This document summarizes dental anatomy, with a focus on pulp chamber and root canal morphology. It describes:
- The percentages of root canal locations in the apical, middle, and cervical thirds.
- Accessory foramina being present in all tooth groups, with maxillary premolars having the most and largest.
- Root canal configurations according to Vertucci, with the maxillary second premolar displaying all eight.
- C-shaped canals often occurring in mandibular second molars.
- Instruments used for access cavity preparation like round burs and explorer tips to locate canal orifices.
This document summarizes dental anatomy, with a focus on pulp chamber and root canal morphology. It describes:
- The percentages of root canal locations in the apical, middle, and cervical thirds.
- Accessory foramina being present in all tooth groups, with maxillary premolars having the most and largest.
- Root canal configurations according to Vertucci, with the maxillary second premolar displaying all eight.
- C-shaped canals often occurring in mandibular second molars.
- Instruments used for access cavity preparation like round burs and explorer tips to locate canal orifices.
This document summarizes dental anatomy, with a focus on pulp chamber and root canal morphology. It describes:
- The percentages of root canal locations in the apical, middle, and cervical thirds.
- Accessory foramina being present in all tooth groups, with maxillary premolars having the most and largest.
- Root canal configurations according to Vertucci, with the maxillary second premolar displaying all eight.
- C-shaped canals often occurring in mandibular second molars.
- Instruments used for access cavity preparation like round burs and explorer tips to locate canal orifices.
This document summarizes dental anatomy, with a focus on pulp chamber and root canal morphology. It describes:
- The percentages of root canal locations in the apical, middle, and cervical thirds.
- Accessory foramina being present in all tooth groups, with maxillary premolars having the most and largest.
- Root canal configurations according to Vertucci, with the maxillary second premolar displaying all eight.
- C-shaped canals often occurring in mandibular second molars.
- Instruments used for access cavity preparation like round burs and explorer tips to locate canal orifices.
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ANATOMY
74% - apical third
11% - middle third 15% - cervical third. All groups of teeth had at least one accessory foramen.
The maxillary premolars had the most and the largest accessory foramina (mean value, 53 m) and the most complicated apical morphologic makeup. The mandibular premolars had strikingly similar characteristics, a possible reason why root canal therapy may fail in premolar teeth. Anatomy of the Apical Root
The space between the major and minor diameters has been described as funnel shaped or hyperbolic, or as having the shape of a morning glory. According to Weine CANAL CONFIGURATIONS According to Vertucci The only tooth that showed all eight possible configurations was the maxillary second premolar. C-SHAPED CANAL
that often occurs in MANDIBULAR SECOND MOLAR
C-shaped mandibular molars are so named because of the cross-sectional morphology of their fused roots and their root canals.
Instead of having several discrete orifices, the pulp chamber of a molar with a C-shaped root canal system is a single, ribbon-shaped orifice with an arc of 180 degrees or more.
Melton et al. in 1991 proposed the following classification of C- shaped canals based on their cross-sectional shape. Fan et al. in 2004 modified Meltons method Isthmus classifications described by Kim and colleagues.
Type I is an incomplete isthmus; it is a faint communication between two canals. Type II is characterized by two canals with a definite connection between them (complete isthmus). Type III is a very short, complete isthmus between two canals. Type IV is a complete or incomplete isthmus between three or more canals. Type V is marked by two or three canal openings without visible connections. Nine guidelines, or laws, of pulp chamber anatomy to help clinicians determine the number and location of orifices on the chamber floor:-
Law of centrality: The floor of the pulp chamber is always located in the center of the tooth at the level of the CEJ.
Law of concentricity: The walls of the pulp chamber are always concentric to the external surface of the tooth at the level of the CEJ, that is, the external root surface anatomy reflects the internal pulp chamber anatomy. Law of the CEJ: The distance from the external surface of the clinical crown to the wall of the pulp chamber is the same throughout the circumference of the tooth at the level of the CEJ, making the CEJ is the most consistent repeatable landmark for locating the position of the pulp chamber.
First law of symmetry: Except for the maxillary molars, canal orifices are equidistant from a line drawn in a mesiodistal direction through the center of the pulp chamber floor.
