IP Address and Subnetting

IP Address Basic
What is an IP address
IP stand for internet protocol. IP is the main protocol responsible for
routing packet across network including the internet. Today IP version 4
(IPv4) is mostly responsible for the routing of packets on modern
network. IP version 6 (IPv6) will soon evolve as the primary protocol as
the primary protocol for this purpose on the internet as all IPv4
addresses has been allocated.

An IP address is a way to identify a host on a network that
communicates using IP protocol. It is a 32-bit number
example: 11000000 10101000 00000000 00000001

Because there are 32 bits in an IP address, and each bit can be either a 0
or a 1, we have a 2
32
possible IPv4 addresses (about 4.2 billion)

Dotted Decimal Format
The 32 bits IP address is tipically viewed in a "dotted decimal"
format. The IP address is devided into 8-bit octets.
Example: Binary IP address: 11000000101010000000000000000001
[ octet 1 ][ octet 2 ][ octet 3 ][ octet 4 ]
Binary address to octets: 11000000 10101000 00000000 00000001
Example: Dotted Decimal IP Address: 192.168.0.1

Dotted decimal to binary conversion
Convert each 8 bit octet into binary number

Binary to dotted decimal conversion
Devide your 32 bits into 4 8-bit octets
Convert each 8-bit octet from binary to decimal


Subnet Mask
Each IP address is made up into 2 different pieces.
Network portion
Define the network address - What network to route to?
Host portion
Define hosts on that specific network

A subnet mask is also a 32 bits number that tell the router which bit
of the IP address are for the network portion and which bit are for
the host portion.

Subnet mask is also a binary number but is also communicated in
dotted decimal format or CIDR format
Example subnet mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Subnet mask in dotted decimal: 255.255.255.0
Subnet Mask
Subnet mask example
IP: 192.168.1.1
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
determine the host portion and network portion for this network
IP Address Classes
Originally the entire IP address range was broken down into 5 classes: A, B,
C, D, E
The class of an IP address was determined by the first octet in the IP
address.
Each class has a default subnet mask
When calculating hosts IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased
because they cannot be assigned to hosts i.e. the first IP of a network is
network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.



Class
MSB of 1st
octet
1st Octet Mask Format
A 0 1 - 127 255.0.0.0 n.h.h.h
B 10 128 - 191 255.255.0.0 n.n.h.h
C 110 192 - 223 255.255.255.0 n.n.n.h
D 1110 224 - 239 Multicast Multicast
E - 240 - 255 Experimental Experimental
Private IP Address Space
RFC 1918 defines IP address ranges on private network
These IP addresses is not routable on the global internet and are
used inside private network.






IP address class terminology is rarely used in the industry anymore
because of the introduction of the classless interdimain routing
(CIDR)
Network Mask Range
10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
CIDR Notation
Traditionally subnet masks are determined by the IP address class,
so there were only three subnet mask you would see.
For class A,B,and C network
To preserve IP address space, use them more efficiently, and help
reduce burdon on global routing table, classless interdomain routing
was born (CIDR).
CIDR is used for IP address aggregation and specifies the subnet
mask in a different notation.
The CIDR notation list the network followed by a "/" followed by the
number of the subnet mask bits
Example: 192.168.0.0 / 16
Example: 220.140.10.0 / 25
Example: 8.8.8.8 / 30

CIDR Notation
In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest
of three octets are used to be assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214
Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class A, bits from Host
part are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly.

For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host
bits of second octet and added to Network address, it creates two
Subnets (21=2) with (223-2) 8388606 Hosts per Subnet.

The Subnet mask is changed accordingly to reflect subnetting.
Given below is a list of all possible combination of Class A subnets:

CIDR Notation
CIDR Notation
Example
What is the Network ID, Broadcast Address, First Usable IP, and Last
Usable IP on the subnetwork that the node 192.168.1.15/26 belongs to?
Subnet a network
Subnet Chart




Example :
Assume you own the 199.1.2.0 network. You need to create 16
subnets and you will need no more than 12 host on each subnet.
Subnet a network
Step 1
Find out how many bits you need to borrow by powers of 2 (starting with
2
1
) from the most left bit until you reach the number of subnets you
need.
Draw an imaginary line to the right of the last bit you borrow.
The subnet mask you need is the one to the left of the line




To make sure you have the right amount of host for each network, you
can count by powers of two (starting with 2
1
) from the right most bit until
you reach the number of hosts you need.


Subnet a network
Step 2
Obtain the network addresses by starting with the 0 network, which is
always the first (199.1.2.0) and adding the bit value that correspond to the
mask.
for this example that tells us the second network is 199.1.2.16
Continue to increment by this bit value to obtaine all the network addresses.

199.1.2.0
199.1.2.16
199.1.2.32
199.1.2.48
199.1.2.64
199.1.2.80
199.1.2.96 ..... and so on
Subnet a network
Step 3
Once you see the network addresses, it's easy to determine the
broadcast addresses and the valid host addresses for each subnet
For example
the last address on the 199.1.2.0 network has to be 199.1.2.15 because
199.1.2.16 is the next network address
since it's the last address, 199.1.2.15 is the broadcast address.
All addresses between 199.1.2.0 to 199.1.2.15 are the host address for the
network. (199.1.2.1 - 199.1.2.14)
Subnet a network
Example :

XYZ company would like to subnet its network so that there are 5 separate
subnets. They will need 25 computers in each subnet. Complete each of the
following.
NOTE: If you create more than 5 subnets, list the extra ones too.


Subnet Network Address Host Addresses Broadcast Address
Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.___
1st subnet 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___ - 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___
2nd subnet 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___ - 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___
3rd subnet 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___ - 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___
4th subnet 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___ - 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___
5th subnet 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___ - 192.168.162.___ 192.168.162.___
6th subnet ?
?
Subnet a network
Exercise

KKK Sdn Bhd is wholly owned Malaysia company. In line with its expansion plan, the
company is to be restructured to 8 department

IT Department ( 5 hosts )
Sales Department ( 4 hosts )
Management Department ( 6 hosts )
Services Department ( 8 hosts )
Human Resource Department ( 7 hosts )
Engineering Department ( 9 hosts )
Supervision Department (3 hosts )
Maintenance Department ( 5 hosts )

As a consultant,you are required to design a C Class sub-network to be used by KKK Sdn
Bhd

Determine the subnet addresses for each department
Identify the IP addresses assignment for each host
Determine the broadcast addresses being used by each departmen
IPv4 OSI Model
International Standard Organization has a well-defined Model for
Communication Systems known as Open System Interconnection,
or OSI Model. This layered model is a conceptualized view of how
one system should communicate with the other, using various
protocols defined in each layer.

Further, each layer is designated to a well-defined part of
communication system

For example
The Physical layer defines all the components of physical nature, i.e. wires,
frequencies, pulse codes, voltage transmission etc. of a communication
system.
IPv4 OSI Model
IPv4 OSI Model
Application Layer (Layer-7):
This is where the user application sits who needs to transfer data
between or among hosts. For example: HTTP, file transfer application
(FTP) and electronic mail etc.

Presentation Layer (Layer-6):
This layer helps to understand data representation in one form on a host
to other host in their native representation. Data from the sender is
converted to on-the-wire data (general standard format) and at the
receivers end it is converted to the native representation of the receiver.

Session Layer (Layer-5):
This layer provides session management capabilities between hosts.
For example if some host needs a password verification for access and
if credentials are provided then for that session password verification
does not happen again. This layer can assist in synchronization, dialog
control and critical operation management (e.g., an online bank
transaction)
IPv4 OSI Model
Transport Layer (Layer-4):
This layer provides end to end data delivery between/among hosts. This
layer takes data from above layer and breaks it into smaller units called
Segments and then gives it to Network layer for transmission.

Network Layer (Layer-3):
This layer helps to uniquely identify hosts beyond the subnets and
defines the path which the packets will follow or be routed to reach the
destination.

Data Link Layer (Layer-2):
This layer takes the raw transmission data (signal, pulses etc.) from
Physical Layer and makes Data Frames and sends that to upper layer
and vice versa. This layer also checks any transmission errors and sort
it out accordingly.

Physical Layer (Layer-1):
This layer deals with hardware technology and actual communication
mechanism like signaling, voltage, cable type and length etc.
IPv4 TCP/IP Model
Majorly of the internet uses a protocol suite called the Internet
Protocol Suite also known as TCP/IP protocol suite. Because the
two major protocols in this suites are TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol), this is commonly termed as
TCP/IP Protocol suite.

This protocol suite has its own reference model which it follows over
the internet.

In contrast with OSI model, this model of protocols contains less
layers.

IPv4 TCP/IP Model
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)
Internet Protocol is one of the major protocol in TCP/IP protocols
suite. This protocol works at Network layer of OSI model and at
Internet layer of TCP/IP model.

Thus this protocol has the responsibility of identification of hosts
based upon their logical addresses and to route data
between/among them over the underlying network.

IP provides a mechanism to uniquely identify host by IP addressing
scheme.

IP uses best effort delivery
it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to destined host but it
will do its best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32-
bit logical address
IPv4 Packet Structure
Internet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data
Segments from layer-4 (Transport) and divides it into whats called
packet. IP packet encapsulates data unit received from above layer
and adds its own header information.




The encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload. IP header
contains all the necessary information to deliver the packet at the
other end.

IPv4 Packet Structure
IPv4 Packet Structure
Version:
Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4)
IHL: Internet Header Length,
Length of entire IP header
DSCP: Differentiated Services Code Point,
This is Type of Service.
ECN: Explicit Congestion Notification,
carries information about the congestion seen in the route.
Total Length: Length of entire IP Packet
(including IP header and IP Payload)
Identification:
If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments contain
same identification no. to identify original IP packet they belong to.
Flags:
As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle
these flags tell that if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the
MSB is always set to 0.
IPv4 Packet Structure
Fragment Offset:
This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original IP Packet.
Time to Live:
To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some TTL value
set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can cross.
At each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the value reaches
zero, the packet is discarded.
Protocol:
Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this packet
belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of
ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
Header Checksum:
This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header which is then
used to check if the packet is received error-free.
Source Address:
32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
Destination Address:
32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.
IPv4 Packet Structure
Example of IP header from an IP packet received at destination :

4500 003c 1c46 4000 4006 b1e6 ac10 0a63 ac10 0a0c


'45 corresponds to the first two fields in the header
4 corresponds to the IP version and
5 corresponds to the header length.

'00 corresponds to TOS or the type of service.
This value of TOS indicated normal operation.

'003c' corresponds to total length field of IP header.
In this case the total length of IP packet is 60.

'1c46' corresponds to the identification field.


IPv4 Packet Structure
4500 003c 1c46 4000 4006 b1e6 ac10 0a63 ac10 0a0c

'4000 can be divided into two bytes.
(divided into 3 bits and 13 bits respectively)
correspond to the flags and fragment offset of IP header fields.
'4006 can be divided into 40 and 06.
40 corresponds to the TTL field
06 corresponds to the protocol field of the IP header. 06 indicates that
the protocol is TCP.
b1e6 corresponds to the checksum
which is set at the source
this field will be set to zero while computing the checksum at destination
end.
ac10 and 0a0c correspond to the source IP address and the
destination IP address in the IP header.



Error Detection (Checksum)
A check sum is basically a value that is computed from data packet
to check its integrity (check on whether the data received is error
free or not).
This is because while traveling on network a data packet can
become corrupt and there has to be a way at the receiving end to
know that data is corrupted or not.
At the source side
The checksum is calculated and set in header as a field
At the destination side
the checksum is again calculated and crosschecked with the existing
checksum value in header to see if the data packet is OK or not.
IP header checksum is : 16 bit ones complement of the ones
complement sum of all 16 bit words in the header
Error Detection (Checksum)
Calculating Checksum:

4500 003c 1c46 4000 4006 b1e6 ac10 0a63 ac10 0a0c

Step1: Convert all these values in binary

4500 -> 0100010100000000
003c -> 0000000000111100
1c46 -> 0001110001000110
4000 -> 0100000000000000
4006 -> 0100000000000110
0000 -> 0000000000000000
Note that the checksum is set to zero since we are computing checksum at
destination end
ac10 -> 1010110000010000
0a63 -> 0000101001100011
ac10 -> 1010110000010000
0a0c -> 0000101000001100
Error Detection (Checksum)
Step 2: Add these binary values one by one

4500 -> 0100010100000000
003c -> 0000000000111100
453C -> 0100010100111100 /// First result

453C -> 0100010100111100 // First result plus next 16-bit word.
1c46 -> 0001110001000110
6182 -> 0110000110000010 // Second result.

6182 -> 0110000110000010 // Second result plus next 16-bit word.
4000 -> 0100000000000000
A182 -> 1010000110000010 // Third result.

A182 -> 1010000110000010 // Third result plus next 16-bit word.
4006 -> 0100000000000110
E188 -> 1110000110001000 // Fourth result.


Error Detection (Checksum)
E188 -> 1110000110001000 // Fourth result plus next 16-bit word.
AC10 -> 1010110000010000
18D98 -> 11000110110011000 // One odd bit (carry), add that odd bit to the result as we need to
keep the checksum in 16 bits.

18D98 -> 11000110110011000
8D99 -> 1000110110011001 // Fifth result

8D99 -> 1000110110011001 // Fifth result plus next 16-bit word.
0A63 -> 0000101001100011
97FC -> 1001011111111100 // Sixth result

97FC -> 1001011111111100 // Sixth result plus next 16-bit word.
AC10 -> 1010110000010000
1440C -> 10100010000001100 // Again a carry, so we add it (as done before)

1440C -> 10100010000001100
440D -> 0100010000001101 // This is seventh result

440D -> 0100010000001101 //Seventh result plus next 16-bit word
0A0C -> 0000101000001100
4E19 -> 0100111000011001 // Final result.

Error Detection (Checksum)
Step 3: ones compliment of final result to obtain the checksum.

4E19 -> 0100111000011001
B1E6 ->1011000111100110 // CHECKSUM

compare the checksum with the one obtained in the packet
same value of checksum means IP headers integrity was not lost.
Error Detection (Checksum)
Example:

4500 0514 42a2 2140 8001 ____ c0a8 0003 c0a8 0001

Determine the checksum for the received data