OSI Model

Advantages & Disadvantages of

OSI MODEL

ADVANTAGES
It provides
wide
variety of choice.
It does not depend or
rely on a specific
computer system.
It interprets the
product functionality
at each-stage.
It encrypts the data for
security purpose.
It is easy to add
multiple-network
models.

Many applications do
DISADVANTAGES
not
require/need the
data integrity, which is
provided by OSI-model.
In order to fast set up
OSI requires agreement
b/w three-parties: users
& service provider.
Complex.
This model is not
adapted at all to
telecommunication
applications on
computer.

TCP/IP Model

Advantages & Disadvantages Of

TCP/IP
ADVANTAGES

It can be used to
establish/set up connection
b/w different types of
computers.
It operates/works
independently of the
operating system.
It support for a number of
routing-protocols.
It enables the
internetworking between
the organizations.
It has a scalable, clientserver architecture.

DISADVANTAGES

It is complex to set up
& manage.
IPXis faster than
TCP/IP model.
The shallow/overhead
of TCP/IP is higherthan ip.

Compare TC/IP And OSI

Model

Difference Between http And https

http is Hypertext Transfer Protocol Whereas

https Are Hypertext Transfer Protocol with
Secure.

http Is Not Secure And Reliable Whereas The

https Are Secure As Well As Reliable.

http By Default Uses 80 Port But In Case Of

The https They Use 443 Ports.

http Has No Encryption Whereas https Has

Examples For http And

https

Differentiate TCP And UDP

USER DATAGRAM
PROTOCOL

TRANMISSION
CONTROL PROTOCOL
Sequenced

Reliable-Sequenced Numbers, 3way handshake,

Acknowledgement

Connection Oriented

Virtual Circuits

User Buffer Management To

Avoid Flow

Keep Tracks Of Lost Package

Slow, Because Of All Additional

Functionality

Requires More Computer

Resources Because OS Needs To
Track Ongoing Communication
Session And Manage Them On A
Much Deeper Level. For Examplehttp , https

Un-sequenced
Unreliable-Best Effort Only
Connectionless
Low Overhead
No Control On Flow
Does not Keep Track Of Lost
Package.
Faster , Because It Lacks Any
Extra Feature
Requires Less Computer
Resources Because It Does not
Track The Communication
Session and Do Not Manage It.
For Example-DNS ,Computer
Games , DHCP etc

UDP
ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Broadcast and
multicast connections
are available with UDP
which is not the case
with TCP.
It does not restrict you
to connection based
communication model
Much faster than TCP

There are no
guarantees with UDP.
It is possible that a
packet may not be
delivered, or delivered
twice, or delivered not
in time.
you have to manually
break the data into
packets

Differentiate Analog and Digital

Signal
DIGITAL SIGNALS

ANALOG SIGNALS

It can have infinite number

of values in a range
Its data is of CONTINOUS
type
More exact value either ve
or +ve but more Difficult to
work with
It can be Wired Or Wireless
It has no Encryption
It has Amplifier for signal
boosting
Low Capacity and
Bandwidth
For Example-Voice , Video ,
TV Transmission

It can have limited number

of value i.e.(1/0)
Its data is of
DISCONTINOUS type
Not as exact as analog ,
but Easier to work with
Digital.(+ve value only)
It can be Wired only
It is Encrypted
It has Repeater for signal
Regenerating
Digital signals have High
Capacity and Bandwidth
For Example-Text , Integer,
Images

Advantages & Disadvantages

Of Analog Signal
ADVANTAGES

Analog technology
records wave forms as
they are, Hence more
accurate.
Analog signal
processing can be
done in real time and
consumes less
bandwidth.
Low cost and portable.

DISADVANTAGES

Analog systems less immune

tonoise i.e., random
unwanted variation . The noise
gets added in the signal path,
hence increasing SNR.
Analog instruments usually
have a scale which is cramped
at lower end and give
considerable observational
errors.
More likely to get affected
reducing accuracy.

Advantages & Disadvantages Of

Digital Signal
ADVANTAGE

Digital instruments are

free from
observational errors
like parallax and
approximation errors.
Can be noise-immune
without deterioration
during transmission
and write/read cycle.

