Topic 4.3 - Wave Characteristics

Topic 4: Waves
4.3 Wave characteristics

Essential idea: All waves can be described by the
same sets of mathematical ideas. Detailed
knowledge of one area leads to the possibility of
prediction in another.
Nature of science: Imagination: It is speculated that
polarization had been utilized by the Vikings
through their use of Iceland Spar over 1300 years
ago for navigation (prior to the introduction of the
magnetic compass). Scientists across Europe in
the 17th19th centuries continued to contribute to
wave theory by building on the theories and models
proposed as our understanding developed.
Topic 4: Waves
Understandings:
Wavefronts and rays
Amplitude and intensity
Superposition
Polarization
Topic 4: Waves
Applications and skills:
Sketching and interpreting diagrams involving
wavefronts and rays
Solving problems involving amplitude, intensity and the
inverse square law
Sketching and interpreting the superposition of pulses
and waves
Describing methods of polarization
Sketching and interpreting diagrams illustrating
polarized, reflected and transmitted beams
Solving problems involving Maluss law
Topic 4: Waves
Guidance:
Students will be expected to calculate the resultant of
two waves or pulses both graphically and
algebraically
Methods of polarization will be restricted to the use of
polarizing filters and reflection from a non-metallic
plane surface
Data booklet reference:
I A2
I x -2
I = I0 cos2
Topic 4: Waves
Theory of knowledge:
Wavefronts and rays are visualizations that help our
understanding of reality, characteristic of modelling
in the physical sciences. How does the
methodology used in the natural sciences differ
from the methodology used in the human
sciences?
How much detail does a model need to contain to
accurately represent reality?
Utilization:
A number of modern technologies, such as LCD
displays, rely on polarization for their operation
Topic 4: Waves
Aims:
Aim 3: these universal behaviours of waves are
applied in later sections of the course in more
advanced topics, allowing students to generalize
the various types of waves
Aim 6: experiments could include observation of
polarization under different conditions, including the
use of microwaves; superposition of waves;
representation of wave types using physical models
(eg slinky demonstrations)
Aim 7: use of computer modelling enables students to
observe wave motion in three dimensions as well
as being able to more accurately adjust wave
characteristics in superposition demonstrations
Topic 4: Waves
Wavefronts and rays
Consider the transverse waves
shown here.
The wavefronts are by convention
located at the crests of the waves.
A top view simplifies the drawing:
Wavefronts
dont have to
be straight.
FYI
Wavefronts are perpendicular to the wave velocity.
Topic 4: Waves
Wavefronts and rays
Wavefronts can also travel in 3D,
such as the cross-section of the
spherical wavefront shown here:
Such a wave can come from a
point source of sound or light, or
even from an explosion.
Even if a wavefront is
curved to begin with, as
you get farther from the
point source the
wavefronts become
more flat or planar.
Topic 4: Waves
Wavefronts and rays
Wavefronts can also be bent by obstacles in the
environment, or by the properties of the medium
through which the wave passes:
The animation shows
flat wavefronts being
focused by a lens.
Oftentimes rather than
drawing wavefronts we
ray
draw rays, which are
perpendicular to the
wavefronts.
FYI
Rays are parallel to the wave velocity.
Topic 4: Waves
Wavefronts and rays
Longitudinal waves also
have wavefronts and rays.
Instead of crests and troughs,
longitudinal waves have
compressions and rarefactions.
Just as crests were arbitrarily
chosen to be wavefronts in
transverse waves,
compressions are usually
chosen as wavefronts in
longitudinal waves.
FYI
As always, rays are parallel to the wave velocity.
Topic 4: Waves
Intensity is the rate energy is being transmitted per
unit area and is measured in (W m-2).
definition of intensity I
I = power / area
EXAMPLE: A 200. watt speaker projects sound in a
spherical wave. Find the intensity of the sound at a
distance of 1.0 m and 2.0 m from the speaker.
Note that whatever power is in the wavefront is
spread out over a larger area as it expands.
The area of a sphere of radius x is A = 4x2.
For x = 1 m: I = P / (4x2) = 200 / (41.02) = 16 W m-2.
For x = 2 m: I = P / (4x2) = 200 / (42.02) = 4.0 W m-2.
Doubling your distance reduces the intensity by 75%!
Topic 4: Waves
Intensity is the rate energy is being transmitted per
unit area and is measured in (W m-2).
definition of intensity I
I = power / area
Since A = 4x2 for a spherical wave, we can rewrite our
intensity formula.
I = power / 4x2
I x -2 Intensity I vs. distance x
Recall that the total energy ET of a particle in SHM was
ET = (1/2)kxMAX2, where xMAX was the amplitude A of the
oscillation.
Since P = ET / time, clearly P ET so that P A2.
But I = power / area so that the following is true:
Intensity I vs. amplitude A
I A2
Topic 4: Waves
Solving problems involving amplitude and intensity
EXAMPLE: At a distance of 18.5 m from a sound
source the intensity is 2.0010 -1 W m-2.
(a) Find its intensity at a distance of 26.5 m.
SOLUTION: We can just use I x -2 and dispense with
finding the actual power as an intermediate step.
Then I1 x1-2 and I2 x2-2 so that
I2 / I1 = x2-2 / x1-2
= x12 / x22
= (x1 / x2)2.
Thus
I2 = I1 (x1 / x2)2
-1
-2
Topic 4: Waves
Solving problems involving amplitude and intensity
EXAMPLE: At a distance of 18.5 m from a sound
source the intensity is 2.0010 -1 W m-2.
(b) Compare the amplitudes of the sound at 18.5 m and
26.5 m.
SOLUTION: We can use I A 2 and I1 and I2.
Then I1 A12 and I2 A22 so that
I 1 / I 2 = A1 2 / A2 2 .
Then
A1 / A2 = I1 / I2
= 2.0010 -1 / 0.0975
= 1.43.
This means that A is 1.43 times A .
Topic 4: Waves
reflective
surface
Interpreting diagrams involving reflection

