PEMICU 1

ERRI PRATAMA
405140008
3M Fisiologi Sistem Pernafasan
Gray’s Anatomy
 The respiratory system (called also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a
biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an
organism. The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between an organism and the environment.
In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called
lungs. The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation, and the
passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation; this process is collectively
called breathing or ventilation. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory
system include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm. Molecules of oxygen and carbon
dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This
exchange process occurs in the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs.

Maton, Anthea; Jean, Hopkins Susan, Johnson Charles William, McLaughlin Maryanna Quon Warner David, LaHart Wright, Jill (2010). Human Biology
and Health. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. pp. 108–118.
• Step 1 = Ventilation
Inspiration & expiration
• Step 2 =exchange between alveoli (lungs) and
pulmonary capillaries (blood) Referred to as
External Respiration
• Step 3 = transport of gases in blood
• Step 4 = exchange between blood and cells
Referred to as Internal Respiration
 The upper respiratory tract, The tract consists
of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the pharynx
(nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx) and
sometimes includes the larynx.
The lower respiratory tract or lower airway is
derived from the developing foregut and consists of the
trachea, bronchi (primary, secondary and tertiary),
bronchioles (including terminal and respiratory), and lungs
(including alveoli. It also sometimes includes the larynx.

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1. Trachea
2. Mainstem bronchus
3. Lobar bronchus
4. Segmental bronchus
5. Bronchiole
6. Alveolar duct
7. Alveolus
MECHANICS OF BREATHING:

Inspiration is the active part of the breathing process, which is initiated by the
respiratory control center in medulla oblongata (Brain stem). Activation of medulla causes a
contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles leading to an expansion of thoracic cavity and
a decrease in the pleural space pressure. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped structure that separates the
thoracic and abdominal cavities and is the most important muscle of inspiration. When it contracts, it
moves downward and because it is attached to the lower ribs it also rotates the ribs toward the
horizontal plane, and thereby further expands the chest cavity. In normal quite breathing the
diaphragm moves downward about 1 cm but on forced inspiration/expiration total movement could
be up to 10 cm.

Expiration is a passive event due to elastic recoil of the lungs. However, when a great
deal of air has to be removed quickly, as in exercise, or when the airways narrow excessively during
expiration, as in asthma, the internal intercostal muscles and the anterior abdominal muscles contract
and accelerate expiration by raising pleural pressure.
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REGULATION AND CONTROL OF BREATHING:
http://voer.edu.vn/file/54133
 The Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG) is a column of neurons located
in the ventrolateral region of the medulla, The four cell groups of the VRG are the rostral
nucleus retrofacialis, caudal nucleus retroambiguus, nucleus para-ambiguus, and the pre-
Bötzinger complex.

The VRG contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons. The VRG is secondarily responsible
for initiation of inspiratory activity, after the dorsal respiratory group. The nucleus para-
ambiguus is active during inspiration, while the nucleus retrofacialis and the nucleus
retroambiguus are active during exhalation.
The VRG is responsible for motor control of inspiratory and expiratory muscles during exercise.

Berne, Robert M.; Levy, Matthew N.; Koeppen, Bruce M.; Stanton, Bruce A. (2004). Physiology, 5th edition. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. pp. 513–4.
 The dorsal respiratory group (DRG) is
located in the dorsomedial region of the medulla, and is
composed of cells in the solitary tract nucleus

The DRG is involved in the generation of respiratory rhythm, and

is primarily responsible for the generation of inspiration.

Kolesnikova, EE (2011). "Role of glutamate and GABA in mechanisms underlying respiratory control". Neurophysiology (Bogomolets Institute of
Physiology, Kiev, Ukraine) 42 (4): 294–304
 The pneumotaxic center, also known as the pontine
respiratory group (PRG), is a network of neurons in the rostral dorsal
lateral pons. It consists of the Kölliker-Fuse nucleus and the medial
parabrachial nucleus.