DISADVANTAGE

Samples analog wave

forms into a limited
set of numbers and
records them.Hence
some information is
lost. Less accuracy.
Cost is high and not
easily portable

Differentiate LAN & WAN

LOCAL AREA
NETWORK

A communication network linking

number of station the same local
area . Range- 1-10 Km.
It uses GUIDED media.(copper,
co-axial wires).
Its SPEED is High i.e. 100kbps
-100mbps

METRO AREA NETWORK

It is CHEAPER
Used mainly by fixed desktop
computers and portable
computers (e.g. laptops) . Now-adays it is used by smart phones
due to emergence of WLAN
network

This network shares the

characteristics of Packet
Broadcasting . Range- 100 Km.
It Uses Un-GUIDED as well as
GUIDED media
Optimized Speed for a large
geographical area than LAN.
It is COSTLY
Can be used by any devices,
but desktop devices are
mainly using this network
type.hiu

Advantages & Disadvantages Of

LAN
ADVANTAGES

Resource Sharing
Centralized Data
Data Security
Software Application
Sharing
Easy And Cheap
Communication
Internet Sharing

DISADVANTAGES

High Setup Cost

Privacy Violation
Data Security Threat
LAN Maintenance Job

Advantages & Disadvantages Of

MAN
ADVANTAGES

MAN can cover a wider

area than a LAN. MAN
networks are usually
operated at airports, or a
combination of several
pieces at a local school. By
running a large network
connectedness, information
can be disseminated more
widely, rapidly and
significantly. Public
libraries and government
agencies typically use a
MAN.

DISADVANTAGES

MAN will only apply if the

personal computer or a terminal
can compete. If a personal
computer is used as a terminal,
move the file (file transfer
software) allows users to retrieve
files (downloaded) from the hose
or hose to deliver the data
(upload). Download files means
open and retrieve data from a
personal computer to another
and deliver the data to the
computer pertaining requested
by the user.

Compare Wired & Wireless Networks

WIRED NETWORK
1. Wired networking requires cables to be
connected to each and every computer in
the network.
2. Cost of a Wired network is less as compared
to wireless network as Ethernet , cables ,
switches are not expensive,
3. Wired LAN offers better performance as
compared to wireless networks . Wired
network can offer 100Mpbs bandwidth using
Fast Ethernet technology.
4. Ethernet cables , Switches are used in wired
network are reliable.
5. Security considerations for a wired network
connected to the internet are firewalls

WIRELESS NETWORK
1. Wireless network can be configured in two ways.
I.e. Infrastructure
mode Wireless devices
require WLAN cards and access points for
communication.
2. Wireless networks requires equipments like
Wireless Adapters and access points which are
quite expensive . Cost of wireless networks is
high as compared to wired networks.
3. Maximum bandwidth provided by wireless
network is about 11Mpbs.
4. The reliability of wireless network is less as
compared to wired network.
5. WLANS use wired equivalent privacy(WEP)
encryption to protect the data . This makes
wireless networks as secure as wired network

DEFINE SWITCHING
Anetwork switch(also calledswitchinghub,
bridging hub, officially MAC bridge) is
acomputer networkingdevice that connects
devices together on acomputer network, by
using packetswitchingto receive, process and
forward data to the destination device.

Advantages & Disadvantages Of

Switch
ADVANTAGES

Reduces the number of

Broadcast domains
Supports VLAN's which can
help in Logical segmentation
of ports[physical
ports].Splitting up the
broadcast domain
Intelligent device which can
make useof CAM table for
Port to MAC mapping
Compared to Bridges
,Switches are more H/w
oriented
therefore operations are less
CPU intense

DISADVANTAGES

1) Not as good as a router

in limiting Broadcasts
Communication b/w
VLAN's need inter-VLAN
routing [Router]
,but these days there are
a number of Multilayer
switchesavailable in the
market
Handling Multicast
packets needs quite a bit
ofconfiguration & proper
design

Types Of Switching

Circuit Switching

Circuit Switching is generally used in the public networks. It

come into existence for handling voice traffic in addition to
digital data. How ever digital data handling by the use of
circuit switching methods are proved to be inefficient.
Here the network connection allows the electrical current
and the associated voice with it to flow in between the two
respective users. The end to end communication was
established during the duration of call.
In circuit switching the routing decision is made when the
path is set up across the given network. After the link has
been sets in between the sender and the receiver then the
information is forwarded continuously over the provided link.
In Circuit Switching a dedicated link/path is established
across the sender and the receiver which is maintained for
the entire duration of conversation.

Advantages &
Disadvantages

Packet Switching

In Packet Switching, messages are broken up

into packets and each of which includes a
header with source, destination and
intermediate node address information.
Individual Packets in packet switching technique
take different routes to reach their respective
destination. Independent routing of packets is
done in this case for following reasons:
Bandwidth is reduces by the splitting of data
onto different routes for a busy circuit.
For a certain link in the network, the link goes
down during transmission the remaining packet
can be sent through the another route.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Message Switching

In case of Message Switching it is not necessary to established a

dedicated path in between any two communication devices.
Here each message is treated as an independent unit and
includes its own destination source address by its own. Each
complete message is then transmitted from one device to
another through internetwork.
Each intermediate device receive the message and store it until
the nest device is ready to receive it and then this message is
forwarded to the next device. For this reason a message
switching network is sometimes called as Store and Forward
Switching.
Message switches can be programmed with the information
about the most efficient route as well as information regarding to
the near switches that can be used for forwarding the present
message to their required destination.
The storing and Forwarding introduces the concept of delay. For
this reasons this switching is not recommended for real time
applications like voice and video

Advantages &
Disadvantages

Define Data Rate Limit

A very important consideration in data

communications is how fast we can send
data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level
of noise)

Capacity Of A System

The bit rate of a system increases with an

increase in the number of signal levels
we use to denote a symbol.
A symbol can consist of a single bit or n
bits.
The number of signal levels = 2n.
As the number of levels goes up, the
spacing between level decreases ->
increasing the probability of an error
occurring in the presence of transmission
impairments

NYQUIST THEOREM

Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit

rate of a transmission system by
calculating the bit rate directly from the
number of bits in a symbol (or signal
levels) and the bandwidth of the system
(assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and first
harmonic).
Nyquist theorem states that for a
noiseless channel:
C = 2 B log22n
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz

An Example For Nyquist

Theorem

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless

channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How
many signal levels do we need?
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need

to either increase the number of levels or
reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the
bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the
bit rate is 240 kbps.

SHANNONs THEOREM

Shannons theorem gives the capacity of

a system in the presence of noise.
C = B log2(1 + SNR)

An Example For Shannons

Theorem

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of

a regular telephone line. A telephone line normally
has a bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio
is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is
calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone

line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster
than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of
the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

Classification Of Transmission
Media

Guided And Un-Guided

Media
GUIDED MEDIA

The signal energy

propagates within the
guided media i.e. through
wires
It is main suited for point
to point line
communication
The signal propagates in
the form of current,
voltage.
For example- co-Axial
wires , Twisted Pair Wires
etc

UNGUIDED MEDIA

The signal energy

propagates through air.
It is mainly used for
broadcasting
propagation.
The signal propagates in
the form of
electromagnetic waves.
For example-Microwaves
or Radio links etc.

For Guided Media

For Un-Guided Media

Co-Axial
Cable

Coaxial cable,
orcoaxis a type
ofcablethat has an
inner conductor
surrounded by a
tubular insulating
layer, surrounded by
a tubular conducting
shield. Manycoaxial
cablesalso have an
insulating outer
sheath or jacket

Twisted paircabling
Twisted Pair
is a type of wiring in
Cable
which two
conductors
of a single circuitare
twisted together for
the purposes of
canceling
outelectromagnetic
interface(EMI) from
external sources; for
instance,electromag
netic radiationfrom
unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) cables,
and
crosstalkbetween
neighboring pairs. It
was invented by
Alexander Graham Bel
l

Fiber Optics
Cable
A technology that
uses glass (or plastic)
threads (fibers) to
transmit data. Afiber
optic cableconsists
of a bundle of glass
threads, each of
which is capable of
transmitting
messages modulated
onto light
waves. ...Fiber optic
cableshave a much
greater bandwidth