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    12 Remembering and Forgetting Lecture 2013.Ppt Yr1

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    Sambili Tonny
    The document provides an overview of remembering and forgetting from a psychological perspective. It discusses the nature of memory, stages of memory including sensory, short-term and long-term memory. It also covers encoding and retrieving information from memory, theories of forgetting, and using psychology to improve memory.

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    12 Remembering and Forgetting Lecture 2013.Ppt Yr1

    Uploaded by

    Sambili Tonny
    519 views40 pages
    The document provides an overview of remembering and forgetting from a psychological perspective. It discusses the nature of memory, stages of memory including sensory, short-term and long-term memory. It also covers encoding and retrieving information from memory, theories of forgetting, and using psychology to improve memory.

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    The document provides an overview of remembering and forgetting from a psychological perspective. It discusses the nature of memory, stages of memory including sensory, short-term and long-term memory. It also covers encoding and retrieving information from memory, theories of forgetting, and using psychology to improve memory.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    519 views40 pages

    12 Remembering and Forgetting Lecture 2013.Ppt Yr1

    Uploaded by

    Sambili Tonny
    The document provides an overview of remembering and forgetting from a psychological perspective. It discusses the nature of memory, stages of memory including sensory, short-term and long-term memory. It also covers encoding and retrieving information from memory, theories of forgetting, and using psychology to improve memory.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    of 40
    At a glance
    Powered by AI
    The key takeaways are the different stages of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Various memory models like the information processing approach and parallel distributed processing model are also discussed.

    The different stages of memory discussed are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory briefly stores images and sounds, short-term memory stores information for a short period of time, and long-term memory stores information for a long period of time.

    Some techniques that can be used to improve memory include paying attention to reduce interference, using rehearsal techniques, improving organization, countering the serial position effect, managing time effectively, using the encoding specificity principle, employing self-monitoring and overlearning, and using mnemonic devices.

    REMEMBERING AND

    FORGETTING
    MBChB. I LECTURE

    Dr. RACHEL KANGETHE


    PSYCHIATRY
    DEPARTMENT
    UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

    REFERENCES
    The African Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry
    and Mental Health by David Ndetei et al
    Developmental Psychology textbook by Dr. John
    T. PHIRI
    Myers Psychology Textbook, (7th Ed ): James
    A. McCubbin, PhD, Clemson University, Worth
    Publishers
    Introduction to Psychology : Kellogg
    Community College, Talbot, chapter 7

    Lecture Overview
    1.The Nature of Memory
    2.Stages of Memory
    3.Encoding Information into Memory
    4.Retrieving Information from Memory

    5.Forgetting Theories
    6.Using Psychology to Improve Our
    Memory
    7.Study Skills for Medical Students

    MEMORY
    Memory is an important part of what
    makes us truly human.
    Memory is our ability to encode, store,
    retain and subsequently recall information
    and past experiences in the human brain.
    1. Encoding- processing of information
    into the memory system.
    2. Storage-retention of encoded material
    over time.
    3. Retrieval-process of getting the
    information out of memory storage.

    Description of Four Memory


    Models
    1. Information Processing Approach:
    memory is a process analogous to a
    computer, which encodes, stores
    and retrieves information.
    2. Parallel Distributed Processing
    Model: memory is distributed across
    a network of interconnected units that
    work simultaneously (in a parallel
    fashion) to process information.

    3. Levels of Processing Approach:


    memory depends on the
    degree or depth of mental
    processing occurring when material
    is initially encountered.
    4. Traditional Three-Stage
    Memory Model: memory requires
    three different storage boxes to
    hold and process information for
    various lengths of time.

    Stages of Memory
    1.

    Sensory Memory

    2.

    Short-Term Memory

    3.

