PLATE GIRDER

By: Arif Memon

(Assistant Professor)
Civil Engineering Department,
Laxmi Institute of Technology,
Sarigam
(Chartered Engineer, AMIE)
(BE Civil, M.Tech Structure)
1

A girder is a flexural member which is

required to carry heavy loads on
relatively long spans

10

Plate girders are typically used as longspan floor girders in buildings, as bridge
girders, and as crane girders in industrial
structures.
Commonly term girder refers to a flexural
cross-section made up of a number of
elements.
They are generally considerably deeper
than the deepest rolled sections and
usually have webs thinner than rolled
sections.
11

Modern plate girders are normally

fabricated by welding together two
flanges and a web plate.

12

 Because plate girders are

fabricated separately, each may
be designed individually to resist
the applied actions using
proportions that ensure low selfweight and high load resistance.

Changes in X-Section
There is also considerable scope for
variation of cross-section in the
longitudinal direction. A designer may
choose to reduce the flange thickness
(or breadth) in a zone of low applied
moment.
Equally, in a zone of high shear, the
designer might choose to thicken the
web plate.

Changes in Material
Alternatively, higher grade steel might
be employed for zones of high applied
moment and shear, while standard
grade would be used elsewhere. Socalled "hybrid" girders with different
strength material in the flanges and the
web offer another possible means of
more closely matching resistance to
requirements.

16

Any cross-section of a plate girder is

normally subjected to a combination of
shear force and bending moment.
The primary function of the top and
bottom flange plates of the girder is to
resist the axial compressive and tensile
forces arising from the applied bending
moment.
The primary function of the web plate is
to resist the applied shear force.

 Plate girders are normally designed to

support heavy loads over long spans in
situations where it is necessary to produce
an efficient design by providing girders of
high strength to weight ratio.
To produce the lowest axial flange force for
a given bending moment, the web depth (d)
must be made as large as possible. To
reduce the self weight, the web thickness
(tw) must be reduced to a minimum.
As a consequence, in many instances the
web plate is of slender proportions and is
therefore prone to buckling at relatively low
values of applied shear.

19

 For efficient design it is usual to choose

a relatively deep girder, thus
minimizing the required area of flanges
for a given applied moment, Msd.
This obviously entails a deep web
whose area will be minimized by
reducing its thickness to the minimum
required to carry the applied shear, Vsd.
Such a web may be quite slender (i.e. a
high d/tw ratio) and may be prone to
local buckling and shear buckling.

 Web buckling does not determine the

ultimate strength of a plate girder.
Plate elements do not collapse when
they buckle; they can possess a
substantial post-buckling reserve of
resistance.
For an efficient design, any calculation
relating to the ultimate limit state
should take the post-buckling action
into account.

Design Criteria

Criteria for design of plate girder may

be based on
Elastic bend-buckling strength
Elastic shear-buckling strength
Post-bend-buckling strength
Post-shear-buckling(Tension
field)strength
22

IS 800:2007
Section 8
Design of members
subjected to bending

23

SECTION 8 DESIGN OF MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO BENDING

8.1
General
8.2
Design Strength in Bending (Flexure)
8.2.1 Laterally Supported Beam
8.2.2 Laterally Unsupported Beams
8.3
Effective Length of Compression Flanges
8.4
Shear
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8.5
Stiffened Web Panels
8.5.1 End Panels design
8.5.2 End Panels designed using Tension field action
8.5.3 Anchor forces
8.6
Design of Beams and Plate Girders with Solid Webs
8.6.1 Minimum Web Thickness
8.6.2 Sectional Properties
8.6.3 Flanges
Cont...24

SECTION 8 DESIGN OF MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO BENDING

8.7
Stiffener Design
8.7.1 General
8.7.2 Design of Intermediate Transverse Web Stiffeners
8.7.3 Load carrying stiffeners
8.7.4 Bearing Stiffeners
8.7.5 Design of Load Carrying Stiffeners
8.7.6 Design of Bearing Stiffeners
8.7.7 Design of Diagonal Stiffeners
8.7.8 Design of Tension Stiffeners
8.7.9 Torsional Stiffeners
8.7.10 Connection to Web of Load Carrying and Bearing Stiffeners
8.7.11 Connection to Flanges
8.7.12 Hollow Sections
8.8
Box Girders
8.9
Purlins and sheeting rails (girts)
8.10
Bending in a Non-Principal Plane
25

RESPONSE OF BEAMS TO VERTICAL LOADING

Plastic hinge formation
Lateral deflection and twist
Local buckling of
i) Flange in compression
ii) Web due to shear
iii) Web in compression due to
concentrated loads
Local failure by
i) Yield of web by shear
ii) Crushing of web
iii) Buckling of thin flanges
26

LOCAL BUCKLING AND SECTION CLASSIFICATION

OPEN AND CLOSED SECTIONS

Strength of compression members depends on slenderness ratio

27

LOCAL BUCKLING

Local buckling of Compression Members

Beams compression flange buckles locally
Fabricated and cold-formed sections prone to local buckling
Local buckling gives distortion of c/s but need not lead to collapse

28

LOCAL FLANGE BUCKLING - STEEL W SECTION BEAM LOA

DED AT CENTER ( UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON - downtown
)

Steel Beam Test - 9.4kN Point Load - RMIT University Be

am Competition_(360p)
29

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PLASTIC THEORY

Collapse mechanism
L

Plastic hinges

Plastic hinges
Mp
Mp

Bending Moment Diagram

Bending Moment Diagram

Formation of a Collapse Mechanism in a Fixed Beam

First yield moment My
Plastic moment
Mp
Shape factor S = Mp/My
Rotation Capacity

(a) at My

(b) My < M<Mp (c) at Mp

Plastification of Cross-section under Bending

30

SECTION CLASSIFICATION
Plastic
Mp
Compact
My

Semi-compact
Slender

Rotation

Section Classification based on Moment-Rotation Characteristics

31

CLASSIFICATION
OF CROSS
SECTION
Cross-sections are classified as "plastic", "compact",
"semi-compact" or "slender" according to the proportions
of the cross-section. Plastic and compact sections can
achieve their full load carrying capacity whilst semicompact and slender sections may be subject to prior local
buckling. Such cross-sections are not prohibited, but the
calculated load carrying capacity must be reduced to avoid
the possibility of local buckling.
32

Plate elements of a cross-section may buckle locally due to compressive

stresses. The local buckling can be avoided before the limit state is achieved by
limiting the width to thickness ratio of each element of a cross-section
subjected to compression due to axial force, moment or shear.

3.7.1.1 When plastic analysis is used, the members shall

be capable of forming plastic hinges with sufficient
rotation capacity (ductility) without local buckling, to
enable the redistribution of bending moment required
before formation of the failure mechanism.
3.7.1.2 When elastic analysis is used, the member shall
be capable of developing the yield stress under
compression without local buckling.
3.7.2 On basis of the above, four classes of sections
are defined as follows:
33

a) Class 1 (Plastic) Cross-sections, which can develop plastic hinges and have
the rotation capacity required for failure of the structure by formation of plastic
mechanism. The width to thickness ratio of plate elements shall be less than
that specified under Class 1 (Plastic), in Table 2 of IS 800.
b) Class 2 (Compact) Cross-sections, which can develop plastic moment of
resistance, but have inadequate plastic hinge rotation capacity for formation of
plastic mechanism, due to local buckling. The width to thickness ratio of plate
elements shall be less than that specified under Class 2 (Compact), but greater
than that specified under Class 1 (Plastic), in Table 2.
c) Class 3 (Semi-compact) Cross-sections, in which the extreme fibre in
compression can reach yield stress, but cannot develop the plastic moment of
resistance, due to local buckling. The width to thickness ratio of plate elements
shall be less than that specified under Class 3 (Semi-compact), but greater than
that specified under Class 2 (Compact), in Table 2.
d) Class 4 (Slender) Cross-sections in which the elements buckle locally even
before reaching yield stress. The width to thickness ratio of plate elements
shall be greater than that specified under Class 3 (Semi-compact), in Table 2.
In such cases, the effective sections for design shall be calculated either by
following the provisions of IS 801 to account for the post-local-buckling
strength or by deducting width of the compression plate element in excess of
34
the semi-compact section limit.

