CHEMISTRY

The Central Science

10th Edition

Chapter 1
Introduction: Matter &
Measurement
 Why Study Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of the properties of materials and

the changes that materials undergo.
• Chemistry is central to our understanding of other
sciences.
• Chemistry is also encountered in everyday life.
 Chemistry: Catastrophe Prevention?

The space shuttle Columbia disintegrated in 2003 upon reentry into

the Earth’s atmosphere due to a damaged thermal protection system.
 The Study of Chemistry
The Molecular Perspective of Chemistry
• Matter is the physical material of the universe.
• Matter is made up of relatively few elements.
• On the microscopic level, matter consists of atoms and
molecules.
• Atoms combine to form molecules.
• As we see, molecules may consist of the same type of
atoms or different types of atoms.
Molecular Perspective of Chemistry
 Classification of Matter
States of Matter
• Matter can be a gas, a liquid, or a solid.
• These are the three states of matter.
• Gases take the shape and volume of their container.
• Gases can be compressed to form liquids.
• Liquids take the shape of their container, but they do
have their own volume.
• Solids are rigid and have a definite shape and volume.
 Property Solid Liquid Gas
Density higher high low

Solubility very slow slower than gases readily

has fixed volume; fills container,

Shape and Volume fixed
no fixed shape no fixed volume

Diffusion very slow slower than gases easily

Motion very little freely very freely

Particle not widely widely

closely packed
Arrangement separated separated

extremely
Compressibility difficult easily
difficult
PLASMAS
• Plasmas are a lot like gases,
• but the atoms are different
because they are made up
of free electrons and ions
of the element.
• It takes a very special
environment to keep
plasmas going.
• They are different and
unique from the other
states of matter.
• Examples:
 fluorescent light bulb (Inside the long
tube is a gas. Electricity flows through
the tube when the light is turned on.
The electricity acts as that special
energy and charges up the gas. This
charging and exciting of the atoms
creates glowing plasma inside the
bulb)
 neon sign (Neon signs are glass tubes
filled with gas. When the light is
turned on, the electricity flows
through the tube. The electricity
charges the gas, possibly neon, and
creates plasma inside of the tube. The
plasma glows a special color
depending on what kind of gas is
inside.)
 stars (Stars are big balls of gases at
really high temperatures. The high
temperatures charge up the atoms
and create plasma. )
Bose-Einstein
Condensate (BEC)
 Bose- Einstein Condensate

BEC is a state of matter of bosons (particles) cooled to

temperature every near to absolute zero.
"Condensates" are extremely low-temperature fluids which
contain properties and exhibit behaviors that are currently not
completely understood.
 Classification of Matter
Pure Substances and Mixtures
• Elements consist of a unique type of atom.
• Molecules can consist of more than one type of element.
– Molecules that have only one type of atom (an element).
– Molecules that have more than one type of atom (a compound).
• If more than one atom, element, or compound are found
together, then the substance is a mixture.
• Pure
Substances
and Mixtures
 Classification of Matter
Pure Substances and Mixtures
• If matter is not uniform throughout, then it is a
heterogeneous mixture.
• If matter is uniform throughout, it is homogeneous.
• If homogeneous matter can be separated by physical
means, then the matter is a mixture.
• If homogeneous matter cannot be separated by physical
means, then the matter is a pure substance.
• If a pure substance can be decomposed into something
else, then the substance is a compound.
 Classification of Matter
Elements
• If a pure substance cannot be decomposed into
something else, then the substance is an element.
• There are 114 elements known.
• Each element is given a unique chemical symbol (one or
two letters).
• Elements are building blocks of matter.
• The earth’s crust consists of 5 main elements.
• The human body consists mostly of 3 main elements.
Classification of Matter
Elements
 Classification of Matter
Elements
• Chemical symbols with one letter have that letter
capitalized (e.g., H, B, C, N, etc.)
• Chemical symbols with two letters have only the first
letter capitalized (e.g., He, Be).
 Classification of Matter

Compounds
• Most elements interact to form compounds.
• Example, H2O
• The proportions of elements in compounds are the same
irrespective of how the compound was formed.
• Law of Constant Composition (or Law of Definite
Proportions):
– The composition of a pure compound is always the
same.
 Classification of Matter

Compounds
• If water is decomposed, then there will always be twice
as much hydrogen gas formed as oxygen gas.
• Pure substances that cannot be decomposed are elements.
 Classification of Matter
Mixtures
• Heterogeneous mixtures are not uniform throughout.
• Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout.
• Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions.
 Properties of Matter
Physical vs. Chemical Properties
• Physical properties can be measure without changing the
basic identity of the substance (e.g., color, density, odor,
melting point)
• Chemical properties describe how substances react or change
to form different substances (e.g., hydrogen burns in oxygen)
• Intensive physical properties do not depend on how much of
the substance is present.
– Examples: density, temperature, and melting point.
• Extensive physical properties depend on the amount of
substance present.
– Examples: mass, volume, pressure.
 PROPERTIES

Physical Chemical

Intensive Extensive

• Does not depend •Depend on the

on the amount of amount of
substance substance
• Property DOESN’T • Property
CHANGE when the CHANGES when the
amount of amount of
substance changes substance changes
 Physical Chemical
Can be observed Can be observed ONLY
without the substance when a substance
changing into other changes into a new
substance substance
• Physical Changes - are about energy and states of
matter.
– Causes of Physical Change:
•forces like motion, temperature, and pressure.
– Ex: setting of a jelly, boiling of water, melting of butter
• Chemical changes happen on a molecular level.
– Indications of Chemical Change:
•color change
•formation of precipitate
– Ex: rusting of nail, baking a cake,
dissolving antacid to water
 TWO KINDS OF CHANGE

Directions: Examine the list of changes below. Write

C before each chemical change. Write P before each
physical change.

1) Erosion of a riverbed by water

2) Leaves changing color
3) Glass breaking
4) Carving a statue out of marble
5) A rusting bicycle
6) Sanding a piece of wood
7) Ice cream melting
8) Fireworks exploding
9) Baking a cake
10) Chocolate melting
11) Frying an egg
12) Cutting grass
 Endothermic and Exothermic
Reactions
• Exothermic • Endothermic
• Combustion • Melting of ice
• Explosion of absorbs energy
bombs • Dissolving
• Condensation ammonium nitrate in
• Digestion of food water(commercial
cold packs)
 Endothermic and Exothermic
Reactions
• Exothermic • Endothermic
• Reaction that • Reaction that absorbs
releases heat to heat from the
the environment environment
• Environment is • Environment=colder
hotter.
 Properties of Matter
Separation of Mixtures
• Mixtures can be separated if their physical properties are
different.
• Solids can be separated from liquids by means of
filtration.
• The solid is collected in filter paper, and the solution,
called the filtrate, passes through the filter paper and is
collected in a flask.
 Properties of Matter
Separation of Mixtures
• Homogeneous liquid mixtures can be separated by
distillation.
• Distillation requires the different liquids to have different
boiling points.
• In essence, each component of the mixture is boiled and
collected.
• The lowest boiling fraction is collected first.
Separation of Mixtures
 Separation of Mixtures
• Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures that
have different abilities to adhere to solid surfaces.
• The greater the affinity the component has for the
surface (paper) the slower it moves.
• The greater affinity the component has for the liquid, the
faster it moves.
• Chromatography can be used to separate the different
colors of inks in a pen.
• Body parts and objects in the natural
surroundings were used by ancient man
as bases for measurements.
– Early Babylonian and Egyptian records
and the Bible indicate that
• length  forearm, hand, or finger
• time  periods of the sun, moon, and
other heavenly bodies.
• capacities  plant seeds gourds or
clay or metal vessels (they were filled
which were then counted to measure
the volumes)
• mass  plant seeds and stones
– “carat” - mass unit for gems 34
(carob seed)
• The English System originated from England.
Units included “digit”, “palm”, “span”,
“cubit”, which later evolved into “inch”,
“foot”, and “yard”.
– "pes," or foot  unciae (Roman)
– "gird" or "yard"  circumference of a
person's waist (Saxon)
– "inch" and "ounce"  (Latin)

• The Metric System originated in France. This

was established to have a single worldwide
coordinated measurement system.

• The Metric System uses the base “10” and

meter is used as the unit of length defined as
1/10 millionth of the distance from the north 35
pole to the equator.
• In 1860’s, the “Treaty of Meter” was created to
set up well-defined metric standards for length
and mass.

• The International Bureau of Weights and

Measures at Sevres, France, coordinates the
exchange information about the use and
refinement of metric system.

• In 1960, the General Conference adopted an

extensive revision and simplification of the
system. The name Le Systeme International
d’Unites (International System of Units), with
the international abbreviation SI, was adopted
for this modernized metric system.
 Base Units
Physical Quantities Unit Abbreviation of Unit

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s
Temperature kelvin K

Amount of substance mole mol

Electric current ampere A

Luminous intensity candela cd

37
 Derived Units
Derived Quantities Unit Abbreviation of Unit

Volume cubic m3
meter
Area square m2
meter
Velocity meter per m/s
second
Acceleration meter per m/s2
second
square
Density kilogram per kg/m3
cubic meter

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1. Length
2. Mass
3. Time
4. Temperature
5. Amount of substance
6. Electric current
7. Luminous intensity
39
LENGTH
- distance between two points.

40
MASS
- amount of matter in an object.

41
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 TEMPERATURE
- degree of hotness or coldness.
- measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in a sample of matter.

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 AMOUNT OF
SUBSTANCE
- physical quantity
which is
proportional to the
number of
elementary entities
present.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical
Chemistry (2nd Edn). Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. p. 46. Electronic version.
43
TIME
- defined by the process of measurement
and by the units chosen.

Feynman, Richard [1965] (1994). The Character of Physical Law. Cambridge (Mass): 44
The MIT Press, 108-126. ISBN 0-262-56003-8.
 ELECTRIC
CURRENT
- measure of the amount
of electrical charge
transferred per unit
time.

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LUMINOUS INTENSITY
- the quantity of visible light that is emitted in unit
time per unit solid angle

46
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Prefix Symbol Factor
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deka da 101
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro  10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p
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Units to be Converted Values
Pounds to Kilogram 1 lb= 0.4536 kg
Kilometers to Feet 1 ft = 0.0003048 km
Miles to Kilometer 1 mi = 1.609 km
Meters to Yards 1 m= 1.094 yd
Inches to Feet 1 in = 0.08333 ft
Gallons to Liter 1 gal = 3.785 L
Inches to Centimeters 1 in = 2.54 cm
Miles to Feet 1 mi = 5280 ft
Quarts to Liters 1 qt = 0.946 L
Ounce to Liters 1 oz = 0.02957 L

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 Useful Conversion Factors

Quantity From English Units To Metric Units Multiplied by*

Length mile km 1.609

yard m 0.9144
foot m 0.3048
inch mm 25.4
Area square mile km2 2.590
acre m2 4047
acre hectare 0.4047
square yard m2 0.8361
square foot m2 0.092 90
square inch mm2 645.2
Volume acre foot m3 1 233
cubic yard m3 0.7646
cubic foot m3 0.028 32
cubic foot L (1000 cm3) 28.32
100 board feet m3 0.2360
gallon L (1000 cm3) 3.785
cubic inch cm3 16.39
Mass lb kg 0.4536
kip (1000 lb) metric ton
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from 0.4536 49
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Dimensional Analysis - one method can be used in
converting one unit to another. The main purpose of
this process is to cancel out units other than the
desired units through the use of fixed relationships.

Oh no! Its
numbers!
Sample Problems: Help!

1. Bea weighs 35.5 kg. What is her weight in lbs?

2. How many milligrams are there in 23.1 g?
3. Convert 250 seconds to hour.

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Practice Exercises: 1 whole sheet of
paper
A. Which is bigger?
1. 1 km or 1 dm What DO
2. 1 Gm or 1Mm you
3. 1 kg or 1mg
4. 1 mL or 1 dL think?
5. 1 Mg or 1 ng
B. Estimating measurements:
1. diameter of a dinner plate 24 cm or 24 mm
2. mass of a cellphone 20 g or 20 kg
3. lengths of electric post 9 m or 9 cm
4. volume of a softdrink can 330 mL or 330 L
5. distance from Makati to 40 m or 40 km
Laguna
51
C. Convert the following:
1. 0.0056 km to ____ m
2. 75.6 s to ____ s
3. 2.003 L to ____ ML
4. 45.9 A to ____ nA How will
5. 7.58 gal to ____ L I answer
6. 16.3 Gcd to ____ pcd them?
7. 2.5 yards to ____ cm
8. 26.536 ft to ____ in
9. 1.025 miles to ____ m
10. 89.025 in to _____ ft

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 Sample Problems (SI)
1. A bar of magnesium metal is 250 mm
long. What is the length of magnesium
bars in meters?
2. Convert 0.5027 seconds to nanoseconds.
3. A container of salt is said to have a mass
of 73, 700 cg. Express this quantity in kg.
(cggkg)

53
 Sample Problems (ES)
1. A beaker contains 578 mL of water. What
is the volume in quarts? (mL to L then qt)
2. Convert 3598 m to yards.
3. Jennifer weighs 125 lbs. What is her
weight in kg?

54
 Class Practice Examples

• What is the name given to the unit that equals (a)

10-9 grams; (b) 10-6 second; (c) 10-3 meter

• What fraction of a meter is a nanometer?

 Units of Measurement
SI Units
• Note the SI unit for length is the meter (m) whereas the SI
unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).
– 1 kg weighs 2.2046 lb.
Temperature
There are three temperature scales:
• Kelvin Scale
– Used in science.
– Same temperature increment as Celsius scale.
– Lowest temperature possible (absolute zero) is zero Kelvin.
– Absolute zero: 0 K = -273.15 oC.
 Units of Measurement
Temperature
• Celsius Scale
– Also used in science.
– Water freezes at 0 oC and boils at 100 oC.
– To convert: K = oC + 273.15.
• Fahrenheit Scale
– Not generally used in science.
– Water freezes at 32 oF and boils at 212 oF.
– To convert:
9
5
C  F - 32 F  C   32
9 5
 Class Practice Example

• Make the following temperature conversions:

(a) 68 oF to oC; (b) -36.7 oC to oF

9
5
C  F - 32 F  C   32
9 5
Units of Measurement
Temperature
 Units of Measurement
Derived Units
• Derived units are obtained from the 7 base SI units.
• Example:
units of distance
Units of velocity 
units of time
meters

seconds
 m/s
 Units of Measurement
Volume
• The units for volume are
given by (units of
length)3.
– SI unit for volume is 1
m3.
• We usually use 1 mL = 1
cm3.
• Other volume units:
– 1 L = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 =
1000 mL.
Units of Measurement
Volume
 Units of Measurement
Density
• Used to characterize substances.
• Defined as mass divided by volume:
mass
Density 
volume
• Units: g/cm3.
• Originally based on mass (the density was defined as the
mass of 1.00 g of pure water).
 Class Practice Examples
• Answer the following problems:
• (a) Calculate the density of mercury if 1.0 x 102 g
occupies a volume of 7.36 cm3.

• (b) Using the density for mercury, calculate the

mass of 65.0 cm3 of mercury.
 Uncertainty in Measurement
• All scientific measures are subject to error.
• These errors are reflected in the number of figures
reported for the measurement.
• These errors are also reflected in the observation that two
successive measures of the same quantity are different.
Precision and Accuracy
• Measurements that are close to the “correct” value are
accurate.
• Measurements that are close to each other are precise.
Precision and Accuracy
 Uncertainty in Measurement
Significant Figures
• The number of digits reported in a measurement reflect
the accuracy of the measurement and the precision of the
measuring device.
• All the figures known with certainty plus one extra figure
are called significant figures.
• In any calculation, the results are reported to the fewest
significant figures (for multiplication and division) or
fewest decimal places (addition and subtraction).
 Significant Figure
Important numbers needed for a particular measurement based
on the degree of certainty.

• All non-zero digits are significant.

• Zeros in between non-zero digits are significant.
• Zeros before the first nonzero digit are nonsignificant.
(leading zeros)
• Zeros after the last nonzero digit may or may not be
significant. (trailing zeros)
– If there is a decimal point in the number, all trailing zeros
are significant.
– If there is no decimal point in the number, all trailing zeros
are NOT significant.
• Exact numbers are considered to have an infinite
numbers of significant figures. 68
Break it down.
Identify the number of significant
figures.

• 1000
• 10001
• 1.001
• 0.0001
• 0.00010
• 1000.00
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• If the digit to the right of the number to be
rounded off is 5 or greater, round up (add 1 to the
number).
ex: 45.678 
26.4345 
• If the digit to the right of the number to be
rounded off is less than 5, round down (retain the
number).
ex: 45.672 
26.4340 
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• In MULTIPLICATION • In ADDITION and
and DIVISION, consider SUBTRACTION, consider
the least number of SF’s. the least number of decimal
Examples: places.
• 6.35 X 4.1 = 26.035  26 Examples:
since given has 2 SF’s as • 3.36 + 21.1 = 24.46  24.5
the least number of SF’s since given has 1 decimal
• 27.922  3.3 = 8.4612  place as the least number of
8.5 since given has 2 SF’s decimal place
as the least number of • 47.82 – 6.1 = 41.72  41.7
SF’s since given has 1 decimal
place as the least number of
decimal place

In your notebook, answer the SELF-CHECK at

page 23.
71
 Trial Student A Student B Student C
• Precision – tells how close
several measurements are to
the same value. 1 2.970 g 3.000 g 2.972 g

• Accuracy – tells how close a

measurement is to the true or 2 2.971 g 3.001 g 2.965 g
accepted value.

3 2.968 g 3.002 g 2.985 g

Three students
measure the mass of
a piece of copper 4 2.969 g 3.001 g 2.974 g

that weighs 3.00g.

72
A. Convert each of the C. Identify the number of
following original numbers
to exponential form.
1. 381,000,000
2. 0.230
3. 0.00076230

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3. 1.240 X 10-1
D. Conversion
1. Find the product of 47.5 X 0.52 X 1.5.
2. 15.678 L + 36.5 L – 0.2035 L
3. 16.3 Gcd to ____ pcd
4. 45.9 A to ____ MA
5. 26.536 ft to ____ in
6. 1.025 miles to ____ m
7. Calculate 6856 kilocandela to dekacandela.
8. What is the equivalent in lbs of 56.25 g? (gkg lbs) [1 kg = 2.2 lbs]
9. How many inches are there in 36.4 ft? [1 ft = 12 in]

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 Dimensional Analysis

• Method of calculation utilizing a knowledge of units.

• Given units can be multiplied or divided to give the
desired units.
• Conversion factors are used to manipulate units:
• Desired unit = given unit  (conversion factor)
• The conversion factors are simple ratios:

desired unit
Conversion factor 
given unit
 Dimensional Analysis

Using Two or More Conversion Factors

• Example to convert length in meters to length in inches:
Number of in  number of m   conversion m  cm  
conversion cm  in 
100 cm 1 in
Number of in  number of m   
m 2.54 cm
 Class Practice Problem
• A person’s height is measured to be 67.50 in. What is
this height in centimeters?
• Perform the following conversions: (a) 2 days to s; (b)
20 Kg to g.