Refrigeration and Liquefaction

The word refrigeration implies the maintenance of a

temperature below that of the surroundings.

Applications
Air conditioning of buildings
In the treatment, transportation, and preservation of
foods and beverages.
Manufacture of ice and the dehydration of gases.


Applications in the petroleum industry are
Lubricating-oil purification.
Low-temperature reactions.
Separation of volatile hydrocarbons.
INTRODUCTION
A major application area of thermodynamics is refrigeration,
which is the transfer of heat from a lower temperature region
to a higher temperature one.

Devices that produce refrigeration are called refrigerators, and
the cycles on which they operate are called refrigeration
cycles.

The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle in which the refrigerant is
vaporized and condensed alternately and is compressed in the
vapor phase.

OBJECTIVE
The purpose of a refrigeration system is to maintain a cold region
at a temperature below the temperature of its surroundings.
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (Q
L
) from
the cold medium.
(Q
H
) is heat rejected to warm surrounding is merely part of
cycle, not our purpose

The objective of a heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a
warm medium.
(Q
L
) is heat rejected to cold surrounding is merely part of
cycle, not our purpose.

They are essentially same devices, but differ in their objectives
only.

REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
Coefficient of Performance
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed
in terms of the coefficient of performance (COP), defined as




Both are related by

COP
HP
= COP
R
+ 1

This means is COP
HP
> 1
The Cooling Capacity of a Refrigeration
System

The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated
spaceis often expressed in terms of tons of
refrigeration.
The capacity of a refrigeration system that can freeze
1 ton (2000 lbm) of liquid water at 0C (32F) into
ice at 0C in 24 h is said to be 1 ton. One ton of
refrigeration is equivalent to 211 kJ/min or 200
Btu/min, or 12,000Btu/hr.
A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the
reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or
a Carnot heat pump.
1-2Constant-pressure heat absorption in an
evaporator (Isothermal)
2-3 Isentropic compression in a compressor
3-4Constant-pressure heat rejection in a
condenser(Isothermal)
4-1 Isentropic expansion in a turbine.
THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator and T-s diagram of the reversed Carnot cycle.
The coefficients of performance of Carnot
refrigerators and heat pumps are expressed in terms
of temperatures as



Notice that COPs increase as the difference between
the two temperatures decreases, that is, as TL rises or
TH falls


The two isothermal heat transfer processes are not difficult to
achieve in practice since maintaining a constant pressure
automatically fixes the temperature of a two-phase mixture at
the saturation value. Therefore, processes 1-2 and 3-4 can be
approached closely in actual evaporators and condensers.


However, processes 2-3 and 4-1 cannot be approximated
closely in practice. This is because process 2-3 involves the
compression of a liquidvapor mixture, which requires a
compressor that will handle two phases, and process 4-1
involves the expansion of high-moisture-content refrigerant in
a turbine.
THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Many of the impracticalities associated with the
reversed Carnot cycle can be eliminated by vaporizing
the refrigerant completely before it is compressed
and by replacing the turbine with a throttling device,
such as an expansion valve or capillary tube.
The cycle that results is called the ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle
THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE


The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for
refrigerators, air-conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor
2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion device
4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE

An Ordinary Household Refrigerator

In a household refrigerator, the tubes in the freezer
compartment where heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant serves as the evaporator. The coils behind
the refrigerator, where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air, serve as the condenser.
Remember that the area under the process curve on a
T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for internally
reversible processes. The area under the process
curve 4-1 represents the heat absorbed by the
refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area under the
process curve 2-3 represents the heat rejected in the
condenser.




A rule of thumb is that the COP improves by 2 to 4
percent for each C the evaporating temperature is
raised or the condensing temperature is lowered.
P-h Diagram
Another diagram frequently used in the
analysis of vapor-compression
refrigeration cycles is the P-h diagram.
On this diagram, three of the four
processes appear as straight lines, and the
heat transfer in the condenser and the
evaporator is proportional to the lengths of
then corresponding process curves.
Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
Analyzing Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems

Evaporator


Compressor


Condenser


Expansion valve
ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Two common sources of irreversibilities are

Fluid friction (causes pressure drops)
Heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Assignment
Example 11.1, 11.2, 11.5
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid and operates on the ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant enters the
evaporator at 120 kPa with a quality of 30 percent and
leaves the compressor at 60C. If the compressor
consumes 450 W of power, determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant,
(b) the condenser pressure, and
(c) the COP of the refrigerator.

Answers: (a) 0.00727 kg/s, (b) 672 kPa, (c) 2.43
INNOVATIVE VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
The ordinary vapor-compression refrigeration systems
are simple, inexpensive, reliable, and practically
maintenance-free.
However, for large industrial applications efficiency,
not simplicity, is the major concern.
Also, for some applications the simple vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle is inadequate and
needs to be modified.
Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
Cascade Refrigeration Cycles.

Cascade Refrigeration Cycles.

Muhammad Asif Akhtar CH.E 307
Multistage Compression Refrigeration
Systems

Heat Pump
Heat pumps are generally more expensive to purchase
and install than other heating systems, but they save
money in the long run in some areas because they
lower the heating bills.
Despite their relatively higher initial costs, the
popularity of heat pumps is increasing. About one-
third of all single-family homes built in the United
States in the last decade are heated by heat pumps.
The most common energy source for heat pumps is
atmospheric air although water and soil are also used.
The major problem with air-source systems is frosting,
which occurs in humid climates when the
temperature falls below 2 to 5C.

The frost accumulation on the evaporator coils is
highly undesirable since it seriously disrupts heat
transfer. The coils can be defrosted, however, by
reversing the heat pump cycle (running it as an air
conditioner).
This results in a reduction in the efficiency of the
system.

Water-source systems usually use well water from
depths of up to 80 m in the temperature range of 5 to
18C, and they do not have a frosting problem. They
typically have higher COPs but are more complex and
require easy access to a large body of water such as
underground water.

Ground-source systems are also rather involved since
they require long tubing placed deep in the ground
where the soil temperature is relatively constant.
The COP of heat pumps usually ranges between 1.5
and 4, depending on the particular system used and
the temperature of the source.


Both the capacity and the efficiency of a heat pump
fall significantly at low temperatures. Therefore, most
air-source heat pumps require a supplementary
heating system such as electric resistance heaters or
an oil or gas furnace.

Since water and soil temperatures do not fluctuate
much, supplementary heating may not be required
for water-source or ground-source systems. However,
the heat pump system must be large enough to meet
the maximum heating load.
Heat pumps and air conditioners have the same
mechanical components.
Therefore, it is not economical to have two separate
systems to meet the heating and cooling
requirements of a building.

One system can be used as a heat pump in winter and
an air conditioner in summer. This is accomplished by
adding a reversing valve to the cycle.
Heat pumps are most competitive in areas that have a
large cooling load during the cooling season and a
relatively small heating load during the heating
season, such as in the southern parts of the United
States.
In these areas, the heat pump can meet the entire
cooling and heating needs of residential or
commercial buildings.
The heat pump is least competitive in areas where the
heating load is very large and the cooling load is
small, such as in the northern parts of the United
States.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Choice of Refrigerant
The coefficient of performance of a Carnot
refrigerator is independent of the refrigerant.
However, the irreversibilities inherent in the vapor-
compression cycle cause the coefficient of
performance of practical refrigerators to depend to
some extent on the refrigerant.

It should be non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-flammable
and chemically stable; having a high enthalpy of
vaporization and being available at low cost.

When designing a refrigeration system, there are
several refrigerants from which to choose, such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ammonia, hydrocarbons
(propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.), carbon dioxide, air
(in the air-conditioning of aircraft), and even water (in
applications above the freezing point).

Ethyl ether was the first commercially used refrigerant
in vapor-compression systems in 1850, followed by
ammonia,

Carbon dioxide,
Methyl chloride,
Sulphur dioxide,
Butane, ethane,
Propane,
Isobutane,
Gasoline, and
Chlorofluorocarbons.

The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors were
very satisfied with ammonia, and still are, although
ammonia is toxic.
The advantages of ammonia over other refrigerants
are
Low cost.
Higher COPs (and thus lower energy cost).
More favorable thermodynamic and transport
properties.
Higher heat transfer coefficients.
Greater detectability in the event of a leak.
No effect on the ozone layer.

The major drawback of ammonia is its toxicity, which
makes it unsuitable for domestic use.

Ammonia is predominantly used in food refrigeration
facilities such as the cooling of fresh fruits, vegetables,
meat, and fish; refrigeration of beverages and dairy
products such as beer, wine, milk, and cheese;
freezing of ice cream and other foods; ice production;
and low-temperature refrigeration in the
pharmaceutical and other process industries.

Two important parameters
Temperature of refrigerant
Heat transfer at reasonable rate

LIQUEFACTION PROCESSES
Liquefaction results when a gas is cooled to a
temperature in the two-phase region.
This may be accomplished in several ways:
1. By heat exchange at constant pressure.
2.By an expansion process from which work is
obtained.
3. By a throttling process.
At temperatures above the critical-point value, a
substance exists in the gas phase only. The critical
temperatures of helium, hydrogen, and nitrogen
(three commonly used liquefied gases) are -268, -240,
and -147C, respectively. Therefore, none of these
substances exist in liquid form at atmospheric
conditions.
Furthermore, low temperatures of this magnitude
cannot be obtained by ordinary refrigeration
techniques. Then the question that needs to be
answered in the liquefaction of gases is this:
How can we lower the temperature of a gas below its
critical-point value?
How can we lower the temperature of a gas
below its critical-point value?

Linde Liquefaction Process
Linde Liquefaction Process
Claude Liquefaction Process
GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLES
GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLES