Contents

Diseases and immunity

Defence against microbes

Transmission

Attacking microbes

Why do humans fall ill?

Summary quiz
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• Pathogens – a disease causing organism

• Transmissible disease – a disease in which

the pathogen can be passed from one host to
the other
• It can be transmitted by direct contact or
indirect contact.

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 How does the body defend itself from disease?

Imagine a country is invaded. If the army is to defend that country,

the best way is to surround the enemy and keep it in one place.

You can then concentrate all your efforts in one place and your
army is more powerful.

If the invading army quickly spreads, they can attack more places
at once and your defence is thinned.

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 How does the body defend itself from disease?

How do you stop an invading army from spreading out?

You stop it from reaching the transport networks.

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How does the body defend itself from disease?

If we consider the human body, the infection will

spread around the body if it reaches our transport system.

the blood stream

The body’s defence systems are trying to prevent microbes access to the blood.

If they get into the blood, they can travel to every part of the entire body!

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How do microbes enter the body?

eyes
ears

mouth

nose

skin

cuts
genitals

A number of these places where microbes can enter the body are defended.

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 Defence against microbes

Mouth

If microbes enter through the mouth (usually on food) they will be swallowed and
enter the stomach.

Within the stomach is hydrochloric acid, which is highly concentrated and will kill
them. – chemical barriers

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 Defence against microbes

Nose

Cells lining the trachea and bronchi have hair like folds in their membrane. These are
known as cilia and the cells are termed ciliated. These cells also produce mucus, a sticky
liquid in which microbes can become stuck. The cilia then waft the mucus (including the
trapped microbes) towards the mouth and nose where they are either swallowed or
coughed up.- mechanical barriers

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 Defence against microbes

Skin

thick layer of skin

blood capillary

Microbes have to penetrate the thick layer of skin that covers the entire surface of our
body. Once through this, they can then reach the blood system. – mechanical barriers

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 Defence against microbes

Cuts

When you cut the skin, the body will bleed because the blood vessels are ruptured. This
leaves the blood system exposed to the air. Microbes could then get into the blood.

To limit this problem, the body can quickly heal wounds

by firstly clotting the blood and secondly forming a scab
over the wound to shield the blood from the air.

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 Defence against microbes
Once the scab has formed, the body repairs the damaged tissue underneath and finally fresh skin
tissue is formed.
If the cut is very deep, a scar will remain after the cut has healed.

cut
exposed
blood vessel

microbes cannot
scab has formed gain entry
over the wound
new tissue
being
formed

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Different defence mechanisms

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Contents

Defence Against Disease

Defence against microbes

Transmission

Attacking microbes

Why do humans fall ill?

Summary quiz
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 Spreading microbes
One easy way to defend the body against illness is by keeping it clean and hygienic.

This is because microbes can spread very quickly in unhygienic conditions.

The spreading of microbes is known as transmission.

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 Methods of transmission

Transmission can occur in the following ways:

Droplet transmission

If an infected person sneezes or coughs, millions of microbes are released into the
air.

These microbes could then infect somebody else.

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 Methods of transmission

Transmission in water

Microbes are often present in the polluted water.

If water is not cleaned, the microbes can reproduce and enter the body when the
water is drunk.

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Methods of transmission

Transmission by vectors

A vector is an organism that carries the microbe from one place to another.
Vectors can range from houseflies to pets. It is important to be careful about the
amount of contact you have with vectors.

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Methods of transmission
Transmission by contact

Many microbes can be exchanged from one person to another

within bodily fluids e.g. blood and semen.
This is how many microbes responsible for sexually transmitted
diseases are spread from person to person.

The less hygienic people are, the greater the chance of infection.
Microbes will also reproduce rapidly in unhygienic conditions.
This is the main reason why public places such as restaurants have
to abide by strict hygiene regulations.

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Transmission of microbes

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 Importance of hygiene

Hygenic food preparation

Good personal hygiene
Waste and sewage treatment
Controlling the spread of disease

Contamination of water
Water treatment
Waste disposal
Contamination by houseflies
Amoebic dysentry

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Contents

Defence Against Disease

Defence against microbes

Transmission

Attacking microbes

Why do humans fall ill?

Summary quiz
© Boardworks Ltd 2004
 White blood cells

If viruses and bacteria do get into the body, it is extremely likely that they will
enter the blood stream.

If this happens, the previous defence systems are useless and so the body
brings in its next line of defence…

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 Methods of attacking microbes

As we saw when we covered the blood system, white blood cells are found in blood. They
have a nucleus, which can vary in shape from one sort of white blood cell to the next.

They have 3 main methods of attacking microbes.

1. Producing antibodies

Remember that microbes can cause an infected person to feel ill by releasing toxins
(poisons). The first way white blood cells defend the body is by releasing antitoxins.
These chemicals are designed to neutralise the effects of the toxins and render them
harmless.

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 Methods of attacking microbes

white blood
bacterium cell

antitoxins
toxins

Antitoxin links to the toxin and neutralises its effect.

The toxin is now harmless. This happens on a large scale and reduces the effects of the
infection.

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 Methods of attacking microbes

2. Ingesting Microbes

Some white blood cells actually ingest (eat) the microbes and then break them down
once they are inside the cell. The microbe is destroyed by powerful digestive enzymes,
which are released within the cytoplasm of the white blood cell.

white microbe
blood cell

The white blood cell surrounds the

microbe.

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Methods of attacking microbes

Digestive enzymes attack the ingested

microbe and begin to break it down.

The microbe is destroyed.

The chemicals that are released from the
digested microbe are used in other parts of the
cell.

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 Methods of attacking microbes

3. Releasing antibodies

As well as releasing antitoxins, the

white blood cell can
release another chemical known as
an antibody.

Antibodies - you can

think of them as target
specific bombs.

Their shape is important

because it fits exactly onto a
site on the microbe.

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 Methods of attacking microbes

The antibody will only work if it is connected to this

specially shaped site. This design means that the antibody does not harm normal
body cells because
they do not carry the attachment site.

These are the areas where the antibody will

attach.

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 Methods of attacking microbes
The antibody attaches to the specific site on the microbe, which leads to its
destruction.

attachment site antibody microbe

microbe is
destroyed

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Engulfing microbes - what’s the order?

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Engulfing microbes - what happens?

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Matching microbes and antibodies

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Contents

Defence Against Disease

Defence against microbes

Transmission

Attacking microbes

Why do humans fall ill?

Summary quiz
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 Why do humans fall ill?

If white blood cells can produce antibodies against microbes, why do humans
fall ill at all?

Well, there are 3 problems…

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 Why do humans fall ill?
1) The first is that different microbes require different antibodies. This is due to the
attachment sites on the microbes being different shapes.

A microbe with these attachment sites …

will not be effected by these

antibodies.

The body must be able to produce a range of antibodies against an enormous number of
different microbes.
If it can’t produce the right antibody, the infected organism will become ill.

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 Why do humans fall ill?

2) Microbes are constantly changing and becoming resistant to old antibodies.

The microbe has the ability to change its shape and therefore the body may not
recognise them. If this happens, the microbe will release toxins until it is recognised and
an attack can be mounted.

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Why do humans fall ill?

3) When an organism becomes infected, it takes a certain amount of time to mount

an effective defensive response.

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 Antibodies and antitoxins

The microbes will start reproducing

At first, the microbe
rapidly. willthey
As they do, enterproduce
the body
and release toxins.The white blood cell
more toxins.
number is low because the body
was caught off guard.

microbe toxins white antibody/

microbe toxins white antibody/
number blood antitoxin
number blood antitoxin
cells
cells

This is the point where the levels of toxin in the body will cause the infected
organism to feel ill.
There are not enough antibodies /antitoxins to overpower the microbes.

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 Antibodies and antitoxins

Slowly the starts

The body number of white its
replicating blood
whitecells
increases to and
blood cells suchina doing
level that the making
so, starts
concentration
large amountsofofantibodies/antitoxins
antibodies/antitoxins.is
high enough to overpower the microbes.
The illness is at its peak and there is a
The person
battle begins
raging in thetobody.
feel better.

microbe toxins white antibody/

microbe
number toxins white
blood antibody/
antitoxin
number blood
cells antitoxin
cells

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Antibodies and antitoxins

Not only does the body fight off the disease; it also prepares itself for another infection
from the same disease by storing high levels of that specific antibody/antitoxin.

In other words, if that specific microbe infects the same organism, there is no need
to spend time replicating the specific white blood cells in order to make the relevant
antibody. They are already made and so they attack the microbe immediately.

This process of preparation for re-infection is known as gaining natural

immunity.

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Constant attack

Those diseases that keep re-infecting and causing

illness are usually caused by microbes that keep changing their structures.

The body does not recognise the altered form of the microbe and its ready-made
antibodies are useless.

Once again we see how remarkable the human body is. Countless microbes are
constantly bombarding it: microscopic disease causing organisms with the ability to
hide, fight, replicate and adapt.

All this happens without any conscious effort on our parts!

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Disease defence - what’s the order?

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The body’s defences

43 © Boardworks Ltd 2013

What do white blood cells do?
If harmful microbes enter the body
the immune system produces
white blood cells to help defend it bacteria
from microbes.

antigen

Some white blood cells can

destroy microbes by engulfing white blood
them. cell

Some white blood cells are able to produce chemicals called antibodies. These
pair with matching antigens on the surfaces of microbes and so help the white
blood cells to engulf microbes.

44 © Boardworks Ltd 2013

 bone marrow

Lymphocytes
▪ B cells
◆ mature in bone marrow
▪ attack pathogens still circulating
in blood & lymph
◆ produce antibodies

▪ T cells
◆ mature in thymus
▪ attack invaded cells

AP Biology
 B cells
▪ Attack, learn & remember pathogens
circulating in blood & lymph
▪ Produce specific antibodies
against specific antigen
▪ Types of B cells
◆ plasma cells
▪ immediate production of antibodies
▪ rapid response, short term release
◆ memory cells
▪ continued circulation in body
▪ long term immunity

AP Biology
 Y
Structure of antibodies

Y
Y Y

YY
Y

Y
Y
antigen-binding site
Y

Y
Y
s
s s
s
variable region Y

Y
s s

Y Y
s s

YY
s s Y

Y
s s
s s

Y
s s s s
Y
s s
s s
light

Y
s s
light
chain s s chain
s s

s s
heavy light chains
s s chains

s s
s s

B cell antigen-binding antigen-binding

membrane site site

heavy chains
AP Biology
 What do antibodies do to invaders?

neutralize capture precipitate apoptosis

invading pathogens Y
tagged with Y
antibodies
Y
Y
Y

Y
macrophage
eating tagged invaders
AP Biology
 Vaccinations
▪ Immune system exposed
to harmless version of pathogen
◆ stimulates B cell system to produce
antibodies to pathogen
▪ “active immunity”
◆ rapid response on future exposure
◆ creates immunity
without getting
disease
▪ Most successful
against viruses
AP Biology
 Passive immunity
▪ Obtaining antibodies from another
individual
◆ maternal immunity
▪ antibodies pass from mother to baby across
placenta or in mother’s milk
⬥ mother is creating antibodies against pathogens baby
is being exposed to
▪ Injection
◆ injection of antibodies
◆ short-term immunity

AP Biology
 T cells
▪ Attack, learn & remember pathogens hiding in
infected cells
◆ recognize antigen fragments
◆ also defend against
▪ cancer & transplant cells
▪ Types of T cells
◆ helper T cells
▪ alerts rest of immune system
◆ killer (cytotoxic) T cells
▪ attack infected body cells
◆ memory T cells
▪ long term immunity

AP Biology
T cell attacking cancer cell
 Immunity
Types of immunity

• Natural active immunity

Immune system activation due to infection

• Artificial active immunity (vaccination)

Immune system activation by vaccination

• Artificial passive immunity

Injection with antibodies. Used against potentially fatal and fast
acting diseases e.g. tetanus antitoxin

• Natural passive immunity

Mother’s antibodies crossing the placenta e.g. measles.
Also IgA in colostrum prevents bacterial / viral growth
 Immune Response Summary
skin pathogen invasion skin
antigen exposure
free antigens in blood antigens on infected cells

macrophages
humoral response cellular response
(APC)

alert helper alert

B cells T cells
T cells

plasma memory memory cytotoxic

B cells B cells T cells T cells
Y Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y AP
antibodies Y antibodies
Y

Biology
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
 HIV & AIDS
▪ Human Immunodeficiency Virus
◆ virus infects helper T cells
▪ helper T cells don’t activate rest of immune system:
killer T cells & B cells
▪ also destroys helper T cells
▪ AIDS: Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome
◆ infections by opportunistic
diseases
◆ death usually from
◆ “opportunistic” infections
▪ pneumonia, cancers

AP Biology
HIV infected T cell
 Type 1 diabetes
▪ Inability of pancreas to produce
sufficient insulin
▪ Patients need regular injections of the
hormone to control blood sugar levels
▪ Insulin dependant diabetes

AP Biology