ELECTRICAL MEASURING

DEVICES AND
MEASUREMENT
Compiled and presented by
Doren Nedrick

Measuring Instruments
The

majority of electrical measuring

instruments use the magnetic effect of the
electric current to measure electrical
quantities (e.g., current, voltage). The
simplest application of this method is
illustrated in Fig. 10.1.

Simple Moving-iron
Instrument
Principle:

When an electric current is passed

through a coil, an electromagnet is produced
(recall principle of electromagnetism).
Operation: (a) A piece of soft iron suspended
on a spindle outside the coil will be attracted
towards the electromagnet (the coil).
(b) A pointer, fixed in the spindle, will move
along the scale.
The coil is termed the operating device.

The Moving iron instrument

This

simple instrument has two

disadvantages:
(a) The soft iron segment will be drawn into
the coil unless its movement can be
controlled.
(b) When the instrument is operating the soft
iron segment will swing backwards and
forwards (oscillate) like a pendulum. A
device is required; to dampen this
movement, or oscillation.

Basic Parts of an
Instrument
Every

instrument requires three basic

devices:
1. Operating device: Usually the
electromagnet formed by the current
flowing through a coil.
2. Controlling device: There are two
types of controlling devices: (a) gravity
control and (b) spring control.

Gravity Control (Fig a): Two weights are attached to the

spindle: (a) a counter-balance weight to balance the
weight of the pointer, and (b : weight used to control the
movement of the pointer and restore it to its position
after movement.
Spring Control (Fig b): Spring control is obtained by
attaching two: counter-wound phosphor-bronze (nonmagnetic) springs on the spindle. Variations in the pointer
for zero setting can be obtained by slackening or
tightening one of the springs.

 3.

Damping device. Two types of

damping are used: (a) air dashpot
damping and (b) eddy current damping.
Air Dashpot Damping (Fig. 10.3a). In this
method a piston, or vane, is attached to
the spindle. The movement of the
aluminium piston in an air dashpot
minimizes the movement of the pointer
when quantities are being measured.

Eddy Current Damping (Fig. 10.3b). When a metal disc is

rotated between the poles of a permanent magnet a current
is induced into the disc. The magnetic field due to this
current is in opposition to the force producing it (Lenz's
Law). This effect is used in electrical measuring instruments
to produce a magnetic brake to dampen the oscillations of
the pointer. An aluminium disc is fitted to the pointer, and a
small permanent magnet is fixed on the coil former.

Moving-iron Repulsion-type
Instrument

Fig. 10.4 shows a complete moving-iron, repulsion-type instrumen

Moving-iron Repulsion-type
Instrument contd
Operating

Device: This type of instrument uses

the principle of the repulsion between like poles
(i.e., like poles repel). If two pieces of soft iron
are placed in the field of an electromagnet,
repulsion will take place between them, as both
pieces will be of the same polarity.
Construction:
In this instrument a piece of soft
iron is fixed inside the coil former and another
piece is free to move on a steel spindle. The
repulsion between these two pieces gives the
deflection of the pointer.

Moving-iron Repulsion-type
Instrument contd
Controlling

Device: Spring control is used in

the illustration (Fig. 10.4). Gravity control
may also be used.
Damping Device: Air dashpot damping is
generally used.
Scale: The scale is cramped at the beginning
because the torque, or twisting power, of the
operating device, depends on the square of
the operating current (I2). The scale is
useless below 10 per cent of the instrument's
range.

Moving-iron Repulsion-type
Instrument contd
This

is partly overcome by using a nickeliron tongue-shaped section. This scale is

called non-linear (unevenly spaced).
Operating Coil: The operating coil has a
few turns of thick, cotton-insulated wire
when the instrument is used as an
ammeter, and many turns of thin,
varnish-insulated wire when the
instrument is used for voltage readings.

Moving-iron Repulsion-type
Instrument
Advantages
1.

Cheap.
2. Robust.
3. Can be used on a.c. or d.c. (it is universal).
Disadvantages
1. Cramped scale.
2. Accuracy affected by (a) temperature
variations and (b) stray magnetic fields.
Applications: The moving-iron repulsion-type
is the most commonly used. Applications
include industrial panels, particularly where
vibration is considerable and motor starters.

Moving-coil Instrument

Moving Coil Instrument

Operating

Device: When a currentcarrying conductor is placed in a

magnetic field interaction takes place
between the field of the magnet and
the field due to the current flowing
through the conductor. If the
conductor is suspended in the
magnetic field, it will move.

Moving Coil Instrument

The

moving-coil instrument operates through

the interaction of two magnetic fields:
(a) The permanent magnet field.
(b) The field due to the current flowing
through a moving coil (a few turns of thin,
varnish-insulated wire).
Controlling Device: Control is obtained by
using two counter-wound phosphor bronze
springs. These springs are also used to carry
current to the moving coil.

Moving Coil Instrument

Damping

Device: Eddy current damping is

used. The movement of the aluminium coil
former through the permanent magnet field
produces eddy currents.
Scale: The scale is linear (evenly spaced)
because the deflection of the moving coil is
directly proportional to the current flowing
through it and the magnetic field, due to the
permanent magnet, is evenly distributed.
NOTE: The moving-coil instrument can only
be used on d.c. as it is 'polarized': it
contains two separate fields.

Moving Coil Instrument

Advantages
1.

Very accurate.
2. Even scale.
3. Unaffected by stray magnetic fields.
Disadvantages
1.

Expensive.
2. Unsuitable for a.c.
3. Easily damaged.

Practical Moving coil

Instrument
A

more practical moving coil instrument is

shown below:

Parts of a Moving Coil

Instrument

The parts which make up a moving coil

voltmeter are:
(i)
Pointer
(ii)
Graduated Scale
(iii)
Permanent Magnet
(iv)
Moving Coil
(v)
Spiral Spring
(vi)
Jewelled Bearings
(vii)
Casing

Functions of each part of the

moving coil voltmeter
(i)

Pointer:- indicates the magnitude of

the voltage being measured

(ii)

Graduated Scale: displays the

range of the meter movement.

(iii)

Permanent Magnet: provides the

main magnetic field which interacts
with that of the moving coil.

Functions of each part of the

moving coil voltmeter (Contd)
(iv)

Moving Coil: - channels the current

in and out of the meter movement, thus
causing a magnetic field interaction
which results in the rotation of the coil.
(v) Spring Coil - controls the rotating
action of the moving coil meter.
(vi) Jeweled Bearing - reduces the
friction encountered by the rotating
parts of the meter movement
(vii) Case/casing - Protection

Insulation Resistance
Tester
The

insulation resistance tester (e.g., the

megger) consists of a hand-driven d.c.
generator which operates a moving-coil
instrument. This instrument (Fig. 10.7) has a
magnetic circuit similar to that of the movingcoil instrument, but two coils are fitted on the
steel spindle:
(a) the voltage or pressure coil, which is
connected across the generator; and
(b) the current or control coil, which is
connected in series with the external resistance.

Insulation Resistance
Tester

Operation
1.

When the external circuit is open (i.e., no

resistor connected) only the voltage coil is
energized and the field of this coil lines up with
the permanent magnet field, thus giving infinity
reading.
2. If a resistor is connected in the external
circuit, a current will flow through the current
coil.
3. Interaction takes place between the fields of
both coils and the final
reading will be the resultant of these two
opposing forces.

Ohmmeter
A

similar movement is used in the ohmmeter, but

a battery replaces the hand-driven generator.
Application: The insulation resistance tester
measures resistance values from 10,000 to
infinity and is used for the following tests:
(a) Between conductors (polarity test).
(b) Between conductors and the general mass of
earth (the earth insulation resistance tests).
The ohmmeter is used to measure smaller values
of resistance; it is also used for circuit tracing.

Ohm Meter

Using the ohm meter

ZERO ADJUSTMENT
POTENTIOMETER KNOB

Using the ohm meter

Ohmmeters

are connected in parallel with

the terminals of the device or circuit to be
tested. The device or circuit must be
disconnected from power and from any
portion of the circuit that is not to be
tested.
False readings will result if other
components are connected to the test
circuit. Do not let the fingers of both
hands touch the tips of the test leads
while measuring resistance.

Using the ohm meter

If

you do, the ohm-meter will measure the

combined resistance of your body and the
circuit being tested. Be very careful of this
when measuring high values of
resistance, as your body resistance is high
and will affect the total resistance of
another high resistance. A false reading
can cause you to make a poor decision
when troubleshooting a circuit.

Past Paper Question

Figure

VI indicates three resistance readings taken

by an ohmmeter. In your answer booklet.
write the letters (X) , (Y) and (Z) . Next to EACH
letter, write the value of reading indicated.

Voltmeter
A

voltmeter is a testing device used to

measure voltage. The meter test leads
or wire connections are attached to
the tested circuit in parallel with the
device that is expected to have a
voltage drop.

Using the Voltmeter

Using the Voltmeter

Voltmeters

are always connected in

parallel to the device or circuit across
which the voltage is to be measured. A dc
voltmeter is a polarized instrument. This
means that care must be taken to connect
the test leads to the correct polarity, or +
to + and - to - . If this is not done, a digital
meter will indicate a negative voltage,
which might confuse the data.

Using the Voltmeter

Also,

the pointer of a moving coil meter

will move in the wrong direction and
damage the mechanism.
As you have learned, alternating
current reverses direction every half
cycle and, therefore, ac does not have
polarity. So, an ac voltmeter can be
connected across two points under test
regardless of polarity.

Using Ammeters
Ammeters

are connected in series with the

conductors and the load being tested. They
can be permanently damaged if connected
into circuits with too much current. A dc
ammeter should be connected into a circuit
with the correct polarity. A digital ammeter
which has been connected incorrectly will
indicate a reverse polarity on the display. If a
moving coil meter is connected in reverse,
the pointer will move in the wrong direction
and may be damaged. An ac ammeter can
be connected into a circuit without regard
for polarity.

Using the Ammeter

Past Paper question

(a)

In your answer
booklet, write the
numbers (1), (2), (3),
(4), (5), (6) and (7)
Next to EACH number,
write the name of the
corresponding part.
(b) State TWO
characteristics of
moving-coil
instruments.
Figure V shows a diagram of a
moving-coil instrument.

Varying Range of Voltmeters

The

range of a voltmeter may be extended

by connecting a resistor (known as a
multiplier) in series with the instrument .

Example:
A

moving-coil instrument gives a full-scale

deflection (F.S.D.) with a current of 30mA
(0.030 A) and a voltage of 90 mV (0.090 V).
Calculate the value of a resistor to be
connected in series with the instrument so
that it can be used to read 100V.

Solution
I

(at F.S.D.) = 0.030A

V (at F.S.D.) = 0.090V
VT (Voltage across terminals) = 100V
Rm = resistance of multiplier
Voltage (across resistor) = 100V 0.090V

= 99.91V
As R = V/I
Rm = 99.91V/0.030A

= 3330.33

Ammeter
The

range of an ammeter can be extended

by connecting a resistor (known as a shunt)
across the instrument so that a small
proportion of the current in the circuit
passes through the instrument.

Example

moving-coil instrument gives a fullscale deflection with a p.d. of 70 mV and

a current of 20 mA. Calculate the value of
shunt required to give a range of 0-10 A.

Solution
Rsh

= resistance of shunt
Ish (current through shunt) = 10A
0.02A

= 9.98A
Vsh (voltage across shunt) = 0.070V

Rsh = 0.070V

9.98A

Rsh = 0.007014

Exercise
A

moving-coil instrument having a resistance

of 10, gives a f.s.d. when the current is 8 mA.
Calculate the value of the multiplier to be
connected in series with the instrument so that
it can be used as a voltmeter for measuring
p.d.s. up to 100 V.
A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d. when
the current is 40 mA and its resistance is 25 .
Calculate the value of the shunt to be
connected in parallel with the meter to enable
it to be used as an ammeter for measuring
currents up to 50 A.

Exercise

A moving-coil instrument gives f.s.d. for a current of

10 mA. Neglecting the resistance of the instrument,
calculate the approximate value of series resistance
needed to enable the instrument to measure up to
(a) 20 V (b) 100 V (c) 250 V. [(a) 2 k (b) 10 k (c) 25 k]
A meter of resistance 50 has a f.s.d. of 4 mA.
Determine the value of shunt resistance required in
order that f.s.d. should be (a) 15 mA (b) 20 A (c) 100
A. [(a) 18.18 (b) 10.00 m (c) 2.00 m]
A moving-coil instrument having a resistance of 20 ,
gives a f.s.d. when the current is 5 mA. Calculate the
value of the multiplier to be connected in series with
the instrument so that it can be used as a voltmeter
for measuring p.d.s up to 200 V. [39.98 k]

Exercise
A

moving-coil instrument has a f.s.d. of

20 mA and a resistance of 25.
Calculate the values of resistance
required to enable the instrument to be
used (a) as a 010 A ammeter, and (b)
as a 0100 V voltmeter. State the mode
of resistance connection in each case.
[(a) 50.10 m in parallel (b) 4.975 k in
series]

Wattmeter
A

wattmeter is an instrument for measuring

electrical power in a circuit.
Figure 10.8 shows typical connections of a
wattmeter used for measuring power
supplied to a load. The instrument has two
coils:
(i) a current coil, which is connected in series
with the load, like an ammeter, and
(ii) a voltage coil, which is connected in
parallel with the load, like a voltmeter.

Wattmeter

The multimeter
Instruments

are manufactured that combine

a moving-coil meter with a number of
shunts and series multipliers, to provide a
range of readings on a single scale
graduated to read current and voltage.
If a battery is incorporated then resistance
can also be measured.
Such instruments are called multimeters or
universal instruments or multi-range
instruments.

Past Paper Question

1. (A) You are given a Volt/Amp meter. State how you will
increase
(i) the voltage range of the instrument (2 marks)
(ii) the current range of the instrument. (2 marks)
(B) (i) What type of meter shows readings on a linear
scale
(2 marks)
(ii) What type of meter shows readings on a non
linear scale
(2 marks)

Definition of Sensitivity
A

source of 150V is applied to a series circuit

consisting of two 10k resistors. The voltage
drop across each resistor is 75V. In the 150V
range, the voltmeter to be used has a total
internal resistance of 10k. When the
voltmeter connected across the circuit. The
parallel combination of R2 and the meter now
present a total resistance of 5k. Because of
the addition of the voltmeter, the voltage drops
change to 100V across R1 and 50 volts across
R2. Notice that this is not the normal voltage
drop across R2. Actual circuit conditions have
been altered because of the voltmeter.

Voltmeter Sensitivity
The

sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in

ohms per volt.
This is the same as saying the sensitivity is
equal to the reciprocal of the full-scale
deflection current.

Sensitivity Contd
Therefore,

the sensitivity of a 100microampere movement is the

reciprocal of 0.0001 ampere, or 10,000
ohms per volt.

Factors that affect the

sensitivity of measuring
equipment

Temperature

variations
Stray magnetic fields
Internal resistance of the instrument
Damping device not working properly

Wheatstone Bridge

Figure

10.21 shows a Wheatstone bridge

circuit which compares an unknown
resistance Rx with others of known values,

Wheatstone bridge
R1

and R2, which have fixed values,

and R3, which is variable. R3 is varied
until zero deflection is obtained on the
galvanometer G. No current then flows
through the meter, VA = VB, and the
bridge is said to be balanced.

Example
In

a Wheatstone bridge ABCD, a

galvanometer is connected between A
and C, and a battery between B and D. A
resistor of unknown value is connected
between A and B. When the bridge is
balanced, the resistance between B and
C is 100, that between C and D is 10
and that between D and A is 400 .
Calculate the value of the unknown
resistance.

Solution
At

balance, equating
the products of
opposite ratio arms,
gives:
Rx x 10 = 100 x 400
and Rx = 40 000

10
Hence the unknown
resistance, Rx =
4000

Formula

Analogue vs. Digital

Paralax error could occur when reading analogue

meter
Analogue meters uses a needle and calibrated scale to
indicate values.
Reading analog meters usually requires simple mental
calculations.
Digital meters display those values on a digital display.
Digital meters are simpler to read and many will adjust
to the proper range required for the circuit or device
they are connected to. These meters are known as
auto-ranging.
Most digital voltmeters have 50 times more impedance
than analog voltmeters, digital meters are more
accurate when measuring voltage in high resistance
circuits.

Analog vs. Digital

Digital

ammeters are often capable of

measuring smaller currents, all the way down
to micro amperes.
They are easier to use because they give a
specific value eliminating the need to interpret
the analog meters needle on its scale.
Analog ohm meter should be calibrated
regularly by connecting the two leads together
and zeroing the meter with the adjust knob.
This compensates for the changes in the state
of charge of the internal battery.