lightning searches for a second path to ground
 Antenna Installation
Considerations-
Adaptive array antenna placement needs to be
considered differently than current technologies
serving the mobile environment.

They need to be placed so as to have a greater

angular approach to the receiving units.

Existing tower placement with close proximity to

roads and highways would need to be reconsidered.
Antenna Installation Considerations

Base, mast, and supporting

structure needs clearance,
serviceability (access), and
complies with the municipal
guidelines (electrical and building
code)
Antenna selection
Selection of an appropriate antenna for a system
is highly application dependent
Factors include:
Angular coverage
Frequency of operation & bandwidth
Polarization
Power gain

EEE381B
Antenna types]
Angular Polarization Bandwidth Type
Coverage
Linear Narrow Whip, dipole, loop
360° Wide Biconical, swastika
azimuth Circular Narrow Helix
Wide Conical spiral
Linear Narrow Yagi, dipole array
Directional Wide Log periodic, horn, dish*
Circular Narrow Horn with polarizer
Wide Cavity-backed spiral, dish*

* Dish characteristics depend on the feed

EEE381B
QUESTIONS?????
1. What are the two basic classifications of antennas? 
2. What are the three parts of a complete antenna system? 
3. What three factors determine the type, size, and shape of
an antenna? 
4. If a wave travels exactly the length of an antenna from
one end to the other and back during the period of 1
cycle, what is the length of the antenna? 
5. What is the term used to identify the points of high
current and high voltage on an antenna? 
6. What is the term used to identify the points of minimum
current and minimum voltage on an antenna? 
7. The various properties of a transmitting antenna can
apply equally to the same antenna when it is used as a
receiving antenna. What term is used for this property? 
8. The direction of what field is used to designate the
polarization of a wave? 
9. If a wave's electric lines of force rotate through 360
degrees with every cycle of rf energy, what is the
polarization of this wave? 
ANSWERS:
1.Half-wave (Hertz) and quarter-wave
(Marconi). 
2.Coupling device, feeder, and antenna. 
3.Frequency of operation of the transmitter,
amount of power to be radiated, and general
direction of the receiving set. 
4.One-half the wavelength. 
5.Current and voltage loops. 
6.Current and voltage nodes. 
7.Reciprocity of antennas. 
8.Electric (E) field. 
9.Circular polarization. 
10. What type of polarization should be used at medium and low
frequencies? 
11. What is an advantage of using horizontal polarization at high
frequencies? 
12. What type of polarization should be used if an antenna is mounted
on a moving vehicle at frequencies below 50 megahertz? 
13. What is the radiation resistance of a half-wave antenna in
free space? 
14. A radiating source that radiates energy stronger in one
direction than another is known as what type of radiator? 
15. A radiating source that radiates energy equally in all
directions is known as what type of radiator?
16. A flashlight is an example of what type of radiator?
17. What terms are often used to describe basic half-wave
antennas? 
18. If a basic half-wave antenna is mounted vertically, what type
of radiation pattern will be produced? 
19. In which plane will the half-wave antenna be operating if it is
mounted horizontally? 
ANSWERS:

10. Vertical polarization. 

11. Less interference is experienced by man-made
noise sources. 
12. Vertical polarization. 
13. 73 ohms. 
14. Anisotropic radiator. 
15. Isotropic radiator. 
16. Anisotropic radiator. 
17. Dipole, doublet and Hertz. 
18. Nondirectional. 
19. Vertical plane. 
20. Since the radiation pattern of a dipole is similar to
that of a doublet, what will happen to the pattern
if the length of the doublet is increased? 
21. What is the simplest method of feeding power to
the half-wave antenna? 
22. What is the radiation pattern of a quarter-wave
antenna?
23. Describe the physical arrangement of a ground
screen.
24. What is the difference in the amount of impedance
between a three-wire dipole and a simple center-
fed dipole? 
25. Which has a wider frequency range, a simple
dipole or a folded dipole? 
ANSWERS:

20. The pattern would flatten. 

21. To connect one end through a capacitor to the
final output stage of the transmitter. 
22. A circular radiation pattern in the horizontal
plane, or same as a half wave. 
23. It is composed of a series of conductors
arranged in a radial pattern and buried 1 to 2
feet below the ground. 
24. Nine times the feed-point impedance. 
25. Folded dipole.
Problems:

1. A TV receiving antenna is to be constructed for channel 13. The spacing

between the reflector and dipole should be 2/10 of the wavelength. The
spacing between director and dipole should be 1/10 of a wavelength. The
length of the director is 5% shorter than the dipole and the reflector is 5%
longer than the dipole. Determine the following: a. Length of the dipole; b.
Length of the reflector; c. Length of the director d. Spacing between the
dipole and the reflector; e. Spacing between the dipole and the director.
Note: the length of the dipole should be 5% shorter than λ/2 to compensate
for the “end effect” due to capacitance of the antenna.

2. A half-wave antenna has a center impedance of 70 ohms. It is coupled to

a flat 600 ohms transmission line through a quarter wavelength transmission
line. A. Determine the required impedance of the quarter wave section.; B.
Determine the length of the quarter wavelength section if it is constructed of
an air insulated parallel line. Assume that the velocity factor is 0.975 and the
operating frequency of the antenna is 8 MHz.
Problems:

3. A 25 watt SSB transceiver operates on 10 KHz for a point

to point communication. A balanced open two-wire feeder
line spaced 10 inches apart with a wire diameter of 0.125
inch and a half dipole antenna is used for this system.
Determine a) Length of the antenna; b) system wavelength;
c) Zo of the feeder line; d) differentiate short and long
antenna
4. Calculate the length of the following antennas and state
their radiation resistance at 310 . a) dipole; b. Folded dipole
(twin lead; Z = 300 ohms; Vf= 0.8); c. Bow tie antenna (θ =
35 o; 0.73λ); d) ground plane vertical.
QUESTIONS ??????
Wavelength vs Physical Length

1. The speed of a radio wave: is the same as the

speed of light
2. The velocity of propagation of radio frequency
energy in free space is: 300 000 kilometers per
second
3. If an antenna is made longer, what happens to its
resonant frequency? It decreases
4. If an antenna is made shorter, what happens to its
resonant frequency? It increases
5. The resonant frequency of an antenna may be
increased by: shortening the radiating element
Wavelength vs Physical Length

1. To lower the resonant frequency of an antenna, the

operator should: lengthen it

2. Adding a series inductance to an antenna would:

decrease the resonant frequency
Wavelength vs Physical Length
1. The wavelength for a frequency of 25 MHz is:
12 metres (39.4 ft)
1. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 2
MHz is:
150 m (492 ft)
1. At the end of suspended antenna wire, insulators
are used. These act to: limit the electrical length of
the antenna
2. One solution to multi-band operation with a
shortened radiator is the "trap dipole" or trap vertical.
These "traps" are actually: a coil and capacitor in
parallel
 Gain, Directivity

1. What is meant by antenna gain?

The numerical ratio relating the radiated signal strength of an antenna
to that of another antenna
1. The gain of an antenna, especially on VHF and above, is quoted in dBi. The
"i" in this expression stands for: Isotropic
2. Approximately how much gain does a half-wave dipole have over an
isotropic radiator? 2.1 dB
3. What is a parasitic beam antenna?
An antenna where some elements obtain their radio energy by
induction or radiation from a driven element
1. If a slightly shorter parasitic element is placed 0.1 wavelength away from an
HF dipole antenna, what effect will this have on the antenna's radiation
pattern? A major lobe will develop in the horizontal plane, toward the
parasitic element
2. If a slightly longer parasitic element is placed 0.1 wavelength away from an
HF dipole antenna, what effect will this have on the antenna's radiation
pattern? A major lobe will develop in the horizontal plane, away from
the parasitic element, toward the dipole
Gain, Directivity
1. In free space, what is the radiation characteristic of a
half-wave dipole? Minimum radiation from the ends,
maximum broadside
2. The front-to-back ratio of a beam antenna is: the ratio of
the maximum forward power in the major lobe to the
maximum backward power radiation
3. The property of an antenna, which defines the range of
frequencies to which it will respond, is called its:
Bandwidth
4. What is meant by antenna bandwidth? The frequency
range over which the antenna may be expected to
perform well
5. How can the bandwidth of a parasitic beam antenna be
increased? Use larger diameter elements
Vertical Antenna

1. To calculate the length in metres (feet) of a quarter wave

vertical antenna you would : Divide 71.5 (234) by the
antenna's operating frequency (in MHz)

