M09 Gitman50803X 14 MF C09

Chapter 9
The Cost of
Capital
Learning Goals
LG1 Understand the basic concept and sources of

capital associated with the cost of capital.
LG2 Explain what is meant by the marginal cost of

capital.
LG3 Determine the cost of long-term debt, and

explain why the after-tax cost of debt is the
relevant cost of debt.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-2

Learning Goals (cont.)
LG4 Determine the cost of preferred stock.
LG5 Calculate the cost of common stock equity, and

convert it into the cost of retained earnings and
the cost of new issues of common stock.
LG6 Calculate the weighted average cost of capital

(WACC) and discuss alternative weighting
schemes.

Overview of the Cost of Capital
• The cost of capital represents the firm’s cost of

financing, and is the minimum rate of return that a
project must earn to increase firm value.
– Financial managers are ethically bound to only invest in
projects that they expect to exceed the cost of capital.
– The cost of capital reflects the entirety of the firm’s
financing activities.
• Most firms attempt to maintain an optimal mix of
debt and equity financing.
– To capture all of the relevant financing costs, assuming
some desired mix of financing, we need to look at the
overall cost of capital rather than just the cost of any single
source of financing.

Overview of the Cost of Capital (cont.)
A firm is currently faced with two investment

opportunities. Assume the following:
– Investment A
• Cost = $100,000
• Life = 20 years
• Expected Return = 7%
– Least costly financing source available
• Debt (bonds) = 6%
– Because the firm can earn 7% on the investment
of funds costing only 6%, the analyst
recommends that the firm undertake this
investment.

– Investment B
• Cost = $100,000
• Life = 20 years
• Expected Return = 12%
– Least costly financing source available
• Equity = 14%
– In this instance, the analyst recommends that
the firm reject the opportunity, because the 14%
financing cost is greater than the 12% expected
return.

What if instead the firm used a combined cost of

financing?
– Assuming that a 50–50 mix of debt and equity is targeted,
the weighted average cost here would be:
(0.50  6% debt) + (0.50  14% equity) = 10%
– With this average cost of financing, the first opportunity
would have been rejected (7% expected return < 10%
weighted average cost), and the second would have been
accepted
(12% expected return > 10% weighted average cost).

Focus on Ethics
The Ethics of Profit

– Introduced in 1999, Vioxx was an immediate success,
quickly reaching $2.5 billion in annual sales.
– However, a Merck study launched in 1999 eventually found
that patients who took Vioxx suffered from an increased
risk of heart attacks and strokes.
– Despite the risks, Merck continued to market and sell
Vioxx.
– Vioxx was withdrawn from the market in 2006, dealing a
severe blow to the firm’s reputation, profits, and stock
price.
The Vioxx recall increased Merck’s cost of capital. What effect
would an increased cost of capital have on a firm’s future
investments?

Overview of the Cost of Capital:
Sources of Long-Term Capital

Cost of Long-Term Debt
• The pretax cost of debt is the financing cost

associated with new funds through long-term
borrowing.
– Typically, the funds are raised through the sale of
corporate bonds.
• Net proceeds are the funds actually received by
the firm from the sale of a security.
• Flotation costs are the total costs of issuing and
selling a security. They include two components:
1. Underwriting costs—compensation earned by investment
bankers for selling the security.
2. Administrative costs—issuer expenses such as legal,
accounting, and printing.

Cost of Long-Term Debt (cont.)
Duchess Corporation, a major hardware

manufacturer, is contemplating selling $10 million
worth of 20-year, 9% coupon bonds with a par value
of $1,000. Because current market interest rates are
greater than 9%, the firm must sell the bonds at
$980. Flotation costs are 2% or $20. The net
proceeds to the firm for each bond is therefore $960
($980 – $20).

• The before-tax cost of debt, rd, is simply the rate of

return the firm must pay on new borrowing.
• The before-tax cost of debt can be calculated in any
one of three ways:
1. Using market quotations: observe the yield to maturity
(YTM) on the firm’s existing bonds or bonds of similar
risk issued by other companies
2. Calculating the cost: find the before-tax cost of debt by
calculating the YTM generated by the bond cash flows
3. Approximating the cost

The cash flows associated with the sale of Duchess

Corporation’s bond issue are as follows:
We can determine the cost of debt by finding the

YTM, which is the discount rate that equates the
present value of the bond outflows to the initial
outflow.


Approximating the cost
where
I = annual interest in dollars

Nd = net proceeds from the sale of debt (bond)
n = number of years to the bond’s maturity

Approximating the cost

Cost of Long-Term Debt:
After-Tax Cost of Debt
• The interest payments paid to bondholders are tax

deductable for the firm, so the interest expense on
debt reduces the firm’s taxable income and,
therefore, the firm’s tax liability.
• The after-tax cost of debt, ri, can be found by
multiplying the before-tax cost, rd, by 1 minus the
tax rate, T, as stated in the following equation:
ri = rd  (1 – T)

Cost of Long-Term Debt:
After-Tax Cost of Debt (cont.)
Duchess Corporation has a 40% tax rate. Using the

9.452% before-tax debt cost calculated using Excel or
a financial calculator, we find an after-tax cost of debt
of 5.67% [9.452%  (1 – 0.40)].
Typically, the cost of long-term debt for a given firm
is less than the cost of preferred or common stock,
partly because of the tax deductibility of interest.

Personal Finance Example
Kait and Kasim Sullivan, a married couple in the 28%
federal income-tax bracket, wish to borrow $60,000
for a new car.
– They can either borrow the $60,000 through the auto
dealer at an annual interest rate of 6.0%, or they can take
a $60,000 second mortgage on their home at an annual
interest rate of 7.2%.
– If they borrow from the auto dealer, the interest on this
“consumer loan” will not be deductible for federal tax
purposes. However, the interest on the second mortgage
would be tax-deductible because the tax law allows
individuals to deduct interest paid on a home mortgage.
– Because interest on the auto loan is not tax-deductible, its
after-tax cost equals its stated cost of 6.0%.
– Because interest on the auto loan is tax-deductible, its
after-tax cost equals its stated cost of 7.2%  (1 – 0.28) =
5.2%.
Cost of Preferred Stock
• Preferred stock gives preferred stockholders the
right to receive their stated dividends before the
firm can distribute any earnings to common
stockholders.
– Preferred stock dividends may be stated as a dollar
amount.
– Sometimes preferred stock dividends are stated as an
annual percentage rate, which represents the percentage
of the stock’s par, or face, value that equals the annual
dividend.
• The cost of preferred stock, rp, is the ratio of the
preferred stock dividend to the firm’s net proceeds
from the sale of preferred stock.

Cost of Preferred Stock (cont.)
Duchess Corporation is contemplating the issuance of

a 10% preferred stock that they expect to sell for $87
per share. The cost of issuing and selling the stock is
expected to be $5 per share. The dividend is $8.70
(10%  $87). The net proceeds (Np) equal $82 ($87 –
$5), the share price less the flotation costs. The cost
of Duchess’ preferred stock is:
rP = DP/Np = $8.70/$82 = 10.6%

Cost of Common Stock
• The cost of common stock is the return required on

the stock by investors in the marketplace.
• There are two forms of common stock financing:
1. retained earnings
2. new issues of common stock
• The cost of common stock equity, rs, is the rate
at which investors discount the expected dividends
of the firm to determine its share value.

Cost of Common Stock (cont.)
The constant-growth valuation (Gordon) model assumes

that the value of a share of stock equals the present value of all
future dividends (assumed to grow at a constant rate) that it is
expected to provide over an infinite time horizon.
where
P0 = value of common stock

D1 = per-share dividend expected at the end of year 1
rs = required return on common stock
g = constant rate of growth in dividends

Solving for rs results in the following expression for

the cost of common stock equity:
The equation indicates that the cost of common stock

equity can be found by dividing the dividend expected
at the end of year 1 by the current market price of
the stock (the “dividend yield”) and adding the
expected growth rate (the “capital gains yield”).

Duchess Corporation wishes to

determine its cost of common stock
equity, rs. The market price, P0, of
its common stock is $50 per share.
The firm expects to pay a dividend,
D1, of $4 at the end of the coming
year, 2016. The dividends paid on
the outstanding stock over the past
6 years (2010–2015) were as
follows:

We can calculate the annual rate at which dividends

have grown, g, from 2007 to 2012. It turns out to be
approximately 5% (more precisely, it is 5.05%).
Substituting D1 = $4, P0 = $50, and g = 5% into the
previous equation yields the cost of common stock
equity:
rs = ($4/$50) + 0.05 = 0.08 + 0.05 = 0.130, or 13.0%

The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) describes

the relationship between the required return, rs, and
the nondiversifiable risk of the firm as measured by
the beta coefficient, b.
rs = RF + [b  (rm – RF)]
where
RF = risk-free rate of return
rm = market return; return on the market portfolio of
assets

Duchess Corporation now wishes to calculate its cost

of common stock equity, rs, by using the capital asset
pricing model. The firm’s investment advisors and its
own analysts indicate that the risk-free rate, RF,
equals 7%; the firm’s beta, b, equals 1.5; and the
market return, rm, equals 11%.
Substituting these values into the CAPM, the company
estimates the cost of common stock equity, rs, to be:
rs = 7.0% + [1.5  (11.0% – 7.0%)] = 7.0% + 6.0% = 13.0%

• The CAPM technique differs from the constant-

growth valuation model in that it directly considers
the firm’s risk, as reflected by beta, in determining
the required return or cost of common stock equity.
• The constant-growth model does not look at risk; it
uses the market price, P0, as a reflection of the
expected risk–return preference of investors in the
marketplace.
• The constant-growth valuation and CAPM
techniques for finding rs are theoretically
equivalent, though in practice estimates from the
two methods do not always agree.

• Another difference is that when the constant-

growth valuation model is used to find the cost of
common stock equity, it can easily be adjusted for
flotation costs to find the cost of new common
stock; the CAPM does not provide a simple
adjustment mechanism.
• The difficulty in adjusting the cost of common stock
equity calculated by using CAPM occurs because in
its common form the model does not include the
market price, P0, a variable needed to make such
an adjustment.

Cost of Common Stock:
Cost of Retained Earnings
The cost of retained earnings, rr, is the same as

the cost of an equivalent fully subscribed issue of
additional common stock, which is equal to the cost of
common stock equity, rs.
rr = rs
The cost of retained earnings for Duchess Corporation

was actually calculated in the preceding examples: It
is equal to the cost of common stock equity. Thus rr
equals 13.0%.

Matter of Fact
Retained Earnings, the Preferred Source of Financing

– In the United States and most other countries,
firms rely more heavily on retained earnings than
any other source of financing.
– For example, a 2013 survey of Chinese firms
found that 64% of the companies surveyed listed
retained earnings as one of their primary sources
of funds.
– Bank loans were a distant second choice,
mentioned as a primary source of funds by just
44% of companies.

Cost of Common Stock: Cost of New
Issues of Common Stock
• The cost of a new issue of common stock, rn, is

the cost of common stock, net of underpricing and
associated flotation costs.
• New shares are underpriced if the stock is sold at
a price below its current market price, P0.

Issues of Common Stock (cont.)
We can use the constant-growth valuation model

expression for the cost of existing common stock, rs,
as a starting point. If we let Nn represent the net
proceeds from the sale of new common stock after
subtracting underpricing and flotation costs, the cost
of the new issue, rn, can be expressed as follows:

• The net proceeds from sale of new common stock,

Nn, will be less than the current market price, P0.
• Therefore, the cost of new issues, rn, will always be
greater than the cost of existing issues, rs, which is
equal to the cost of retained earnings, rr.
• The cost of new common stock is normally greater
than any other long-term financing cost.

Duchess Corporation common stock is currently

selling at $50 per share. To determine its cost of new
common stock, rn, Duchess Corporation has
estimated that on average, new shares can be sold
for $47. The $3-per-share underpricing is due to the
competitive nature of the market. A second cost
associated with a new issue is flotation costs of $2.50
per share that would be paid to issue and sell the new
shares. The total underpricing and flotation costs per
share are therefore $5.50.
rn = ($4.00/$44.50) + 0.05 = 0.09 + 0.05 = 0.140,
or 14.0%

Weighted Average Cost of Capital
The weighted average cost of capital (WACC), ra,

reflects the expected average future cost of capital
over the long run; found by weighting the cost of
each specific type of capital by its proportion in the
firm’s capital structure.
ra = (wi  ri) + (wp  rp) + (ws  rr or n)
where

Weighted Average Cost of Capital (cont.)
Three important points should be noted in the

equation for ra:
1. For computational convenience, it is best to convert the
weights into decimal form and leave the individual costs in
percentage terms.
2. The weights must be non-negative and sum to 1.0. Simply
stated, WACC must account for all financing costs within
the firm’s capital structure.
3. The firm’s common stock equity weight, ws, is multiplied
by either the cost of retained earnings, rr, or the cost of
new common stock, rn. Which cost is used depends on
whether the firm’s common stock equity will be financed
using retained earnings, rr, or new common stock, rn.

Weighted Average Cost of Capital (cont.)
In earlier examples, we found the costs of the various

types of capital for Duchess Corporation to be as
follows:
– Cost of debt, ri = 5.6%
– Cost of preferred stock, rp = 10.6%
– Cost of retained earnings, rr = 13.0%
– Cost of new common stock, rn = 14.0%
The company uses the following weights in calculating
its weighted average cost of capital:
– Long-term debt = 40%
– Preferred stock = 10%
– Common stock equity = 50%

Calculation of the Weighted Average Cost
of Capital for Duchess Corporation
Table 9.1 Calculation of the Weighted Average Cost

of Capital for Duchess Corporation

Focus on Practice
Uncertain Times Make for an Uncertain Weighted Average Cost of
Capital
– As U.S. financial markets experienced and recovered from
the 2008 financial crisis and 2009 “great recession,” firms
struggled to keep track of their weighted average cost of
capital since the individual component costs were moving
rapidly in response to the financial market turmoil.
– The financial crisis pushed credit costs to a point where
long-term debt was largely inaccessible, and the great
recession saw Treasury bond yields fall to historic lows
making cost of equity projections appear unreasonably low.
– Ron Domanico is the CFO at Caraustar Industries, Inc. and
he reported that his company dealt with the cost-of-capital
uncertainty by abandoning the one-size-fits-all approach.
Why don’t firms generally use both a short and long-run
weighted average cost of capital?
Weighted Average Cost of Capital:
Weighting Schemes
• Book Value versus Market Value:

– Book value weights are weights that use accounting
values to measure the proportion of each type of capital in
the firm’s financial structure.
– Market value weights are weights that use market
values to measure the proportion of each type of capital in
the firm’s financial structure.
• Historical versus Target:
– Historical weights are either book or market value
weights based on actual capital structure proportions.
– Target weights are either book or market value weights
based on desired capital structure proportions.
• From a strictly theoretical point of view, the
preferred weighting scheme is target market value
proportions.
Personal Finance Example
Chuck Solis currently has three loans outstanding, all

of which mature in exactly 6 years and can be repaid
without penalty any time prior to maturity. The
outstanding balances and annual interest rates on
these loans are noted below.

Personal Finance Example (cont.)
Chuck found a lender who would loan him $80,000 for

6 years at an annual interest rate 9.2% on the
condition that the loan proceeds be used to fully
repay the three outstanding loans, which combined
have an outstanding balance of $80,000 ($26,000 +
$9,000 + $45,000).
Chuck wishes to choose the least costly alternative:
(1) do nothing or (2) borrow the $80,000 and pay off
all three loans.

Personal Finance Example (cont.)
Chuck calculates the weighted average cost of his current debt

by weighting each debt’s annual interest cost by the proportion
of the $80,000 total it represents and then summing the three
weighted values as follows:
= [($26,000/$80,000)  9.6%] + [($9,000/$80,000)  10.6%]

+ [($45,000/$80,000)  7.4%]
= (.3250  9.6%) + (.1125  10.6%) + (.5625  7.4%)
= 3.12% + 1.19% + 4.16% = 8.47% ≈ 8.5%
Given that the weighted average cost of the $80,000 of current

debt of 8.5% is below the 9.2% cost of the new $80,000 loan,
Chuck should do nothing and just continue to pay off the three
loans as originally scheduled.

Review of Learning Goals
LG1 Understand the basic concept and sources of

capital associated with the cost of capital.
The cost of capital is the minimum rate of return that a
firm must earn on its investments to grow firm value.
A weighted average cost of capital should be used to
find the expected average future cost of funds over
the long run. The individual costs of the basic sources
of capital (long-term debt, preferred stock, retained
earnings, and common stock) can be calculated
separately.

Review of Learning Goals (cont.)
LG2 Explain what is meant by the marginal cost of

capital.
The relevant cost of capital for a firm is the marginal
cost of capital necessary to raise the next marginal
dollar of financing the firm’s future investment
opportunities. A firm’s future investment opportunities
in expectation will be required to exceed the firm’s
cost of capital.

LG3 Determine the cost of long-term debt, and

explain why the after-tax cost of debt is the
relevant cost of debt.
The before-tax cost of long-term debt can be found by
using cost quotations, calculations, or an
approximation. The after-tax cost of debt is calculated
by multiplying the before-tax cost of debt by 1 minus
the tax rate. The after-tax cost of debt is the relevant
cost of debt because it is the lowest possible cost of
debt for the firm due to the deductibility of interest
expenses.