Wave reflection occurs when a wave meets a
boundary, such as a solid object, or a change in the
medium, and is at least partially diverted backwards.
The angles of the rays are always measured with
respect to the normal which is
perpendicular to the surface.
incide
nt ray
The relationship between
incident
normal
the angle of incidence
reflect
incident and the angleof
ay
r
d
e
t
reflection reflect is simple:
reflec
incident = reflect
reflected waves
Topic 4: Waves
reflective surface
reflective
surface
Interpreting diagrams involving reflection

We can also look at the wave fronts: Observe
flat or straight
spherical
wavefront
wavefront
During reflection the frequency and the wavelength of
the wave do not change.
Topic 4: Waves
Interpreting diagrams involving refraction
Wave refraction occurs when a wave meets a
boundary, such as a solid object, or a change in the
medium ,and is at least partially allowed through the
boundary.
BOUN DARY
REFR
angle of
incidence
normal
INC
IDE
incidence
NT
WA
VE
CLEAR WATER
ACTE
D WA
VE
refraction
angle of
refraction
MUDDY WATER
Topic 4: Waves
It may help to imagine the ranks of a marching band.
Obviously, the
CONCRETE
cadence does
not change.
Thus the
period and the
frequency do
not change.
But the speed
and the
wavelength do
change.
DEEP MUD
Topic 4: Waves
During refraction the frequency and the period do not
change.
It should be clear that the incident wave is faster than
the refracted wave in this example.
BOUN DARY
angle of
incidence
incidence
normal
CLEAR WATER
refraction
angle of
refraction
MUDDY WATER
Topic 4: Waves
Superposition constructive interference
Wave superposition is simply the addition of two or
more waves passing simultaneously through a medium.
Superposition is also called interference and can be
constructive or destructive, or anything in between.
Consider two in-phase pulses coming from each end of
a taut rope.
The amplitudes x0 of the two pulses add together,
producing a momentary pulse of amplitude 2x0.
2x0
constructive
x0
interference
0
Topic 4: Waves
Superposition destructive interference
Wave superposition is simply the addition of two or
more waves passing simultaneously through a medium.
Superposition is also called interference and can be
constructive or destructive, or anything in between.
Consider two 180 out-of-phase pulses coming from
each end of a taut rope.
The amplitudes x0 of the two pulses cancel, producing
a momentary pulse of amplitude 0.
x0
destructive
0
- x0
interference
Topic 4: Waves
Superposition
PRACTICE: Two pulses are
shown in a string approaching
1m 1m 1m
-1
each other at 1 m s .
Sketch diagrams to show each of the following:
(a) The shape of the string at exactly t = 0.5 s later.
Since the pulses are 1 m apart
and approaching each other at
1 m s-1, at this time they will each have
moved m and their leading edges will just
(b) meet.
The shape of the string at exactly t = 1.0 s later.
Since the pulses are 1 m apart and approaching each
other at 1 ms-1 they will overlap at this instant,
temporarily canceling out.
Topic 4: Waves
Superposition
EXAMPLE:
Two waves P and Q
reach the same point
at the same time, as
shown in the
graph.
The amplitude of the resulting wave is
A. 0.0 mm. B. 1.0 mm. C. 1.4 mm. D. 2.0 mm.
In the orange regions P and Q do not cancel.
In the purple regions P and Q partially cancel.
Focus on orange. Try various combos
Blue (0.7 mm) plus green (0.7 mm) = 1.4 mm.
Topic 4: Waves
Superposition
EXAMPLE: Fourier series are examples of the
superposition principle. You can create any waveform
by summing up sine waves!
1
2
y =
n=1
y5 = - 1 sin 5t
yn
1
4
0
T
2T
-1
4
y3 = - 1 sin 3t
-1
2
y2 = - 1 sin 2t
y1
= - 1 sin t
1
y4 = - 1 sin 4t
4
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
In transverse waves the oscillations are
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the
traveling wave.
On the other hand, longitudinal waves
oscillate parallel to the direction of motion.
Transverse waves can have infinitely many modes
of oscillation, each of which is perpendicular to the
propagation, whereas longitudinal can only have a
single mode.
Because of these allowed modes, the phenomenon of
polarization only applies to transverse waves.
In this subtopic we will consider only one transverse
wave, namely electromagnetic waves, or light.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
Light is a transverse wave
having two types of
oscillation perpendicular to
the direction of propagation
of the wave.
Note that electromagnetic
radiation consists of mutually perpendicular oscillating
electric and magnetic fields.
FYI
In this subtopic we will consider
polarization in terms of the
electric field, not the magnetic
field.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
Sketching the electric field itself
is simplified even more:
If we look at the ray diagram from the edge of its plane

(at edge A) this is what we draw:
View from Point A
If we look at the ray diagram from the edge of a
perpendicular plane (at edge B) this is what we draw:
View from Point B
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
An oscillating electric charge produces an
electromagnetic wave.
For a light source such as the sun, or a glowing gas, or
an incandescent filament, the charges can oscillate in
any direction, thus producing random and continuous
orientations of the electric field.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
Unpolarized
Random orientations of electric
light
fields in a light source constitute
unpolarized light.
Rather than drawing the E-fields
Unpolarized
along the whole length of the ray,
light
we can simplify our sketch by just
(simplified
showing the fields at a single point:
view)
A manmade film call Polaroid can take unpolarized
light, and absorb all rays of light whose electric fields
are not oriented in a certain line.
Polaroid
The E-fields of the light that passes through
filter
are all oriented in a single direction and the
light is said to be polarized.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
EXAMPLE: If unpolarized light is passed through the
Polaroid film it will absorb all the rays not oriented with
the film.
Polaroid is not the only way to polarize light. For
example, if light reflects off of the surface of a liquid or
passes through a liquid or other solids it can become
partially or fully polarized.
Polaroid linearlyfilm polarized
In general, the object
used to polarize
light
unpolarized light is
unpolarized
called a polarizer.
light
POLARIZER
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
EXAMPLE:
Polaroid is made of very long, parallel molecules. A
simple model is a slotted disk. Only electric fields
oriented in the proper manner are allow to pass. The
rest are absorbed.
Although one would think that
the electric field would be allowed
to pass through the slots only if
parallel to them, in reality only
perpendicular E-fields can pass
through. Just live with it! Thus
the light that makes it through
Polaroid looks like this:
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
EXAMPLE: This is a view of unpolarized light passing
through a linear polarizer. (The light is traveling from
right to left.)
FYI
Linear-polarized is also called plane-polarized.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
LIGHT
first
EXAMPLE: Two Polaroid
second
filters are placed in a beam filter
filter
of unpolarized light.
Explain why when the
Analyzer
second filter is rotated
through 90, the intensity Polarizer
of the light passing through the pair decreases to zero.
The first filter plane-polarizes the incoming light.
The second filter, originally oriented to allow passage,
is now oriented to completely block the polarized beam.
FYI
The first filter is called the polarizer, and the second
filter is called the analyzer.
Observe the
light intensity
through two
polarizing filters
as the top one is
rotated through
180.
Which filter is
the analyzer?
BLACK FILTER
Which filter is
the polarizer?
RED FILTER
Topic 4: Waves
E cos

In general, polarizing filters are
sketched with lines showing the
A
orientation of the E-field allowed

P
through:
Note that the analyzer is rotated
(rather than the polarizer).
is the angle between the orientations of polarizer P
and analyzer A.
polarized light E
(from polarizer)
E-field allowed to
pass
direction of allowed
E-field (by analyzer)
angle through which

analyzer has been
turned
Topic 4: Waves
Recall that the intensity of a wave is proportional to the
square of its amplitude.
Thus the intensity of the light that comes out of the
analyzer is proportional to (E cos )2.
I = I0 cos2
E cos
Where I0 is the original intensity of the

light and is the angle of the analyzer.
polarized light E
(from polarizer)
E-field allowed to
pass
Maluss law
direction of allowed
E-field (by analyzer)
angle through which
analyzer has been
turned
Topic 4: Waves
PRACTICE: The preferred directions of two sheets of
Polaroid are initially parallel.
(a) Calculate the angle through which one sheet needs
to be turned in order to reduce the amplitude of the
observed E-field to half its original value.
(b) Calculate the effect this rotation has on the intensity.
(c) Calculate the rotation angle needed to halve the
intensity from its original value.
SOLUTION:
(a) Solve cos = 1 / 2 = 60.
(b) I = I0 cos2 = I0(1/2)2 = I0 / 4.
(c) I0 / 2 = I0 cos2 cos2 = 1 / 2. Thus
cos = (1 / 2)1/2 = 45.
Topic 4: Waves
In general, light sources produce waves having

their E-fields oriented in many random directions.
Polarized light is light whose waves have their Efields oriented in one direction.
Topic 4: Waves
Use I = I0 cos2 . Then

I = I0 cos2 60
I = 0.25I0
Topic 4: Waves
I0 cos2 0 = I0
I0 cos2 60 = 0.25I0
I0 cos2 90 = 0
I0 cos2 120 = 0.25I0
I0 cos2 180 = I0
Topic 4: Waves
In general, light sources produce waves having

their E-fields oriented in many random directions.
Polarizing sunglasses only allow waves in one
direction through, thereby reducing the intensity of
the light entering the eye.
Reflecting surfaces also polarize light to a certain
extent, thereby rendering polarizing sunglasses
even more effective.
Topic 4: Waves
Use I = I0 cos2 .
Then I = I0 (1/2)2 = I0 / 4.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization
There are ways other than Polaroid film
to obtain polarized light.
Some EM radiation is polarized when
it is produced. For example, EM waves
used for television are often polarized
either horizontally or vertically,
depending on the arrangement of the aerials.
Circularly polarized light can be
constructed from two polarized rays.
Reflection of unpolarized light from a boundary
between two mediums can polarize light.
Transmission of polarized light through certain liquids
can change the polarization angle.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization circular polarization
EXAMPLE: In addition to plane-polarization there is also
elliptical or circular polarization.
FYI
Circular polarization is used in those 3D movies you
pay good money to see.
Topic 4: Waves
EXAMPLE: Regardless of the
polarization type, a projection
of the E-field into any plane
will reveal a perfect sine wave.
The blue plane and the green
plane are mutually perpendicular.
Note that the blue and green
projections are in-phase for
linearly polarized light.
The blue and green projections
are 90 out-of-phase for circularly
polarized light.
Topic 4: Waves
EXAMPLE: An animation of circularly-polarized light
shows that in any plane perpendicular to the polarized
light, the E-field rotates over time.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization by reflection
EXAMPLE: Besides a Polaroid filter, there
are other ways to polarize light. One way is
by reflecting light from a surface between
two media where you get reflection and refraction.
unpolarized
partially polarized
inc
light
reflected light
refl
FYI
Polarization occurs
refr
parallel to the surface
between the two media
and varies with angle of
unpolarized
incidence.
refracted light
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization by reflection Brewsters law.
It turns out that if the refracted and reflected rays make
a 90 angle then the reflected ray will be totally linearly
polarized.
If refl + refr = 90 then the reflected ray
Brewsters
will be completely plane-polarized.
law
( Or inc + refr = 90 )
The particular angle of incidence at which this total