2. If you made a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for

21.125 MHz, how long would it be? 3.6 metres (11.8 ft)

3. If you made a half-wavelength vertical antenna for 223

MHz, how long would it be? 64 cm (25.2 in)

4. If a magnetic-base whip antenna is placed on the roof of a

car, in what direction does it send out radio energy? It goes
out equally well in all horizontal directions

5. What is an advantage of downward sloping radials on a

ground plane antenna? It brings the feed point
impedance closer to 50 ohms
Vertical Antenna
1. What happens to the feed point impedance of a ground-plane
antenna when its radials are changed from horizontal to
downward-sloping? It increases
2. Which of the following transmission lines will give the best
match to the base of a quarter-wave ground-plane antenna?
50 ohms coaxial cable
3. The main characteristic of a vertical antenna is that it will:
receive signals equally well from all compass points
around it
4. Why is a loading coil often used with an HF mobile vertical
antenna? To tune out capacitive reactance
5. What is the main reason why so many VHF base and mobile
antennas are 5/8 of a wavelength? The angle of radiation is
low
6. Why is a 5/8-wavelength vertical antenna better than a 1/4-
wavelength vertical antenna for VHF or UHF mobile
operations? A 5/8-wavelength antenna has more gain
Yagi Antenna
1. How many directly driven elements do most Yagi antennas
have? One
2. Approximately how long is the driven element of a Yagi
antenna for 14.0 MHz? 10.21 metres (33 feet and 6 inches)
3. Approximately how long is the director element of a Yagi
antenna for 21.1 MHz? 6.4 metres (21 feet)
4. Approximately how long is the reflector element of a Yagi
antenna for 28.1 MHz? 5.33metres (17.5 feet long)
5. The spacing between the elements on a three-element Yagi
antenna, representing the best overall choice, is : 0.2 of a
wavelength.
6. What is one effect of increasing the boom length and adding
directors to a Yagi antenna? Gain increases
7. What are some advantages of a Yagi with wide element
spacing? High gain, less critical tuning and wider
bandwidth
Wire Antenna

1. If you made a half-wavelength dipole antenna for

28.550 MHz, how long would it be? 5.08 metres
(16.62 ft)
2. What is the low angle radiation pattern of an ideal
half wavelength dipole HF antenna installed parallel
to the earth? It is a figure-eight, perpendicular to
the antenna
3. The impedances in ohms at the feed point of the
dipole and folded dipole are, respectively: 73 and
300
Wire Antenna
1. A dipole transmitting antenna, placed so that the
ends are pointing North/South, radiates: mostly to
the East and West
2. How does the bandwidth of a folded dipole antenna
compare with that of a simple dipole antenna? It is
greater
3. What is a disadvantage of using an antenna
equipped with traps? It will radiate harmonics
4. What is an advantage of using a trap antenna? It
may be used for multi- band operation
5. What is one disadvantage of a random wire
antenna? You may experience RF feedback in
your station
Quad / Loop antenna

1. What is a cubical quad antenna? Two or more parallel four- sided

wire loops, each approximately one-electrical wavelength long
2. What is a delta loop antenna? A type of cubical quad antenna,
except with triangular elements rather than square
3. The cubical "quad" or "quad" antenna consists of two or more square
loops of wire. The driven element has an approximate overall length
of: one wavelength
4. The delta loop antenna consists of two or more triangular structures
mounted on a boom. The overall length of the driven element is
approximately: one wavelength
5. Approximately how long is each side of a cubical quad antenna
driven element for 21.4 MHz? 3.54 metres (11.7 feet)
6. Approximately how long is each side of a cubical quad antenna
driven element for 14.3 MHz? 5.36 metres (17.6 feet)
7. Approximately how long is each leg of a symmetrical delta loop
antenna driven element for 28.7 MHz? 3.5 metres (11.5 feet)
Quad / Loops

1.Which statement about two- element delta loops and quad

antennas is true? They compare favorably with a three
element Yagi

2.Compared to a dipole antenna, what are the directional

radiation characteristics of a cubical quad antenna? The quad
has more directivity in both horizontal and vertical
planes

3.Moving the feed point of a multi-element quad antenna from a

side parallel to the ground to a side perpendicular to the ground
will have what effect? It will change the antenna
polarization from horizontal to vertical

4.What does the term "antenna front-to back ratio" mean in

reference to a delta loop antenna? The power radiated in the
major radiation lobe compared to the power radiated in
exactly the opposite direction