The PRG antagonizes the apneustic center, cyclically inhibiting inhalation. The PRG
limits the burst of action potentials in the phrenic nerve, effectively decreasing the
tidal volume and regulating the respiratory rate.
The PRG regulates the amount of air a person can take into the body in each breath.

Dutschmann, Mathias; Dick, Thomas E. (2012). "Comprehensive Physiology"

http://www.apsubiology.org/anatomy/2020/2020_Exam_Reviews/Exam_3/ventilation.chemoreceptors.fig.23.25.jpg
ANATOMY
ANATOMY : NOSE
Vasculature and Innervation of Nose
The arterial supply of the medial and lateral walls of the nasal cavity (Fig. 7.105) is from five
sources:
Anterior ethmoidal artery (from the ophthalmic artery).
Posterior ethmoidal artery (from the ophthalmic artery).
Sphenopalatine artery (from the maxillary artery).
Greater palatine artery (from the maxillary artery).
Septal branch of the superior labial artery (from the facial artery).
PARANASAL SINUSES
Air-filled extensions of the respiratory part of the nasal cavity into the following cranial bones:
frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid and maxilla.
 frontal sinuses
Right and left frontal sinuses are between the outer and inner tables of the frontal bone,
posterior to the superciliary arches and the root of the nose
They drain through a frontonasal duct into the ethmoidal infundibulum, which opens into the
semilunar hiatus of the middle nasal meatus.
Innervated by branches of the supra-orbital nerves (CN V1)
Often a frontal sinus has two parts: a vertical part in the squamous part of the frontal bone, and a
horizontal part in the orbital part of the frontal bone.
PARANASAL SINUSES
Ethmoidal cells (sinuses) small invaginations of the mucous membrane of the middle and
superior nasal meatus into the ethmoid bone between the nasal cavity and the orbit
The anterior ethmoidal cells drain directly or indirectly into the middle nasal meatus through the
ethmoidal infundibulum.
The middle ethmoidal cells open directly into the middle meatus and are sometimes called “bullar
cells” because they form the ethmoidal bulla, a swelling on the superior border of the semilunar hiatus
(Fig. 7.103B).
The posterior ethmoidal cells open directly into the superior meatus.

The ethmoidal cells are supplied by the anterior and posterior ethmoidal branches of the
nasociliary nerves (CN V1)
PARANASAL SINUSES
Sphenoidal Sinuses are located in the body of the sphenoid, but they may extend into the
wings of this bone
Only thin plates of bone separate the sinuses from several important structures: the optic
nerves and optic chiasm, the pituitary gland, the internal carotid arteries, and the cavernous
sinuses
The posterior ethmoidal arteries and the posterior ethmoidal nerves that accompany the
arteries supply the sphenoidal sinuses
PARANASAL SINUSES
Maxillary Sinuses (largest part of the paranasal sinuses) They occupy the bodies of the maxillae
and communicate with the middle nasal meatus
The apex of the maxillary sinus extends toward and often into the zygomatic bone.
The base of the maxillary sinus forms the inferior part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
The roof of the maxillary sinus is formed by the floor of the orbit.
The floor of the maxillary sinus is formed by the alveolar part of the maxilla. The roots of the maxillary
teeth, particularly the first two molars, often produce conical elevations in the floor of the sinus.

The arterial supply of the maxillary sinus is mainly from superior alveolar branches of the
maxillary artery
Innervation of the maxillary sinus is from the anterior, middle, and posterior superior alveolar
nerves, which are branches of the maxillary nerve
HISTOLOGY
BIOCHEMISTRY
TREATMENT &
EDUCATION
 1. Avoid Tobacco Exposure
2. Reduce Fatty Food Intake & Keep A Balanced Diet
3. Limit Exposure To Common Allergens
4. Maintain High Standards Of Hygiene
5. Follow An Exercise Routine
6. Protect Yourself Against Pollution
7. Take Advantage Of The Right Herbs
8. Stay Hydrated
9. Reduce Your Alcohol Intake
10. Utilize Steam Inhalation & Vaporisation

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