SECTION CLASSIFICATION BASED ON

WIDTH -THICKNESS RATIO
Mp
My
Plastic

SemiCompact Compact

Slender

=b/t

Moment Capacities of Sections

For Compression members use compact or plastic sections

35

Table 2 Limits on Width to Thickness Ratio of Plate Elements

Type of Element

250 f
y

Type of
Section

Class of Section
Plastic ( 1)

Compact
( 2)

Semi-compact ( 3)

Rolled

b/t 9.4

b/t 10.5

b/t 15.7

Welded

b/t 8.4

b/t 9.4

b/t 13.6

bending

b/t 29.3

b/t 33.5

b/t 42

Axial comp.

not

applicable

b/t 42

Web

NA at mid
depth

d/t 84.0

d/t 105

d/t 126

Angles

bending

b/t 9.4

b/t 10.5

b/t 15.7

Axial
comp.

not

applicable

b/t 15.7
(b+d)/t 25

D/t 44 2

D/t 63 2

D/t 88 2

Outstand element of
compression flange

Internal element of
compression flange

Circular tube with

outer diameter D

Condition for Beam Lateral Stability

1 Laterally Supported Beam
The design bending strength of beams,
adequately supported against lateral torsional
buckling (laterally supported beam) is governed
by the yield stress
2 Laterally Unsupported Beams
When a beam is not adequately supported
against lateral buckling (laterally un-supported
beams) the design bending strength may be
governed by lateral torsional buckling strength

37

Laterally supported beam

Laterally unsupported beam

LUSAS Lateral Torsional Buckling
of Bridge beams_(360p)
38

M
d

Design Strength in Bending (Flexure)

The factored design moment, M at any section, in a beam due to

external actions shall satisfy

8.2.1 Laterally Supported Beam

Type 1 Sections with stocky webs

d / tw 67

The design bending strength as governed by plastic strength, Md,

shall be found without Shear Interaction for low shear case
represented by
V <0.6 Vd

39

8.2.1.3 Design Bending Strength under High Shear

V exceeds 0.6Vd

Md = Mdv
Mdv= design bending strength under high
shear as defined in section 9.2

40

Definition of Yield and Plastic Moment Capacities

41

M
d

8.2 Design Strength in Bending (Flexure)

The factored design moment, M at any section, in a beam

due to
external actions shall satisfy

8.2.1 Laterally Supported Beam

The design bending strength as governed by plastic

strength, Md, shall be taken as
Md = b Z p fy / m0 1.2 Ze fy / m0
8.2.1.4 Holes in the tension zone

(Anf / Agf) (fy/fu) (m1 / m0 ) / 0.9

42

Laterally Stability of Beams

43

BEHAVIOUR OF MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO BENDING

Mcr

Plastic Inelastic Elastic

Range Range
Range

Mp

My
Mo

Mo
L
Unbraced Length, L

Beam Buckling Behavior

44

LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
Distance between lateral supports to the
compression flange.
Restraints at the ends and at intermediate
support locations (boundary conditions).
Type and position of the loads.
Moment gradient along the unsupported length.
Type of cross-section.
Non-prismatic nature of the member.
Material properties.
Magnitude and distribution of residual stresses.
Initial
imperfections
of
geometry
and
eccentricity of loading.

45

SIMILARITY BETWEEN COLUMN BUCKLING

AND LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS
Both have tendency to fail by buckling in their weaker plane
Column
Short span

Axial
compression
& attainment
of squash load
Long span Initial
shortening
and lateral
buckling
Pure flexural mode
Function of slenderness

Beam
Bending in the plane of
loads and attaining
plastic capacity
Initial vertical deflection
and lateral torsional
buckling
Coupled lateral
deflection and twist
function of slenderness

46

SIMILARITY OF COLUMN BUCKLING AND BEAM BUCKLING -1

P
X

u
Section B-B

Column buckling

EA
l

EI y

3
l

u
Section B-B
Beam buckling
EIx >EIy
EIx >GJ
47

LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF

SYMMETRIC SECTIONS
Assumptions for the ideal (basic) case
Beam undistorted
Elastic behaviour
Loading by equal and opposite moments in the
plane of the web
No residual stresses
Ends are simply supported vertically and laterally
The bending moment at which a beam fails by
lateral buckling when subjected to uniform
end
moment is called its elastic critical moment
(Mcr)

48

(a) ORIGINAL BEAM (b) LATERALLY BUCKLED BEAM

A
M

Lateral
Deflection

M
A
Elevation
l

z
x

Section

Plan

Section A-A
Twisting

(a)

(b)
49

FACTORS AFFECTING LATERAL STABILITY

Support Conditions
effective (unsupported) length
Level of load application
stabilizing or destabilizing ?
Type of loading
Uniform or moment gradient ?
Shape of cross-section
open or closed section ?

50

1
.
0
L
T
0
.
5
2
2
[

]
L
T
L
T
L
T
0LT.51LT0.2bZLpTf2y/M
cr

8.2.2 Laterally Unsupported Beams

The design bending strength of laterally unsupported beam
is given by:
Md = b Zp fbd

fbd = design stress in bending, obtained as ,fbd = LT fy /m0

LT = reduction factor to account for lateral torsional

buckling given by:

LT = 0.21 for rolled section,

LT = 0.49 for welded section

51
Cont

2
2
M
hG
M
2LE
IL2T(K

E
)K
IyL

E
I
crcr
210tK
y
w

/tfrL
hLK
y20.5

8.2.2.1 Elastic Lateral Torsional Buckling Moment

52

EFFECTIVE LATERAL RESTRAINT

Provision of proper lateral bracing improves lateral
stability
Discrete and continuous bracing
Cross sectional distortion in the hogging moment region

Discrete bracing
Level of attachment to the beam
Level of application of the transverse load
Type of connection

Properties of the beams

Bracing should be of sufficient stiffness to produce
buckling between braces
Sufficient strength to withstand force transformed by
beam before connecting

53

Other Failure Modes

Shear yielding near support

Web buckling

Web crippling

54

Web Buckling
Pwb ( b1 n1 ) t f c
d/2

b1

n1

450

d/2

L
0.7 d
E
ry
ry
ry

t3
t

A
12t 2 3

Iy

LE
2 3
d
0.7 d
2.5
ry
t
t
Effective width for web buckling

55

Web Crippling

Pcrip ( b1 n2 ) t f yw
b1

n2

1:2.5 slope

Root radius

Stiff bearing length

56

ELEMENTS OF PLATE GIRDER

57

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS IS MOSTLY
A MATTER OF PROVIDING STABILITY BOTH LOCALLY
& IN OVERALL SENSE
MOST OF HOT TOLLED SECTIONS ARE SO
PROPORTIONED THAT LOCAL STABILITY IS NOT A
CONSIDERATION
PROBLEM ARISE IN PLATE GIRDER BECAUSE OF DEEP
THIN WEBS
ONE WAY OF IMPORVING THE LOAD CARRYING
CAPACITY OF SLENDER PLATE IS TO PROVIDE
STIFFNERS.

58

MODES OF FAILURE OF PLATE GIRDER

YIELDING OF TENSION FLANGE
BUCKLING OF COMPRESSION FLANGE
COMPRESSION BUCKLING CAN TAKE PLACE IN VARIOUS
WAYS:
1. VERTICAL BUCKLING INTO WEB
2. FLANGE LOCAL BUCKLING
3. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING

59

MODES OF FAILURE OF PLATE GIRDER

YIELDING OF TENSION FLANGE

BUCKLING OF COMPRESSION FLANGE
BUCKLING OF WEB DUE TO SHEAR
BUCKLING OF WEB UNDER COMPRESSION DUE TO
CONCENTRATED LOAD
SHEAR YIELD OF WEB
BUCKLING OF FLANGE
COMPRESSION BUCKLING CAN TAKE PLACE IN VARIOUS
WAYS:
1. VERTICAL BUCKLING INTO WEB
2. FLANGE LOCAL BUCKLING
3. LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
60

MODES
OF
FAILURE

61

Tension Field Action

The resulting shear stresses on an
element of a web are equivalent to
principal stresses, one Tensile and
one Compressive, at 45 to the
shear stress.

62

Tension Field Action

Once a web panel has buckled in
shear, it loses its resistance to carry
additional compressive stresses.
On the other hand tensile principal
stress continues to increase in strain
in the diagonal direction.
Such a panel has a considerable post buckling strength,
since increase in tension is limited only by yield stress.

63

TENSION FIELD ACTION

In this post-buckling range, a new loadcarrying mechanism is developed, whereby
any additional shear load is carried by an
inclined tensile membrane stress field. This
tension field anchors against the top and
bottom flanges and against the transverse
stiffeners on either side of the web panel.
The load-carrying action of the plate girder
than becomes similar to that of the N-truss
In the post-buckling range, the resistance
offered by the web plates is analogous to
that of the diagonal tie bars in the truss.
64

TENSION FIELD ACTION

65

TENSION FIELD ACTION

Phases of behavior up to collapse of a typical panel in shear

Prior to Buckling

Post Buckling

Collapse

66

TENSION FIELD ACTION

The load-carrying action of the plate
girder than becomes similar to that of
the N-truss
In the post-buckling range, the
resistance offered by the web plates
is analogous to that of the diagonal
tie bars in the truss.

67

WEB PANEL SUBJECTED TO SHEAR

SHEAR RESISTANCE BEFORE
BUCKLING (STAGE -1)
PROVISION OF IS 800-2007 CL 8.4.2
- SHEAR STRENGTH Vn OF WEBS WITH
OR WITHOUT STIFFNERS CAN BE
EVALUATED BY USING FOLLOWING
METHODS:
1. SIMPLE POST-CRITICAL METHOD
2. TENSILE FIELD THEORY

Transverse Stiffeners
Transverse stiffeners play an important
role in allowing the full ultimate load
resistance of a plate girder to be
achieved.
In the first place they increase the
buckling resistance of the web;
Secondly they must continue to remain
effective after the web buckles, to provide
anchorage for the tension field;
finally they must prevent any tendency
for the flanges to move towards one
another.

69

Transverse Stiffeners
The satisfactory performance of a
transverse stiffener can best be
illustrated by comparing the girders
shown, after testing.

Figure 1

Figure 2
70

Transverse Stiffeners
In Figure 1 the stiffeners have remained
straight.
In Figure 2 the stiffener has failed and has
been unable to limit the buckling to the
adjacent sub-panels of the girder; instead,
the buckle has run through the stiffener
position extending over both panels.
Consequently, significant reduction in the
failure load of the girder occurred.
The stiffener must be of adequate rigidity in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of the web to
prevent web buckling.

71

WEB PROPORTIONING
Notations

72

Web Proportioning

Depth of girder is influenced by

many factors:
Headroom
Clearance

for high water in deck

bridges
Traffic

passing beneath the bridge

73

Web Proportioning
Depth: Overall girder depth, D, will
usually be in the range

L/15 D L/25 FOR GIRDERS IN BUILDING,

L/12 D L/18 FOR GIRDERS IN HIGHWAY BRIDGES,

L/10 D L/15 FOR GIRDERS IN RAILWAY BRIDGES,

Flange: Area of flange Af = M/(fy x d) x

Ymo

The

breadth, b, will usually be in the

range
h/5 b h/3,

74