polarization occurs is called Brewsters angle.
PRACTICE: Use the simplified
method to draw an unpolarized
incident ray becoming completely
polarized by reflection.
FYI Also, recall that inc = refl.
inc refl
refr
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization optical activity
A substance is termed optically active if the plane of
polarized light rotates as it passes though the
substance. A sugar solution is an example of such a
substance. So is quartz.
The angle through
which the plane
rotates depends on
the concentration of
the solution (if the
substance can be
made into a solution),
and the distance through
which the light passes.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization uses polarimeters
PRACTICE: Data for various concentrations of sugar
solution have been gathered for a
sample tube of fixed length.
(a) Plot a suitable graph to
represent the data.
SOLUTION:
Angle of
rotation
C/g cm-3
0.30
0.20
5
10
15
0.10
5
10
15
20 /
Concentration
C / g cm-3
0.08
0.17
0.23
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization uses polarimeters
PRACTICE: Data for various concentrations of sugar
solution have been gathered for a
sample tube of fixed length.
(b) Find the concentration of a
sugar solution having = 18.
Polarimeter
SOLUTION: About 0.30 g cm-3.
C/g cm-3
0.30
0.20
0.10
5
10
15
20 /
FYI
The above
apparatus is called
a polarimeter.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization uses liquid crystal displays
Liquid crystals (LC) are optically active Second Reflector
substances whose activity can be
polarizer
controlled by applying a potential
difference across them.
If there is no p.d. across the LC it
Common
will not be optically active.
electrode
Liquid
If there is a p.d.
crystal
across the LC it will
Shaped
rotate the light
Unpol
electrode
a
r
i
through 90.
zed First
l
ight
polarizer
FYI
The LCD is illuminated by ambient unpolarized light
from the external environment.
Topic 4: Waves
Reflector
The light is polarized by the first
Second
polarizer.
polarizer
If there is no p.d. it will continue
through to the second polarizer
at which point it will be
Common
completely absorbed
electrode
because of the cross
Liquid
crystal
polarization.
Shaped
It is then reflected
Unpol
electrode
a
r
i
back to the viewer
z
light ed First
polarizer
as black.
FYI An LCD projector replaces the reflector with a
light source.
Topic 4: Waves
If there is a p.d. across the LC, it will Second Reflector
become optically active.
polarizer
The LC will then rotate the polarized
light from the first polarizer an
additional 90.
Common
This action aligns it with the
electrode
Liquid
second polarizer,
crystal
which now allows it
Shaped
to pass through
Unpol
electrode
a
r
i
unhindered.
zed First
l
ight
polarizer
FYI
The image received by the eye will have the shape
determined by the shaped electrode.
Topic 4: Waves
Polarization uses stress analyzers
When stressed, glass and plastics develop optical
properties that are dependent on the plane of
polarization.
When placed between a polarizer and an analyzer, and
illuminated by white light, the regions of highest stress
will appear as colored lines.

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Topic 4: Waves

4.3 Wave characteristics

Interpreting diagrams involving reflection

Interpreting diagrams involving reflection

If we look at the ray diagram from the edge of its plane

Solving problems involving Maluss law

orientation of the E-field allowed

angle through which

Where I0 is the original intensity of the

In general, light sources produce waves having

Use I = I0 cos2 . Then

In general, light sources produce waves having

The particular angle of incidence at which this total

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