    Long-Term Memory

    Memory Organizational Chart

    FIGURE 7.2: Introduction to Psychology : Kellogg Community College, Talbot, chapter 7

    Sensory
    Input
    Sensory
    Memory

    Sensory Memory Store


    1st stage of memory; forms automatically,
    without attention or interpretation
    Capacity - large
    can hold many items at once
    Function - holds information long enough to
    Sensory
    be processed for basic physical
    characteristics
    Input
    Types - divided into two subtypes:
    iconic memory visual information/fleeting
    mental image or visual representation
    Sensory
    echoic memory - auditory information
    Memory
    Duration - very brief retention of images
    0.3 sec for visual info
    2 sec for auditory info
    Selected information is sent on to shortterm memory. Attention is needed to
    transfer information to short-term/working
    memory

    Short-Term Memory (STM) /Working


    Memory Store
    Attention
    Sensory
    Input
    Sensory
    Memory

    Working or
    Short-term
    Memory

    Short-Term Memory (STM) /Working


    Memory
    * 2 stage of memory; also
    nd

    called working memory;


    * Stores small bits of
    information briefly;
    * STM mostly stores information
    by sound i.e. phonetically
    * Very sensitive to
    interruption/interference
    * STM Memory Span: STM
    holds 7+/- 2 information bits

    i.e. 5-9 items for about 30


    seconds before they are
    forgotten.
    * STM temporarily stores
    sensory information and
    decides whether to send it on
    to long-term memory
    (LTM).

    STORING INFORMATION IN STM

    * Recoding: Reorganizing or modifying


    information in STM
    * Maintenance Rehearsal:
    Repeating information silently to
    prolong its presence in STM

    * Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new


    information & existing memories
    /knowledge in LTM; Good way to
    transfer STM information into LTM

    * Chunk: Meaningful units of information


    in memory.
    STM
    capacity can be increased with
    chunking and duration improves with
    maintenance rehearsal.

    -Long-Term Memory
    (LTM)
    Relatively
    permanent
    memory storage;
    virtually limitless
    capacity /Stored
    on basis of
    meaning and
    importance. LTM
    improved with:Organization;
    rehearsal; retrieval
    cues; recognition

    Maintenance Rehearsal

    Encoding
    Attention
    Sensory
    Input
    Sensory
    Memory

    Working or
    Short-term Long-term
    memory
    Memory
    Retrieval

    E x p li c i t M e m o r y
    Subtypes of Explicit Memory

    E p is o d ic M e m o r y
    Memory tied to personal
    experiences
    Examples:
    what did you have for
    dinner?
    do you like to eat apples?
    Why are these explicit
    memories?
    Because you can actively
    declare your answers to these
    questions

    S e m a n t ic M e m o r y
    *Memory not tied to personal
    events
    *General facts/definitions of
    world
    Examples:
    who was George
    Washington?
    what is a cloud?
    what is climate at north
    pole?
    *These are explicit memories
    cos you can describe what you
    know about them. Unlike
    episodic memories, your

    Implicit Memory/Nondeclarative
    I m p memory
    li c i t M e m o r y
    Subtypes of Implicit
    C la s s ic a l
    P rMemory
    o c e d u ra l
    P r im in g
    C o n d it io n in g
    M e m o ry

    Implicit because it
    is automatically

    Memory that
    enables specific
    learned skills or
    habitual responses
    performance
    E.g.- Riding bike
    *memories implicit?
    - Cant readily
    describe contents
    -automatically
    retrieved when
    appropriate

    *Priming is influence
    of one memory on
    another
    *priming is implicit
    cos it does not
    depend
    on
    ELAF
    = LEAF
    awareness,
    it s
    Why
    not
    automatic
    respond
    FLEA?
    Because
    flower parts
    were primed
    (flower
    power)

    Comparison of 3 Stages of Memory


    Sensory
    1. Large capacity
    2. Contains
    sensory
    information
    3. Very brief
    retention (1/2
    sec for visual; 2
    secs for
    auditory)

    Short Term
    1. Limited
    capacity
    2. Acoustically
    encoded
    3. Brief storage
    (up to 30
    seconds w/o
    rehearsal)
    4. Conscious
    processing of
    information

    Long Term
    1.Unlimited
    capacity
    2.Semantically
    encoded
    3.Storage
    presumed
    permanent
    4.Information highly
    organized

    Diagram of Three-Stage
    Memory Model

    Biological Bases of Memory

    Where are memories located?


    Memory tends to be localized and distributed
    throughout the brain.
    Engram - Memory trace in the brain.
    Biological changes in neurons facilitate
    memory through long-term potentiation (LTP),
    in two ways:
    1. The brain stores information in memory sites
    by establishing structural links between
    synapses (connection between neurons or brain
    cells) -repeated stimulation of a synapse
    strengthens the synapse, and
    2. neurons ability to release its
    neurotransmitters is increased or decreased.

    The 4 Lobes of the Cerebral


    Cortex
    Occipital
    Lobes

    Parietal
    Lobe

    Temporal
    Lobes

    Frontal
    Lobes

    -at the back


    of the head
    -Visual
    cortex

    -at the top of


    the brain
    -Somatosensory
    cortex
    -pressure,
    touch, pain

    -at the sides


    of the brain
    -Auditory
    cortex
    -memory,
    perception,
    emotion,
    language

    -toward the
    front of the
    brain
    -Motor
    cortex
    -voluntary
    movement
    of muscles
    19

    Memory Structures:
    Hippocampus along with amygdala integrates
    sensory information.
    Hippocampus is important in organizing
    sensory and cognitive information into a
    memory and it is important in organizing
    sensory and cognitive information into a
    memory Hippocampus associated with
    information passing from short-term memory
    into LTM.
    Hippocampus lesion causes inability to form
    new memories
    Amygdala important in emotional memory
    Hormones also affect memory (e.g., flashbulb
    memories--vivid and lasting images are
    associated with surprising or strongly emotional
    events).

    Recent studies suggest that repeated


    bouts of jet lag may cause harm to the
    temporal lobe, an area of the brain
    important to memory, causing it to shrink
    in size, and compromising performance on
    spatial memory tests.
    It is thought that stress hormones, such
    as cortisol, released by the body during
    times of stress (such as the sleep
    disturbance, general stress and fatigue
    caused by long flights) are responsible for
    this impairment of memory and other
    mental skills.

    Loss of Memory
    Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form
    new explicit long-term memories for events
    following brain trauma or surgery. Explicit
    memories formed before are left intact. Cause
    possibly is damage to hippocampus
    Retrograde amnesia: the disruption of
    memory for the past, especially episodic
    memory. After brain trauma or surgery, there
    often is retrograde amnesia for events
    occurring just before.
    Infantile/child amnesia: the inability as
    adults to remember events that occurred in
    our lives before about 3 years of age. Due
    possibly to fact that hippocampus is not fully
    developed.

    Biology and Memory Loss:


    Injury and Disease
    Amnesia: (memory
    loss from brain injury
    or trauma)
    Retrograde amnesia
    (old memories lost)
    Anterograde
    amnesia (new
    memories lost)

    Encoding Information into


    Memory
    Types of Processing
    Automatic processing: memory
    processing that occurs
    subconsciously and does not require
    attention.
    Effortful processing: memory
    processing that occurs consciously
    and requires attention

    Factors Affecting
    Encoding specificity
    principle: the principle
    Encoding

    that the environmental cues present at the time


    information is encoded into long-term memory
    serve as the best retrieval cues for the information.
    State-dependent memory: long-term memory
    retrieval is best when a persons physiological
    state at the time of encoding and retrieval is the
    same.
    Mood-dependent memory: long-term memory
    retrieval is best when a persons mood state at the
    time of encoding and retrieval is the same.
    Mood-congruence effect: long-term memory
    retrieval is best for experiences and information
    that are congruent with a persons current mood .

    Retrieving Information from


    Memory

    Measuring Retrieval
    Recall: a measure of long-term memory retrieval
    that requires the reproduction of the information
    with essentially no retrieval cues.
    Recognition: a measure of long-term memory
    retrieval that only requires the identification of the
    information in the presence of retrieval cues.
    Relearning: the savings method of measuring
    long-term memory retrieval, in which the measure is
    the amount of time saved when learning information
    for the second time.

    Forgetting Theories

    Decay/Role of time
    Encoding failure
    Interference theories
    Motivated Forgetting
    Retrieval Failure

    Why Do We Forget? Five Key


    Theories
    1. Decay Theory: memory
    degrades with time.
    Forgetting
    due to decay in storage? Storage decay theory proposes
    that forgetting is due to the decay of physical traces of the
    information in the brain; periodically using the information
    helps to maintain it in the brain. Use it or lose it
    theory!
    2. Encoding Failure: information in STM is not encoded
    in
    LTM. Forgetting Due to Encoding Failure? Encoding failure
    theory proposes that forgetting is due to failure to encode
    information into LTM.

    Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories


    (cont)
    3. Interference Theory: memory competes
    or interferes
    with others. Forgetting due to interference?
    Interference
    theory proposes that forgetting is due to other
    information in memory interfering
    *Proactive interference: old information
    interferes with
    the retrieval of newly-stored information
    *Retroactive Interference: newly-stored

    Improving Memory

    Some Ways to Improve Memory


    Knowledge of Results: Feedback allowing you to check your
    progress
    Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you are learning
    Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally (silently)
    Selection: Selecting most important concepts to memorize
    Organization: Organizing difficult items into chunks; a type of
    reordering
    Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of information at
    once, like a poem
    Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body of
    information (chapters)
    Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning task into a
    series of short sections
    Serial Position Effect: Making most errors while remembering
    middle of the list
    Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond bare master

    Using Psychology to Improve Our


    Memory

    1.
    2.
    3.
    4.
    4.
    5.
    7.
    8.

    Pay attention and reduce interference.


    Use rehearsal techniques.
    Improve your organization.
    Counteract the serial position effect.
    Manage your time.
    Use the encoding specificity principle.
    Employ self-monitoring and overlearning.
    Mnemonics: Memory tricks; any kind of memory
    system or aid. Use mnemonic devices (e.g., method
    of loci, peg-word, substitute word, word associations).
    - Using mental pictures
    - Making things meaningful
    - Making information familiar
    - Forming bizarre, unusual or exaggerated mental
    associations

    Study Skills for Medical


    Students

    Time Management
    As a doctor, one needs to do lots of
    things!- see patients, teach, learn,
    read, leadership roles, community,
    exercise, keep friends and family.
    Give up the idea that you are a
    student.
    You are a professional DOCTOR in
    training.
    Practice using your time WISELY!

    Final goal
    Pass
    Pace yourself like a long distance
    runner- practice, practice and practice
    to build up endurance
    Each hour in class- spend two hours
    outside of class
    Take INTERNAL control of your time
    Beware Ns and Ps- management by
    crisis!

    Long term
    memory

    Break it down into small


    pieces
    DAILY routine of memory
    reinforcement
    Guard against
    procrastination

    Common causes of academic difficulty

    Time Management
    issues
    travel, family, friends,
    other activities
    Material management
    issues
    not preparing, no
    daily reinforcement
    no CONSCIOUS
    system of study
    no own notes
    Mental Health issues
    depression, LD, ADHD

    Tips for optimal learning

    1. Create a schedule and follow it


    2. It is your best friend
    3. Skim read/ pre read
    generate questions, new
    terms, charts, graphs,
    compare/contrast data
    4. Attend lecture
    5. Sit in the front, away from
    distraction, good lighting
    6. Analyze data
    7. Memorize- see, hear, say,
    apply, teach
    8. Mnemonics for physical objects
    courses ( Funny ones)
    9. Flash cards
    10. Create your OWN flow charts,
    compare/contrast

    Schedule construction

    When are you most alert? AM, PM?


    How much sleep do you need?
    Do you need large blocks of
    uninterrupted time for work?
    Do you need a break after 1-1.5 hrs?
    How long a break, what to do then?
    When do you study alone?
    With others?

    Study sandwich
    Put in the difficult subject
    between two slices of easy ones
    Do not fall behind- if you do,
    catch up on the weekend
    Work on the most current
    material first
    To kill time is to murder your
    chances for success

    More tips

    1. Stay with one topic for at


    least 1.5 hours
    2. Work with related material
    3. Intersperse difficult
    subjects with easy ones
    4. Use your highest energy
    time for the most difficult
    subject
    5. Volunteer to teach in your
    group this topic
    6. Taking notes
    Ear to hand
    One sided; Leave other side
    of page for text book notes,
    study group notes-differ color
    Leave large margins for
    LABELING

    Time Accountability
    Time log for sensors
    Use a 15 mt block daily calendar
    pay attention to your natural rhythms

    Time pie- weekly pattern of time use


    for Ns and Ps- like chunks of time
    Using both is IDEAL for both groups
    First create a personal time pie

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