507 33 Powerpoint-Slides Ch3 DRCS

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Design of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
N. Subramanian
Chapter 3
Loads and Load
Combination
Introduction
Determination of various loads is a very important phase in a
structural design process.

Before designing any structure or the different elements such as
beams and columns, one has to first determine the various natural and
man-made loads acting on them.

Dead loads, imposed loads, snow, ice, and earth loads, and hydraulic
pressure are caused due to mass and gravitational effect.

Indirect loads are caused due to environmental effects such as
temperature difference, settlement, and shrinkage.

Types of Loads
Fig. 3.1 Types of loads
Characteristic Actions (Loads)
The determination of the loads for which a given structure has to be
proportioned is one of the most difficult problems in design.

Decisions are to be made on the type of loads the structure may
experience during its lifetime, combinations of loads, and so forth.

The probability that a specific load will be exceeded during the life of a
structure usually depends on the period of exposure (or life) of the
structure and the magnitude of design load.

Loads applied to a structure during its life should be considered
statistically and a characteristic load determined.
Types of Loads
Fig. 3.2 Definition of characteristic load
Dead Loads
The load that is fixed in magnitude and position is called the dead
load.

Determination of the dead load of a structure requires the estimation
of the weight of the structure together with its associated non-
structural components.

After the design process, the initially assumed dead load of the
structure (based on experience) has to be compared with the actual
dead load.

If the difference between the two loads is significant, the assumed
dead load should be revised and the structure redesigned.

Weights of Some Building Materials as
per IS 875 (Part 1)
S. No. Material Unit Weight
1. Brick masonry in CM 1:4 20 kN/m
3
2. Plain concrete 24 kN/m
3
3. Reinforced cement concrete 25 kN/m
3
4. Stone masonry 20.426.5 kN/m
3
5. Cement mortar 20.4 kN/m
3
6. Steel 78.5 kN/m
3
7. 20 mm cement plaster 450 N/m
2
8. 5 mm glass 125 N/m
2
9. Floor finishes 6001200 N/m
2
10. Water 10 kN/m
3
Table 3.1 Weight of some building materials as per IS 875 (Part 1)
Imposed Loads

Imposed loads (also referred to as live loads) are gravity loads other
than dead loads and include items such as occupancy by people,
movable equipment and furniture within the buildings, stored materials
such as books or machinery.

The code provides uniformly distributed loads (UDLs) as well as
concentrated loads for various occupational categories. The distributed
and concentrated imposed loads shall be considered separately and the
design carried out for the most adverse conditions.

Live Loads on Floors as per IS 875
(Part 2 )
S. No. Type of Floor Usage Imposed Load (kN/m
2
)
1. Residential 2.0
2. Office
(a) with separate storage
(b) without separate storage

2.5
4.0
3. Shops, classrooms, restaurants, theatres, etc.
(a) with fixed seating
(b) without fixed seating

4.0
5.0
4. Factories and warehouses 5.0-10.0
5. Book stores and stack rooms in libraries 10.0
6. Garages with light vehicles 4.0
7. Stairs, landings, and balconies
(a) not liable to overcrowding
(b) liable to overcrowding

4.0
5.0
Table 3.2 Live loads on floors as per IS 875 (Part 2 )

Imposed Loads

Imposed load may change from room to room.

To account for the most adverse load cases, analysis should be carried
out for the following:
1. Factored live load on all spans
2. Factored live load on two adjacent spans resulting in high bending
moment (BMs) over the support between the two loaded spans
3. Factored live load on alternate spans resulting in high BMs at mid-
span at the loaded beams

Imposed Loads
When large areas are considered, the code allows for a reduction in
the imposed load, unless earthquake loads are considered.

Code IS 875 (Part 2) also provides the values of horizontal loads acting
on parapets and balustrades. These loads should be assumed to act at
handrail or coping level.

Roofs are considered non-accessible except for normal maintenance
and minor repairs. If roofs are frequently accessible and used for floor-
type activities, they should be treated as floors and the corresponding
loads should be considered.

Consideration of Slab Loads on Beams
One-way Slab

When a slab is supported on four
sides and the length to width ratio
is greater than two, the slab acts as
a one-way slab and the beams
along the long spans are assumed
to carry the load from the slab.

Fig. 3.3 Load distribution - One-
way slabs
Two-way Slab
In two-way slabs (i.e., when a slab is supported on four sides and the
length to width ratio is lesser than or equal to two), the load distribution
is based on yield-line analysis.

In a square slab, the yield lines running at 45 from each corner will
meet at a single point in the centre.

In a rectangular slab, the same four yield lines will not meet at one
point, and hence, there will be a fifth yield line running between the
intersections of these yield lines. Thus, the long beams will be subjected
to a trapezoidal load and the short beams to a triangular load.
Two-way Slab
Fig 3.4 Load distribution - Two-way slab


Other possible loadings on beams and equivalent uniform
loads:

1. Two triangular loads in span

2. Triangular load in the middle of span

3. Triangularly varying load

Fig. 3.5 Other possible loadings on beams and equivalent uniform loads (a) Two triangular loads in
span (b) Triangular load in the middle of span (c) Triangularly varying load
Consideration of Wall Loads on Beams
When the height of the masonry over a beam is
greater than about 0.6 times the span of the beam,
it can be assumed that there will be an arch action in
the masonry and hence some part of the load will be
transferred to the columns on either side. In such
situations, only wall loads bounded by a lines from
the columns cause bending moment and shear force
in the beam, as shown in Fig. 3.6(b).
Consideration of Wall Loads on Beams
Fig. 3.6 Consideration of wall loads (a) Typical frame with walls (b) Loads transferred to
columns and beams (c) Load on beam due to walls (d) Short span walls
Impact Loads
Impact due to vertical crane, moving machinery, and so on is
converted empirically into equivalent static loads through an impact
factor, which is normally a percentage (20% to 100%) of the machinery
load (as specified in IS 875Part 2).

The loads due to cranes and other machineries are often obtained
from the manufacturers or suppliers.

The impact load is an important criterion in industrial buildings where
machinery will be mounted on floors and also in bridges.

Snow and Ice Loads

Snow and ice loads are to be considered in the mountainous
(Himalayan) regions in the northern parts of India. Thus, the roofs in
these regions should be designed for the actual load due to snow or for
the imposed loads specified in IS 875 (Part 2), whichever is more severe.

Although maximum snow and maximum wind loads are not
considered to act simultaneously, it is important to consider drift
formation due to wind, since the majority of snow-related roof damage
is due to drifted snow.
Wind Loads

Winds are produced by the differences in atmospheric pressures,
which are primarily due to the differences in temperature.

Horizontal wind flow exerts lateral pressure on the building envelope
and hence has to be considered in the design.

Code IS 875:1987 (Part 3) provides the basic wind speeds, averaged
over a short interval of 3 seconds and having a 50-year return period at
10 m height above ground level in different parts of the country.
Wind Loads
The wind pressure or load acting on the structural system and the
structural or non-structural component being considered depends on
the following:
1. Velocity and density of air
2. Height above ground level
3. Shape and aspect ratio of the building
4. Topography of the surrounding ground surface
5. Angle of wind attack
6. Solidity ratio or openings in the structure
7. Susceptibility of the structural system under consideration to steady
and time-dependent (dynamic) effects induced by the wind load
Wind Loads

The wind load on a building can be calculated for the following:

1. The building as a whole

2. Individual structural elements such as roofs and walls

3. Individual cladding units including glazing and their fixings

Wind Loads

The code provides the pressure coefficients (derived on the basis of
models tested in wind tunnels) for a variety of buildings. Force
coefficients are also given for clad buildings, unclad structures, and
structural elements.

Wind causes pressure or suction normal to the surface of a structure.
Pressures are caused both on the exterior as well as the interior
surfaces, the latter being dependent on the openings (or permeability)
in the structure, mostly in the walls.

Factors Affecting Wind Pressure
Coefficients

1. Shape of the building or roof
2. Slope of the roof
3. Direction of wind with respect to building
4. Zone of the building

Wind Loads

Code IS 875 (Part 3) provides the external
coefficient for mono-slope and hipped roofs,
canopy roofs, curved roofs, pitched and saw-
tooth roofs of multi-span buildings, overhangs
from roofs, cylindrical structures, roof and
bottom of cylindrical structures, combined
roofs, and roofs with skylight, grand stands, and
spheres.
Wind Loads
Fig. 3.7 Typical industrial building elevation along with the wind pressure
coefficients: (a) Typical elevation with wind pressure coefficients C
pe
and C
pi
(b) Half plan
Case Study
Vortex Shedding

The effects of wind are considered in two dimensions as follows as
shown in Fig. 3.8 (in the following slide):

1. Along-wind or simply wind is the term used to refer to drag
forces.

2. Transverse wind is used to refer to cross-wind. The cross-wind
response, that is, motion in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of wind, dominates the along-wind response for many
tall buildings.
Vortex Shedding
Fig. 3.8 Simplified two-dimensional flow of wind
Interference effects

When one or more similar or dissimilar tall structures are placed
downstream or upstream of the structure, the standalone values of
pressures and forces get altered. This is termed as the interference
effect.

Interferences will occur irrespective of whether the structures
involved are rigid or flexible. In the former, it is the wake of one
structure that affects the other, whereas in the latter, the deflections of
the structure affect the wake itself (see Fig. 3.9b).
Vortex Shedding and Interference Effect
Fig. 3.9 Vortex shedding and interference effect (a) Flow around isolated building
(b) Flow around two close buildings (c) Disorganized vortex shedding behaviour in Burj
Khalifa due to the shape
Dynamic Effects
Dynamic Effects caused due to following factors:

1. Non-correlation of the fluctuating along-wind pressures over the
height and width of the structure

2. Resonant vibrations of a structure

3. Vortex shedding forces acting in a direction normal to the wind
causing a cross-wind as well as torsional response

Case Study
Earthquake Loads
In IS 1893 (Part 1) code, the following seismic design philosophy has
been adopted:
1. Minor and frequent earthquakes should not cause any damage to
the structure.

2. Moderate earthquakes should not cause significant structural
damage but could have some non-structural damage (structure will
become operational once the repair and strengthening of the
damaged main members are completed).

3. Major and infrequent earthquakes should not cause collapse (the
structure will become dysfunctional for further use, but will stand so
that people can be evacuated and property recovered).

Case Study
Earthquake Loads
For the purpose of determining seismic forces, India is classified into
four seismic zones (zones II to V) by IS 1893 (Part 1) code.

The code requires that the designer either use a dynamic analysis of
the structure or, for the usual generally rectangular medium height
buildings (regular buildings), use an empirical lateral base shear force.

There are various calculations such as determination of natural
frequencies using the design horizontal seismic coefficient of a
structure, approximate fundamental natural period of vibration, etc.
calculated for a building depending on its height.

Earthquake Loads
Table 3.3 Requirement of dynamic analysis as per IS 1893 (Part 1)
Seismic Zone Regular Buildings Irregular Buildings
II and III Height > 90m Height > 40m
IV and V Height > 40m Height > 12m
Equivalent Static Method

1. The seismic weight of each floor is calculated as its full dead load
plus the appropriate amount of imposed load.

2. The structure must also be designed to resist the overturning effects
caused by the seismic forces.

3. Storey drifts and member forces and moments due to P-delta effects
must be determined.
Equivalent Static Method

4. Dynamic analysis methods such as response spectrum
method is used for multi-storey buildings, irregular
buildings, overhead water ranks, and bridge piers.

5. Timehistory response analysis is used for very important
structures such as nuclear reactors, large-span structures,
or very tall buildings.
Rules for Buildings in Seismic Areas
For better seismic response, proper precautions
need to be taken at the planning stage itself
especially the foundation. The differential
movement of foundation due to seismic motions is
an important cause of structural damage,
especially in heavy, rigid structures that cannot
accommodate these movements.


To perform well in an earthquake, a building should possess the
following four main attributes:
1. Simple and regular configuration

2. Adequate lateral strength

3. Adequate stiffness

4. Adequate ductility


Figure 3.10 (in the following slide) shows the irregular configurations
that are to be avoided and the regular configurations that result in
better earthquake performance. (in the following slide)

There are factors such as reinforcing in stairways, building heights,
gaps between buildings, columns and walls arrangements, etc that have
to be considered.

Fig. 3.10 Irregular and regular configurations with reference to earthquake performance
Base Isolation

The concept of base isolation is to introduce springs or special rubber
pads between the ground and the foundation of the structure, such that
the building is isolated from the ground. These flexible pads, called base
isolators, introduce flexibility in the structure, thereby increasing the
time period.

The isolators are designed to absorb the energy and thus increase the
damping of the building. These base isolators may be either coiled
springs or laminated rubber bearing pads, made of alternate layers of
steel and rubber and have a low lateral stiffness.

Base Isolation
Fig. 3.11 Seismic base isolators (a) Laminated rubber bearing pad
(b) External view
Energy-absorbing Devices

Another approach for controlling seismic damage in buildings and
improving seismic performance is by installing dampers (seismic energy
dissipating devices) mounted on structures (especially on diagonal
braces).

When the device merely absorbs the energy during vibration without
any energy input from outside, it is termed as a passive device. If it
opposes the vibration by means of an external energy source, it is called
an active device.

Commonly Used Dampers

Viscous dampers consisting of a pistoncylinder arrangement filled
with a viscous silicon-based fluid, which absorbs the energy
Friction dampers where the energy is absorbed by the friction
between two layers, which are made to rub against each other
Hysteretic dampers where the energy is absorbed by yielding metallic
parts
Visco-elastic dampers containing a visco-elastic material sandwiched
between two steel plates, which undergoes shear deformation, thus
dissipating energy
Others types are tuned mass dampers, tuned liquid dampers, and
hydraulic activators.
Types of Dampers
Fig. 3.12 Types of dampers (a) Typical viscous damper (b) Typical hysteretic damper
(c) Typical visco-elastic damper (d) Typical friction damper
Foundation Movements

Foundation movements result in three types of distortions:

1. Maximum (absolute settlement)

2. Average (vertical) tilt

3. Angular distortion

Foundation Movements

Angular distortion due to differential settlement is responsible for the
major cracking of buildings.

The foundations should be designed in such a way as to limit the
angular distortion within the permissible limits. Plinth beams,
connecting the foundations, may be provided to take care of differential
settlements.
Thermal and Shrinkage Effects

If the lateral dimension of the building exceeds 45 m, temperature
effects must be considered in the design, or suitable expansion or
contraction joints should be provided.

Structures that have abrupt changes in plan should be provided with
expansion joints at places where such changes occur. These expansion
joints facilitate the necessary movements to occur with minimum
resistance at the joint.


The spacing of expansion joints is affected by many factors such as
building shape, material type and associated properties, restraints to
movement such as walls and bracing and their relative location in the
structure, etc.

Temperature stresses are important in the design of chimneys, cooling
towers, and structures designed to resist loads due to fires.


Slabs and other elements exposed to the suns radiation also develop
temperature stresses. In such occasions, nominal reinforcements are
often provided, close to the surface that is being affected, to take care
of temperature and shrinkage.

Concrete shrinks as it dries out. Usually, slabs and other members are
joined rigidly to other parts of the structure and cannot contract freely.
This will result in tensile stresses, known as shrinkage stresses.

Fig. 3.13 Length between expansion joints versus design temperature change T, as given
in ACI 224.3/R (1995) (a) Graph as per Martin and Acosta method (1970) (b) Graph as
per National Academy of Sciences (1974)

A shrinkage strip or pour strip is a temporary joint in the structure that
is left open for a certain time during construction to allow a significant
part of shrinkage to take place.

A better alternative is shrinkage compensating concrete which is made
with expansive cement, which will expand by an amount equal to or
slightly greater than the anticipated drying shrinkage.
Shrinkage Strip and Shrinkage
Compensating Concrete
Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure

In the design of structures below ground level, for example, basement
walls and retaining walls, the pressure exerted by the soil or water, or
both, must be considered.

All foundation slabs and other footings below the water table should
be designed to resist a uniformly distributed uplift equal to the full
hydrostatic pressure.


The structures should be checked against overturning and horizontal
sliding.

Due consideration should be given to the possibility of the soil being
permanently or temporarily removed and for the foundation under
submerged condition.
Fig. 3.14 Soil or hydrostatic pressure on retaining wall
Erection and Construction Loads

Erection loads are very important for precast concrete members. It is
also important to temporarily brace the structures during erection for
safety and stability.

The construction of slabs in multi-storey RC construction often
employs shoring and formwork such that the weight of the newly cast
slab plus the working load are transferred to one or more previously
placed slabs.

Erection and Construction Loads

Insufficient support will result in serviceability problems such as
deflected slabs and beams with radial cracks around columns.

Formwork should not be removed until the concrete attains the
strength sufficient to carry the construction loads. It is also important to
have one level of shores and two levels of reshores to distribute the
load to several levels.
Flood Loads

It is necessary to protect structures against such floods as the
warming up of the atmosphere has resulted in heavy, unprecedented
floods in several parts of the world.

Storm-induced erosion and localized scour can lower the ground
surface around the foundations of buildings and cause loss of load-
bearing capacity and loss of resistance to lateral and uplift loads.
Axial Shortening of Columns

Axial shortening of columns due to long-term creep and shrinkage is
inevitable in tall RC buildings having 30 storeys or more.

The calculation of the exact values of axial shortening depends on a
number of parameters such as the type of concrete, reinforcement ratio,
and the rate and sequence of construction.

Long-term shortening of columns could affect the horizontal structural
members such as beams and floors and hence could affect the finishes
and partitions.

Pattern Loading

The critical loading condition for the strength of a simply
supported beam is when it supports the maximum design
dead load and imposed load at the ultimate limit state.

The size of the beam can be determined from the bending
moment and the shear derived from this loading condition,
and should be checked for deflection at the serviceability limit
state.

Pattern Loading

The arrangement of live loads considered in the analysis may be limited
to the following combinations, as per IS 456, clause 22.4.1:
1. Where the nominal design imposed load does not exceed three
quarters of the nominal dead load, design imposed load and
design dead load on all spans
2. Where the nominal live load exceeds three quarters of the
nominal dead load:
(a) design dead load on all spans with full design imposed load on
alternate spans
(b) design dead load on all spans with full design imposed load
on two adjacent spans
(c) design dead load plus design imposed load on all spans

Pattern Loading
Fig. 3.15 Gravity load patterns and the influence lines for bending moment (a) Loading for
maximum positive mid-span moment (b) Loading for maximum negative support moment
Load Combinations for Orthogonal
Buildings
Since the horizontal loads are reversible in direction, in some cases
the design is governed by the effect of lateral load minus the effect of
gravity loads.

In the Indian code the same load factor of 1.5 is used for both dead
and imposed loads.

When snow load is present on the roofs, the imposed load on the roof
should be replaced by the snow load on the roof for the purpose of load
combinations. When imposed load is combined with earthquake load,
the effect of the earthquake should be calculated for the full dead load
plus the percentage of the imposed load.
Earthquake Loading in Two Orthogonal
Directions
Fig. 3.16 Earthquake loading in two orthogonal directions
Load Combinations for Non-
orthogonal Buildings

In structures with non-orthogonal lateral load resisting system, the
lateral load resisting elements may be oriented in a number of
directions.

In non-orthogonal structures, it may be tedious to apply lateral loads
in each of the directions in which the lateral load resisting elements are
oriented.

Load Combinations for Non-
orthogonal Buildings

IS 1893 suggests that the buildings be designed for the following:
1. 100 per cent design earthquake load in x direction and 30 per
cent design earthquake load in y direction, acting simultaneously
2. 100 per cent design earthquake load in y direction and 30 per
cent design earthquake load in x direction, acting simultaneously

Code IS 1893 suggests that this rule should also be applied to buildings
that are torsionally unbalanced about both the orthogonal axes.

Non-orthogonal Lateral Resisting
Systems
Fig. 3.17 100% + 30% rule for non-orthogonal lateral load resisting systems
THANK YOU!
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