Second law of symmetry: Except for the maxillary molars, canal orifices lie on a line perpendicular to a line drawn in a mesiodistal direction across the center of the pulp chamber floor. Law of color change: The pulp chamber floor is always darker in color than the walls.
First law of orifice location: The orifices of the root canals are always located at the junction of the walls and the floor.
Second law of orifice location: The orifices of the root canals are always located at the angles in the floorwall junction.
Third law of orifice location: The orifices of the root canals are always located at the terminus of the roots developmental fusion lines. Allowing sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) to remain in the pulp chamber may help locate a calcified root canal orifice. Tiny bubbles may appear in the solution, indicating the position of the orifice. INSTRUMENTS USED IN ACCESS CAVITY Access burs: #2 and #4 round diamond burs. Access burs
B, LN bur. Gates-Glidden burs, 1 through 6. Access instruments DG-16 endodontic explorer (top);
JW-17 endodontic explorer (bottom). It is the efficient uncovering the roof of the pulp chamber & providing the direct access to the apical foramina by the way of the pulp canals. ACCESS OPENING According to R.E. Walton, the 3 main objectives of access cavity preparation are :-
1. Straight line access : Helps in a. Improved instrument control. b. Improved obturation. c. Decreased procedural errors. 2. Conservation of tooth structure :- a. Minimal weakening of tooth. b. Prevention of perforation.
3. Un roofing of chamber and exposure of pulp horns :- a. Maximum visibility. b. Location of canals.
Principles of Endodontic Cavity Preparation Endodontic Coronal Cavity Preparation :- I. Outline Form II. Convenience Form III. Removal of the remaining carious dentin and defective restorations. IV. Toilet of the cavity Principle I: Outline Form The outline form of the endodontic cavity must be correctly shaped and positioned.
Establish complete access for instrumentation, from cavity margin to apical foramen.
External outline form = internal anatomy of pulp.
Principle II: Convenience form (1) Unobstructed access to the canal orifice.
(2) Direct access to the apical foramen.
(3) Cavity expansion to accommodate filling techniques.
(4) Complete authority over the enlarging instrument. Principle III: Removal of the Remaining Carious Dentin and Defective Restorations This according to Ingle, must be done for three reasons:-
(1) To eliminate mechanically as many bacteria as possible from the interior of tooth
(2) To eliminate discoloration of tooth structure
(3) To eliminate the possibility of any bacteria- laden saliva leaking into the prepared cavity. Principle IV: Toilet of the Cavity 1. All of the caries, debris, and necrotic material must be removed before the radicular preparation is begun.
Access opening: Triangle in shape. Maxillary Lateral incisor Pulp chamber Similar to central. 2 pulp horns
Access opening Triangular / ovoid The root apex and the apical foramen were displaced distolingually. Radicular developmental palatogingival groove. A, Radiograph show lesion resulting from bacterial access along groove. B, Extracted tooth shows extent of groove. The incidence of radicular grooves is 3.0% in lateral incisors Maxillary Canine Pulp chamber Largest among single rooted teeth Triangular (labiolingually) Flame shaped (mesiodistally) 1 pulp horn
Access opening Ovoid
Endodontic Cavity Preparation in Mandibular Anterior Teeth Mandibular Central and Lateral Incisors Pulp chamber Smallest in the arch. Flat (mesiodistally) Ovoid (labiolingually) 3 pulp horns
Access opening Long oval (incisogingivally) MANDIBULAR LATERAL INCISOR A cross section of the root is ovoid or hourglass in shape due to the developmental depressions on each side. Mandibular Canine Pulp chamber More wide (labiolingually)
Access opening Ovoid
Anomalies Rarely more than 1 canal and 1 root. Endodontic Preparation of Maxillary Premolar Teeth Maxillary First Premolar Pulp chamber Narrow (mesiodistally). Wide (buccolingually) 2 pulp horns (Buccal & Palatal) Root & root canal 2 roots (i.e. Buccal & Palatal) Access opening Ovoid (buccolingually). The mesial root concavity is more prominent and extends onto the cervical third of the crown.
This results in a root that is broad buccolingually and narrow mesiodistally with a kidney shape when viewed in cross section at the cementoenamel junction.
These anatomical features have implications in restorative dentistry and in periodontal treatment, and are common areas for endodontic root perforations. Maxillary Second Premolar Pulp chamber Similar to 1 st premolar 2 pulp horn. Single canal orifice.
Root & root canal Single rooted (90%)
Access opening Ovoid (buccolingually)
The cross-sectional root anatomy of the maxillary second premolar in the midroot area is described as oval- or kidney-shaped Endodontic Preparation of Mandibular Premolar Teeth Mandibular First Premolar Pulp chamber Prominent buccal pulp horn. 30 lingual tilt of crown.
Access opening Ovoid Endodontic Preparation of Maxillary Molar Teeth Maxillary First Molar Pulp chamber Largest in dental arch. 4 pulp horns. Roof: rhomboidal
Root & root canal 3 roots and 3 canals
Access opening Rhomboidal
Of all the canals in the maxillary first molar, the MB2 can be the most difficult to find and negotiate in a clinical situation. The mesiobuccal root is broad buccolingually and has prominent depressions or flutings on its mesial and distal surfaces.
The internal canal morphology is highly variable, but the majority of the mesiobuccal roots contain two canals. The distobuccal root is generally rounded or ovoid in cross section and usually contains a single canal. The palatal root is more broad mesiodistally than buccolingually and ovoidal in shape but normally contains only a single canal. Although the palatal root generally appears straight on radiographs, there is usually a buccal curvature in the apical third. Maxillary Second Molar Pulp chamber Similar to 1 st molar. Narrow (mesiodistally) Root & root canal 3 roots & 3 canals Access opening Similar to 1 st molar with variations as anatomy dictates. Endodontic Preparation of Mandibular Molar Teeth Mandibular First Molar Pulp chamber 4 pulp horns. Roof: rectangular Floor: rhomboidal
Root & root canals Usually 2 roots & 3 canals
Access opening Trapezoidal or rhomboid
Mandibular Second Molar Pulp chamber Same as 1 st molar.
Root & root canals Usually 2 roots & 3 canals
Access opening Trapezoidal or rhomboidal. ERRORS IN CAVITY PREPARATION :
1. Perforations : caused due to failure to recognize inclinations; depth of pulp chamber; assuming canal is straight. 2. Gouging , overextension : caused due to failure to recognize inclinations; unsuccessful search for canals or receded pulp. 3. Under extension : Entire roof of pulp chamber not removed, lingual shoulder not removed leading to curved access. 4. Ledge : caused due to loss of instrument control. 5. Discoloration : incomplete removal of pulp debris. 6. Missed canals : due to small access cavity. 7. Broken Instruments : occurs in curved canals due to failure in extending outline/internal prep. QUESTIONS
1. Two pulp canals are usually found in
A. Mesial root of permanent mandibular first molar
B. Distal root of permanent mandibular first molar
C. Palatal root of permanent maxillary first molar
D. Distal root of permanent mandibular second molar 2. Shown below in the photograph dark lines between two canal orifice is :-
A. Dentinal Groove
B. Dentinal Map
C. Formed because of faulty access opening
D. Dentinal shadow 3. What % of lower 1 st molars show 2 distal canals
A. 10%
B. 30%
C. 60%
D. 75% 4. Shown below tooth 43 is the case of :-
A. External root resorption
B. Internal root resorption
C. Lateral root perforation
D. Iatrogenic root perforation 5. What should be the treatment for the above case:-
A. Extraction
B. Repair of the resorption
C. Do a follow up for 6 months
D. No treatment is required 6. Shown below in the photograph is an example of:-
A. Furcation perforation
B. Pulp stone
C. Dental pulp
D. Both A & B 7. Two canals are most often seen in the:-
A. Maxillary canine
B. Mandibular canine
C. Maxillary lateral incisors
D. Mandibular first premolar [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 166] Bifurcations and trifurcations are most common in mandibular 1st premolar.
They present a challenge during cleaning, shaping and obturation. Because, of this it is known as "Enigma to endodontist". 8. The fourth root canal if present in a maxillary 1st molar is usually present in:
A. Mesiolingual root
B. Mesiobuccal
C. Palatal root
D. Distal root
9. Cervical cross section of maxillary first premolar has:
A. A round shape
B. Elliptical shape
C. Oval shape
D. Square shape The mesial root concavity is more prominent and extends onto the cervical third of the crown.
This results in a root that is broad buccolingually and narrow mesiodistally with a kidney shape when viewed in cross section at the cementoenamel junction.
These anatomical features have implications in restorative dentistry and in periodontal treatment, and are common areas for endodontic root perforations.
10. Shown below in the photograph is?
A. Endodontic explorer
B. Spoon excavator
C. Periodontal probe
D. Gingival marginal trimmer
11. Of the following permanent teeth, which is least likely to have two roots?
A. Maxillary canine
B. Mandibular canine
C. Maxillary first premolar
D. Mandibular first premolar CASE
Patient report to a clinic and complains of pain while biting in his lower anterior teeth. He gave history of root canal treatment 5 years back with his lower anterior teeth.
12. What is the etiology for not healing of this lesion:-
A. Incomplete preparation & obturation
B. Missed canal
C. Lateral perforation
D. No reason
13. Accessory canals are most frequently found in:
A. The cervical one third of the root
B. The middle one third of the root
C. The apical one third of the root
D. With equal frequency in all the above mentioned 74% - apical third 11% - middle third 15% - cervical third.
14. There are sharp demarcations between pulpal chambers and pulp canals in which of the following teeth ?
A. Mandibular second premolars
B. Maxillary first premolars
C. Maxillary Lateral incisors
D. Mandibular canines Ans. 'B' [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 156]
The division between root canal and pulp chamber is indistinct in single rooted teeth whereas in posterior teeth this demarcation is sharp. 15. In the mandibular arch, the greatest lingual inclination of the crown from its root is seen in the permanent:
A. Canine
B. Third molar
C. First premolar
D. Central incisor Ans. C [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 167] Mandibular 1st premolar contains prominent buccal cusp and smaller lingual cusp that give the crown a lingual tilt of 30.
To compensate for the tilt and to prevent perforations, the enamel is penetrated at the upper 3rd of lingual incline of facial cusp and directed along long axis of root. 16. Shown below in the photograph is :-
A. Periodontal ligament
B. Iatrogenic perforation
C. Extruded gutta-percha
D. B & C 17. The mesiolingual root canal of the mandibular 1st molar is found under the:
A. Mesio lingual cusp
B. Mesio buccal cusp
C. Central groove
D. Mesio lingual ridge. Ans. C [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 170]
The mesiobuccal orifice is under the mesiobuccal cusp and is usually difficult to find if enough tooth structure is not removed.
The mesiolingual orifice is present below the central groove.
The distal orifice has an elliptical shape and is usually present in the centre of tooth buccolingually. 18. A divided pulp canal is most likely to occur in the:
A. Root of a maxillary canine
B. Root of mandibular canine
C. Root of a maxillary central incisor
D. Lingual root of a maxillary first molar Ans. B] 19. If the pulp of the single rooted canal is triangular in cross-section with the base of the triangle located facially and apex located lingually with the mesial arm longer than the distal, the tooth is most likely:
A. Maxillary central incisor
B. Maxillary lateral incisor
C. Mandibular second premolar
D. Mandibular central incisor The occlusal cross-section view of maxillary central incisor is triangular in shape; while the apex located lingually and base of the triangle located facially. Grossman/ll th ed/p-151 20. Considering the morphology of root and pulp canals, a root canal instrument should be placed in what direction to gain access to the Mesiofacial root of permanent maxillary first molar:
A. From the mesiobuccal
B. From the distobuccal
C. From the mesiolingual
D. From the distolingual Ans. D
In case of MAXILLARY FIRST MOLAR The orifice of mesiobuccal canal is gained access from distopalatal direction. The distobuccal root canal is gained access from mesiolingual direction. The palatal root is gained access from buccal direction.
For MANDIBULAR 1 st MOLAR: The mesiobuccal orifice is present under mesiobuccal cusp and is explored from mesiobucco apical direction. The mesiolingual orifice is present below the central groove and is explored from disto buccal direction. The distal orifice is explored from a mesial direction. 21. Mandibular 1st molar has:
A. 2 roots and 2 canals
B. 2 roots and 3 canals
C. 3 roots and 3 canals
D. 3 roots and 4- canals Ans. B [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 170] 22. In which single rooted tooth are bifurcated roots present:
A. Mandibular lateral incisor
B. Maxillary canine
C. Mandibular central incisor
D. Mandibular premolar
23. Sown below is access opening of premolar. What iss the error inaccess opening?
A. Outline form is incomplete
B. De-roofing is not done
C. Access cavity should be mesio-distally wide
D. Both B and C
24. Which root canal is most difficult to prepare in maxillary molar?
A. Mesiobuccal
B. Distobuccal
C. Palatal
D. Both A and B Ans. A [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 161]
Mesio buccal root has greatest distal curvature and is narrowest of all the three canals.
25. The most easily perforated tooth with a slight mesial or distal angulation of bur after a mandibular central incisor is:
A. Maxillary premolar
B. Maxillary molar
C. Mandibular premolar
D. Maxillary canine The mesial root concavity is more prominent and extends onto the cervical third of the crown.
These anatomical features have implications in restorative dentistry and in periodontal treatment, and are common areas for endodontic root perforations. 26. A cross-section of the cervical third of the pulp canal of a maxillary second premolar resembles in shape:
A. A circle
B. A square
C. A triangle
D. An ellipse. The cross-sectional root anatomy of the maxillary second premolar in the midroot area is described as oval- or kidney-shaped
27. The root canals most likely to share a common apical opening are:
A. Mesial and distal roots of mandibular premolars
B. Mesiobuccal and mesiolingual roots of mandibular first molars
C. Both "A & B
D. None of above Ans. C [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 167, 170] The mesiobuccal and mesiolingual roots of mandibular first molars are the root canals most likely to share a common apical opening..
28. Branching of pulpal canals is least likely seen in:
A. Maxillary central incisor
B. Upper 1st premolar
C. Mand central incisor
D. Mand lateral incisor. Ans. A [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 151]
29. The anterior tooth most likely to display two canals is:
A. Maxillary central
B. Maxillary lateral
C. Mandibular central
D. Mandibular lateral 30. The tooth which usually has the largest pulp chamber in the mouth is the:
A. Maxillary central
B. Maxillary canine
C. Maxillary 1st molar
D. Mandibular 1st molar Ans. C [Ref. Grossman 11 th Ed Pg 160]
The pulp chamber of maxillary 1st molar is the largest in the dental arch.
The pulp chamber of the maxillary canine (Option 'B') is the largest of any single rooted teeth. 31. Incidence of 3 rd root in upper first premolar:
A. 6%
B. 10%
C. 12%
D. 1% DIAGNOSIS 16. What is your diagnosis of this case?
A. Drug induced discoloration
B. Amelogenesis imperfecta
C. Non-vital tooth
D. Staining due to systemic disease 17. What should be treatment of choice for this tooth?
A. Microabrasion
B. Night guard bleaching
C. Home applied technique
D. Walking bleach technique BLEACHING
Themocatalytic or in-office technique (35% H2O2) Nonvital Teeth
Walking bleach (Superoxol)
Power Bleach or in-office technique (35% H2O2 & Heat or light)
Vital teeth Night Guard Bleach (10-15% Carbamide peroxide) 18. What are the choice of agent in this bleaching technique?
A. Superoxol + sodium perborate
B. Carbamide peroxide
C. 18% hydrochloric acid
D. Superoxol Superoxol is heated directly within the pulp chamber in the thermocatalytic bleach or mixed with sodium perborate and sealed in the pulp chamber to form the walking bleach. 19. What is the most important complication that can occur due to use of this agent?
A. Teeth become hypersensitive
B. External cervical resorption
C. Irritation of gingival papilla
D. Thinning of enamel
Studies found the incidence of cervical root resorption after bleaching ranged from 0 to 6.9 percent. it could occur in as many as one of every 12 teeth bleached.
Therefore, it appears that the age of the patient at the time the tooth became pulpless and the presence of a barrier may be as important as the type of bleaching agent and the use of heat during bleaching. Upon successful bleaching of the tooth, rinse the chamber and fill it to within 2 mm of the cavosurface margin with a paste consisting of calcium hydroxide powder in sterile saline.
Reseal the access opening with a temporary restorative material in a manner previously described and allow the calcium hydroxide material to remain in the pulp chamber for 2 weeks. 20. What are the treatment modalities for repair of resorption?
