Fundamentals Thoughts

Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics:
 Aerodynamics:
 science that deals w/ the flow of air or any gas.
 Aerodynamicists:
 person who practices aerodynamics.
 Some Applications of Aerodynamics:
1. Rocket & Jet engines
2. Propellers
3. Wind tunnels
4. Predict & measure the aerodynamic forces on a body
5. Gives practical info about A/P design or to the shape of a rocket
4 Fundamental Quantities in the
Language of Aerodynamics:
1. Pressure (P):
 Normal Force per Unit-Area exerted on a surface.
 common units: 𝑁/𝑚2 , psf, psi, atm
2. Density (ρ):
 Mass of substance per Unit-Volume.
 common units: 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3 , 𝑙𝑏𝑚 /𝑓𝑡 3 , 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
3. Temperature (T):
 Average Kinetic Energy of particles in the gas.
 common units: K, ⁰R, ⁰C, ⁰F
4. Flow Velocity (V):
 Distance traveled by an object per Unit-Time.
 cannotes both Direction & Time.
 P, T, ρ, & V:
 may vary from point-to-point in the flow.
 Flow Field:
 P, T, ρ, & V at each point of a flow.
 Streamline:
 path taken by the moving fluid.
Source of Aerodynamic Forces
Exerted on the Surface of an
Object:
1. Pressure Distribution on the Surface (P)
 force per unit-area acting Normal to the surface.
 creates a Net Unbalance Force due to the varying pressure
distribution over the surface.
2. Shear Stress, or Friction (𝜏𝑊 ):

 force per unit-area acting Tangentially on the surface due to
friction.
Ideal (Perfect) Gas:
 Gas:
 collection of particles (molecules, atoms, electrons, etc.) in random motion.
 due to the electronic structure of each particle, a force field pervades the space
around them.
 intermolecular force field of a given particle reaches out & is felt by the neighboring
particles. (strong repulsive at close range; weak attractive at long range)
 Perfect Gas:
 one in w/c particles are widely separated.
 intermolecular forces are negligible.
 Air at Standard Conditions:
 approximated as perfect gas as particles are widely separated. (more than 10
molecular diameters apart)
 Air at Temperatures above 2500 K, or 4500 K:

 oxygen/nitrogen becomes to dissociate.
 air becomes a chemically reacting gas.
 specific gas constant (R) is no longer constant.
Discussion of Units
1. SI or Metric:  Relation of J, N, kg, m, & s;
 P: 𝑁/𝑚2 or Pa 𝑙𝑏𝑓 , slug, ft, & s:
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
 ρ: 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3  𝐽 = 𝑁𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑠2
𝐽
 R: 𝑘𝑔−𝐾  𝑙𝑏𝑓 =
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑓𝑡
𝑠2
 T: K
2. English or Imperial:
 P: 𝑙𝑏𝑓 /𝑓𝑡 2
 ρ: 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
 R: 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑅
 T: ⁰R
Equation of State:
 relates P, ρ (or specific volume, v), and T at a local point of a
perfect gas.
 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
 P = pressure
 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
 R = specific gas constant
𝐽 𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑅 = 287 𝑘𝑔−𝐾 = 1716 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑅
 T = absolute temperature • *Note:
• K & ⁰R are absolute temperatures
• K = ⁰C + 273
 Specific Volume (v): • ⁰R = ⁰F + 460
 inverse quantity of density.
 volume per unit-mass of a substance.
 𝑣 = 1/𝜌
 Alternate Form of Equation of State:

 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
Example – Equation of State:
 Air flowing at a high-speed in a wind tunnel has a pressure
and temperature equal to 0.3 atm and -100⁰C, respectively.
What is the air density and specific volume?
 𝜌 = 0.61 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
 𝑣 = 1.64 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
The Standard Atmosphere
Earth’s Atmosphere:
 dynamically (constantly) changing system.
 Consist of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.93% Argon, 0.04%
Carbon Dioxide, & Other Gases Percentage.
 Some Factors Affecting the Pressure & Temperature of the
Atmosphere:
1. Altitude
2. Location on the globe
3. Time of the day
4. Season
Earth’s Atmospheric Layers:
1. Troposphere: 4. Thermosphere:
 most densest  where aurora & satellites are
 where almost all weather occurs  very sensitive to solar activity (can
 0 to 11 km heat up to 1500 ⁰C or higher)
2. Stratosphere:  85 to 600 km
 where the ozone layer is 5. Exosphere:
 little weather exists; air remains stable  where atoms & molecules escape
 11 to 50 km into space
 600 to 10,000 km
3. Mesosphere:
 where meteors burn up
 coldest region
 50 to 85 km
Standard Atmosphere:
 reflects the average atmospheric conditions.
 obtained from experimental balloon & surrounding rocket measurements
combined w/ a mathematical model of the atmosphere.
 common reference used to relate flight tests, wind tunnel test results, &
general A/P design & performance.
 defined variation of T w/ altitude
 Regions of the Standard Atmosphere:

1. Gradient Region:
 series of straight inclined lines
 region where T is not constant w/ altitude
2. Isothermal Region:
 series of vertical lines
 region where T is constant w/ altitude
Properties’ Variation
from 0 to 11 km:
 Temperature:
 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑆𝐿 + 𝑎ℎ
 T = Temperature at an altitude h
 𝑇𝑆𝐿 = Temperature at SL (Sea-Level)
𝑇𝑆𝐿 = 288.2 K = 519⁰R
 a = lapse rate
a = -0.0065 K/km = -0.003566 ⁰R/ft
 Pressure:
𝑃 𝑇 5.26
 =
𝑃𝑆𝐿 𝑇𝑆𝐿
 𝑃𝑆𝐿 = 101325 𝑃𝑎 = 2116.8 𝑝𝑠𝑓
 Density:
𝜌 𝑇 4.26
 𝜌𝑆𝐿
= 𝑇𝑆𝐿
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
 𝜌𝑆𝐿 = 1.225 = 0.002377
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3
Properties’ Variation from 11 to 25 km:
 Temperature:
 𝑇11 = 𝑇11−25 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑆𝐿 + 𝑎ℎ11
 𝑇11 = temperature at 11 km
 𝑇11−25 = temperature at a certain height ranging from 11 to 25 km
 Pressure, & Density:
𝑔 ℎ11−25 −ℎ11
𝑃11−25 𝜌11−25 −
 = =𝑒 𝑅𝑇11
𝑃11 𝜌11
 g = acceleration due to gravity
g = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 = 32.174 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
Example – Properties Variation w/
Altitude:
 Calculate the standard atmosphere values of P, ρ, and T at
an altitude of: (a) 36,000’, and (b) 45,931.76’
a) T = 390.62 ⁰R, P = 474.66 psf, 𝜌 = 7.0845 𝑥 10−4 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3
b) T = 390.62 ⁰R, P = 294 psf, 𝜌 = 4.4627 𝑥 10−4 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3
Altitude:
 distance above ground.
 Types of Altitude:
1. Geometric (ℎ𝐺 )
2. Absolute ℎ𝐴
3. Geopotential (h)
4. Pressure ℎ𝑃
5. Density ℎ𝜌
6. Temperature ℎ 𝑇
Types of
Altitude:
1. Geometric (ℎ𝐺 ):
 geometric height above SL
2. Absolute ℎ𝐴 :
 height from the center of the Earth
 Important type of height, especially for Space flight, due to variation of g with height
 ℎ𝐴 = ℎ𝐺 + 𝑟
 r = Earth’s radius = 6.35766 𝑥 106 𝑚
3. Geopotential (h):
 fictitious altitude above SL in w/c g is constant w/ altitude & is equal to the local
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
gravitational acceleration at SL 9.81 𝑠2 𝑜𝑟 32.174 𝑠2
 roughly equal to ℎ𝐺 at the lower layers of Earth’s Atmosphere (including h from 0 to
65 km)
𝑟ℎ
 ℎ = 𝑟+ℎ𝐺
𝐺
4. Pressure ℎ𝑃 :
 altitude in the standard atmosphere w/c corresponds to the actual ambient
pressure encountered in flight or lab experiments.
 measured by an Altimeter
𝑃𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝑆𝐿 −𝑎ℎ𝑃 5.26
a) 𝑃𝑆𝐿
= 𝑇𝑆𝐿
𝑔 ℎ𝑃 −ℎ11
𝑃𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿,11−25 −
b) 𝑃11
=𝑒 𝑅𝑇11
5. Density ℎ𝜌
density encountered in flight or lab experiments.
𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝑆𝐿 −𝑎ℎ𝜌 4.26
a) 𝜌𝑆𝐿
= 𝑇𝑆𝐿
𝑔 ℎ𝑃 −ℎ11
𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿,11−25 −
b) 𝜌11
=𝑒 𝑅𝑇11
6. Temperature ℎ 𝑇 :
temperature encountered in flight or lab experiments.
a) 𝑇𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿 = 𝑇𝑆𝐿 + 𝑎ℎ 𝑇
b) 𝑇𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿 = ℎ 𝑇 ranging from 11 to 25 km
Example – ℎ𝑃 , ℎ𝜌 , ℎ 𝑇 :
 If an A/P is flying at an altitude where the actual pressure and
temperature are 4.27𝑥104 Pa & 255.7 K, respectively, what
are the pressure altitude, temperature, altitude, & density
altitude?
 ℎ𝑃 =
 ℎ𝑇 =
 ℎ𝜌 =

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Fundamentals of

2. Shear Stress, or Friction (𝜏𝑊 ):

 Air at Temperatures above 2500 K, or 4500 K:

 Alternate Form of Equation of State:

 Regions of the Standard Atmosphere:

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