LG4 Determine the cost of preferred stock.

The cost of preferred stock is the ratio of the preferred
stock dividend to the firm’s net proceeds from the sale
of preferred stock.

LG5 Calculate the cost of common stock equity, and

convert it into the cost of retained earnings and
the cost of new issues of common stock.
The cost of common stock equity can be calculated by
using the constant-growth valuation (Gordon) model
or the CAPM. The cost of retained earnings is equal to
the cost of common stock equity. An adjustment in the
cost of common stock equity to reflect underpricing
and flotation costs is necessary to find the cost of new
issues of common stock.

LG6 Calculate the weighted average cost of capital

(WACC) and discuss alternative weighting
schemes.
The firm’s WACC reflects the expected average future
cost of funds over the long run. It combines the costs
of specific types of capital after weighting each of
them by its proportion. The theoretically preferred
approach uses target weights based on market values.

Chapter Resources on MyFinanceLab
• Chapter Cases
• Group Exercises
• Critical Thinking Problems

Integrative Case: Eco Plastics Company
The target capital structure for ECO is given

by the weights in the following table:

• Eco can raise debt by selling 20-year bonds with a

$1,000 par value and a 10.5% annual coupon
interest rate.
• Eco’s corporate tax rate is 40% and its bonds
generally require an average discount of $45 per
bond and flotation costs of $32 per bond when
being sold.
• Eco’s outstanding preferred stock pays a 9%
dividend and has a $95-per-share par value. The
cost of issuing and selling additional preferred stock
is expected to be $7 per share.
• Eco does not currently pay a dividend to common
stockholders.
• In order to track the cost of common stock the CFO uses the
capital asset pricing model (CAPM). The CFO and the firm’s
investment advisors believe that the appropriate risk-free rate
is 4% and that the market’s expected return equals 13%.
Using data from 2012 through 2015, Eco’s CFO estimates the
firm’s beta to be 1.3.
• Although Eco’s current target capital structure includes 20%
preferred stock, the company is considering using debt
financing to retire the outstanding preferred stock, thus
shifting their target capital structure to 50% long-term debt
and 50% common stock.
• If Eco shifts its capital mix from preferred stock to debt, its
financial advisors expect its beta to increase to 1.5.

(cont.)
a. Calculate Eco’s current after-tax cost of long-term debt.

b. Calculate Eco’s current cost of preferred stock.
c. Calculate Eco’s current cost of common stock.
d. Calculate Eco’s current weighted average cost capital.
e. (1) Assuming that the debt financing costs do not change,
what effect would a shift to a more highly leveraged
capital structure consisting of 50% long-term debt, 0%
preferred stock, and 50% common stock have on the risk
premium for Eco’s common stock? What would be Eco’s
new cost of common equity?
(2) What would be Eco’s new weighted average cost of
capital?
(3) Which capital structure—the original one or this one—
seems better? Why?

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Chapter 9

LG1 Understand the basic concept and sources of

LG2 Explain what is meant by the marginal cost of

LG3 Determine the cost of long-term debt, and

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-2

LG4 Determine the cost of preferred stock.

LG5 Calculate the cost of common stock equity, and

LG6 Calculate the weighted average cost of capital

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-3

• The cost of capital represents the firm’s cost of

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-4

A firm is currently faced with two investment

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-5

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-6

What if instead the firm used a combined cost of

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-7

The Ethics of Profit

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-8

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-9

• The pretax cost of debt is the financing cost

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-10

Duchess Corporation, a major hardware

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-11

• The before-tax cost of debt, rd, is simply the rate of

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-12

The cash flows associated with the sale of Duchess

We can determine the cost of debt by finding the

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-13

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-14

Approximating the cost

I = annual interest in dollars

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-15

Approximating the cost

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-16

• The interest payments paid to bondholders are tax

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-17

Duchess Corporation has a 40% tax rate. Using the

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-18

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-20

Duchess Corporation is contemplating the issuance of

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-21

• The cost of common stock is the return required on

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-22

The constant-growth valuation (Gordon) model assumes

P0 = value of common stock

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-23

Solving for rs results in the following expression for

The equation indicates that the cost of common stock

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-24

Duchess Corporation wishes to

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-25

We can calculate the annual rate at which dividends

rs = ($4/$50) + 0.05 = 0.08 + 0.05 = 0.130, or 13.0%

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-26

The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) describes

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-27

Duchess Corporation now wishes to calculate its cost

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9-28

• The CAPM technique differs from the constant-