A. Extraction
B. Calcium hydroxide
C. Forced orthodontic extrusion
D. All of the above There are treatment options for repair of resorption:-
1. Calcium hydroxide therapy.
2. Forced orthodontic extrusion.
3. Surgery.
4. Extraction.
Forced orthodontic extrusion
By extruding the root, the resorptive defect can be elevated coronal to crestal bone.
Here it is accessible and can be included in a crown preparation or repaired.
Specific orthodontic criteria must be met for success. The crown/root ratio must be 1:1 and the root should be non-tapering. SURGERY
The most common approach to repair cervical defects is surgery.
The resorption usually starts proximally and often wraps around toward the palatal.
Both a labial and palatal flap are necessary for access. The lesion is cleaned, bony contouring accomplished, and the defect repaired.
Esthetic concerns may arise due to bone loss and tissue changes. The tooth is more susceptible to fracturing. Case 5
A 24 years old female patient complains of severe throbbing pain from last few days with respect to lower right back region.
Pain increases on lying down and is relieved with analgesics.
Also pain is spontaneous in nature.
On oral examination, mandibular right first permanent molar is found to be carious. The tooth is sensitive to percussion. 21. What is diagnosis of this case?
A. Reversible pulpitis
B. Irreversible pulpitis
C. Symptomatic irreversible pulpitis
D. Hyperplastic pulpitis Signs and Symptoms Pulpal Diagnosis Periapical diagnosis Sharp pain from exposed dentin on application of thermal or osmotic stimuli. No dental abnormality. Normal ( dentin hypersensitivity) Normal Sharp pain from exposed dentin on application of thermal or osmotic stimuli or both. Evidence of dental caries, fractured restoration, cracked cusps etc. Reversible pulpitis Normal Spontaneous, throbbing pain, sharp pain on application of thermal stimuli that persists following removal of stimulus. Irreversible pulpitis Normal Spontaneous, throbbing pain, sharp pain on application of thermal stimuli that persists following removal of stimulus. Tender to bite or percussion or both. R/g widening of PDL likely. Irreversible pulpitis Acute apical periodontitis Spontaneous, throbbing pain. No response to thermal stimuli. Tender to bite or percussion or both. Localized or diffuse swelling may be there. R/g may be inconclusive or lesion Necrosis Acute periradicular abscess 22. Identify the area marked by circle X on radiograph?
A. Pulp stone
B. Radiolucency due to carious involvement of tooth
C. Nomal pulp canal
D. Normal pulp chamber
Increase the difficulty of negotiating the root canals.
The incidence of calcifications in the chamber or in the canal may increase with periodontal disease, extensive restorations, or aging. 23. What should be treatment in rendered in this case?
A. Restoration with amalgam
B. Endodontic therapy
C. Direct pulp capping
D. indirect pulp capping Direct pulp capping Indirect pulp capping 24. A tooth tested nonvital in vitality tests showing periapical radiolucency shows the presence of a sinus tract clinically. What should be the treatment for the sinus tract?
A no treatment
B curettage of the sinus tract
C Cauterization
D Irrigation with sodium hypochlorite To trace the sinus tract, a size #25 gutta-percha cone is threaded into the opening of the sinus tract. 25. In root fracture of the apical one - third of permanent anterior teeth, the teeth usually: A. Discolor rapidly B. Remain in function and are vital C. Undergo pulpal necroses and become ankylosed D. Are indicated for extraction and prosthetic replacement
Apical 3 rd Fracture
Fracture with no mobility no displacement of the coronal segment and no symptoms- do not require any immediate treatment. Long term observation with periodic evaluation of pulp status.
If Considerable mobility- only splinting and periodic evaluation.
Healing is uneventful
Middle 3 rd fractures
Most common site of occurrence.
Presents with considerable amount of mobility and /or dislocation of the coronal segment.
The treatment is aimed towards preserving the vitality and favor repair of the fracture. Correct repositioning ( Reduction) Splinting (Retention)
Coronal 3 rd fractures
If reattachment of the fractured segments is not possible the coronal segment must be extracted and the choice of whether to retain the apical fragment becomes major predicament.
Comparative Evaluation of Apical Sealing Ability of MTA Based Sealers Vs Resin Based Sealers Using Dye Penetration Technique An in Vitro Stereomicroscopic Evaluation
International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology