The Doctrine of Eclipse is based on the principle that a law which violates fundamental rights, is not nullity or void

ab initio but becomes, only unenforceable i.e. remains in a moribund condition. "It is over-shadowed by the fundamental rights and remains dormant, but it is riot dead." Such laws are not wiped out entirely from the statute book. They exist for all post transactions and for the enforcement of the rights acquired and liabilities incurred before the commencement of the Constitution. It is only against the citizens that they remain in a dormant or moribund condition but they remain in operation as against non-citizens who are not entitled to fundamental rights. For solving such a problem, Supreme Court formulated the doctrine of eclipse in Bhikhaji v. State of M.P., AIR 1955 S.c. 781. In this case the provisions of.C.P. and Berar Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act 1948 authorized the State Government to take up the entire motor transport business in the Province to the exclusion of motor transport operators. This provision though valid when enacted, but became void on the commencement of the Constitution in 1950 as they violated Article 19(1 )(g) of the Constitution. However, in 1951 Clause (6) of Article 19 was amended by the Constitution (1st Amendment Act) so as to authorize . the Government to monopolise any business. The Supreme Court held that the effect of the amendment was to remove the shadow and to make the impugned Act free from blemish or infirmity. It became enforceable against citizens as well as non-citizens after the constitutional impediment was removed. This law was eclipsed for the time being by the fundamental rights. As soon as the eclipse is removed, the law begins to operate from the date of such removal.

Doctrine of Eclipse: Debating the Constitutional Conundrum

both for the present and for the future generations. A constitution defines and limits the
2

power of the state. It performs an important levelling function, and both an individual and the State are made subject to the constitutional provisions. In order to ensure that the constitution does not become a faade, and those in powers in the state do not invade the rights of the citizens, some guiding principles have been devised to see that people are not capriciously denuded of their inviolable rights. These are the overarching principles that seek to fetter the unconstitutional exercise of constitutional powers. The tradition of

analytical jurisprudence, from John Austin and Hans Kelsen onwards, highlights, in all its complexity, the basic notion that constitutions constitute a higher law governing all forms of authoritative legal enunciations and performances. In that sense, constitution is an
3

attempt by the society to limit itself to protect the values it most cherishes. In fact, it is
4

an attempt by the society to tie its own hand, to limit its ability to fall prey to weaknesses that might harm or undermine cherished values. In India, we the people, adopted and
5

gave to ourselves a constitution which recognises certain basic fundamental rights of the individuals under Part III. The underlying idea in entrenching certain basic and
6

Fundamental Rights is to take them out of the reach of transient political majorities. It has, therefore, came to be regarded as essential that these rights be entrenched in such a way that they may not be violated, tempered or interfered with by an oppressive government. These rights put fetters upon the governmental actions that are likely to infringe upon the
7

fundamental rights which find a pristine place in our constitution. The constitutional scheme uses Article 13 as the bulwark against any infringement upon the fundamental rights. It gives teeth to the fundamental rights by making them justiciable. It arms the judiciary with
8

the power of judicial review and makes it the guardian, protector and the interpreter of the
9

fundamental rights. It, in essence, confers power as well as cast an obligation on the courts to declare a law void if it is found to be inconsistent with a fundamental right. The present
10

paper makes an endeavour to debate and deliberate upon the question of Doctrine of Eclipse and issues appurtenant thereto which make a student of constitutional law pause and ponder, within the broad framework of Article 13. II. Article 13: An Overview Article 13 provides the meaning of law. However, this meaning does not extend beyond Part III of the Constitution. It in detail lays down the scope of law and while doing so makes it clear that under what circumstances the pre-constitutional as well as post constitutional laws shall be valid or void. To put it simply, the guiding light is if the laws are inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights. This clearly puts a definite

limitation on the wide legislative powers given by Article 246. It is certainly within the competency of the Court to judge and declare whether there has been any contravention of this limitation. The legislative power of the parliament and the State legislature has been subjected to two limitations:

1. The law must be within the legislative competence. 2. The law must be subject to the provisions of the Constitution and must not take
away or abridge the rights conferred under Part III.

Both these limitations being justifiable, the courts can decide if either of the limitations has been transgressed by the legislature of the Parliament. The power derived from Articles 245 and 246 to make law has to be exercised keeping in view the limitations delineated under Article 13 of the Constitution. This power is subject to the above limitations .In fact, this article equips the courts with the power of judicial review by making the Part III rights justiciable. That is Courts have been entrusted under the Indian constitution with the
11

power to decide the question of justiciability as is perspicuous from the provisions

contained under Article 13. In order to keep the executive/ legislature within the limits assigned to their authority under the constitution the interpretation of laws is the proper and peculiar province of the judiciary. Constitution is the will of the people, whereas the statutory laws are the creation of legislators who are the elected representatives of the people- declared in the constitution-the will of the people must prevail. A well-known
13

authority on Indian Constitution observes:

14

Article 13 lays down that what would otherwise been implied, i.e. the supremacy of the fundamental rights over any other law in case of inconsistency between the two. It could also mean that the constitute on makers intended to confine the application of fundamental rights to what is stated in this article. Thus, for example, pre-constitutional laws shall be invalid only to the extent they fall within the category of laws in force. As uncodified personal laws do not fall

within that category, it could be argued that they were not intended to become invalid on the ground of any inconsistency with the fundamental rights. (Emphasis added). In giving to themselves the Constitution, the people have reserved the fundamental freedoms to themselves. Article 13 merely incorporates that reservation. The article is not the source of protection of fundamental rights, but the expression of reservation.
15

In A K Gopalan v. State of Madras , the Supreme Court was of the view that the inclusion of
16

Article 13(1) and (2) in the constitution appears to be a matter of abundant caution. Even in their absence, if any of the fundamental rights was infringed by any legislative enactment, the Court has always the power to declare the enactment to the extent it transgresses the limits, invalid. The existence of Article 13(1) and (2) in the Constitution therefore in not material for the decision of the question what fundamental right is given and to what extent it is permitted to be abridged by the Constitution. (Emphasis added) The reason, as D D Basu opines, is that the very adoption of written constitution with a Bill of Rights and judicial review implies that Courts shall have the power to strike down a law which contravenes a fundamental right or some other limitation imposed by the constitution.
17

III. Debating the Debate The above doctrine is important as regards the validation of void laws. Certain existing laws sometimes may get eclipsed by reason of their clash with the exercise of fundamental rights contained under Part III of the Constitution.There are certain pertinent questions in this context like whether the doctrine of eclipse applies only to the pre-constitutional laws or to the post-constitutional laws also, whether the laws in force before the commencement of the constitution become void ab initio or void in toto if they are inconsistent with a fundamental right. And also what about the persons whose rights it does not affect: does

the voidness of the law depend upon the person whose fundamental rights it contravenes? The guiding light can be traced to Article 13 which provides inter alia that All laws in force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this Constitution, in so far as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void. The voidness of such law is limited to the extent of inconsistency with the provisions of Part III of the Constitution. The voidness of law under Clause (1) does not imply voidness ab initio. In Keshavan Madhav Menon v. State of Bombay the effect of Article 13(1) was in
18

question before the Court. The Court had to decide the import of Article 13 in this case. The broad issue in this case was whether a prosecution commenced before the commencement of the Constitution, could be continued after the Constitution came into force if the concerned Act became void given that it violated Article 19(1) (a) and (2) of the Constitution. Das, J observed that the prosecution could be continued because the provisions of the constitution were not retrospective provided they were explicitly so declared. It is axiomatic from the provisions of the constitution that it has no retrospective effect. The Part III of the constitution is prospective. And that being so, the existing laws
19

can become, and can be rendered, void from the date of the commencement of the constitution. An existing law becomes inoperative only from the date of the commencement of the constitution. The very fact that it is inconsistent with the fundamental rights does not make it a dead law. As far as the determination of rights and obligation incurred before commencement of the constitution is concerned, such a law is a good law. In Bhikaji Narayan v. State of Madhya Pradesh, the Supreme Court formulated the doctrine of eclipse
20

thus: The true position is that the impugned law became, as it were, eclipsed, for the time being, by the fundamental right. The effect of the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951 was to remove the shadowand to make the impugned Act free from all blemish or infirmity

Therefore, the doctrine implies that the shadow cast by the fundamental right can be removed by a subsequent amendment to the constitution, and once it is so done, the law in the moribund or eclipsed state becomes operative. It gets revived, freed from all blemishes and infirmity. That is, the pre-constitutional laws continue to be law though in an eclipsed state. They are inoperative laws whose revival in post constitutional period is contingent upon a subsequent amendment that would remove the shadow. In Keshavan Madhava Menon , Mahajan, C J observed that:
21

the part of the section of an existing law which is unconstitutional is not law, and is null and void. For determining the rights and obligations of citizens the part declared void should be notionally taken to be obliterated from the section for all intents and purposes, though for the determination of the rights and obligations incurred prior to 26 January 1950, and also for the determination of rights of persons who have not been given fundamental rights by the constitution. [Emphasis supplied]. The above dictum was criticised by H M Seervai who believed that the theory of eclipse is quite inconsistent with any obliteration, actual or notional. To him, it was difficult to understand what is meant by notionally obliterated from the section. Therefore, he submitted that there is no scope for an unconstitutional provision being notionally obliterated.
22

Meaning of law: Pre- and Post-Constitutional Law Tangle Rival opinions abound as to the application of doctrine of eclipse to pre- and postconstitutional law. The implications of different opinions are profound and have far-reaching impact on the nature of law as provided under Article 13 of the Constitution. It is the general view that doctrine of eclipse applies only to the pre-constitutional laws, and not to the post-constitutional laws. In Deep Chand v. State of UP, the Court held that the doctrine
23

of eclipse can be invoked only in the case of law valid when made, but a shadow is cast on

it by supervening constitutional inconsistency. In Mahendralal Jaini v. State , the Court

observed: The doctrine of eclipse will apply to pre-Constitutional laws which are governed by Article 13(1) and would not apply to post-Constitutional laws which are governed by Article 13(2). Unlike a law governed by Article13 (1) which was valid when made, the law made in contravention of the prohibition contained in Article 13(2) is a stillborn law either wholly or partially depending upon the extent of the contravention. Such law is dead from the beginning and there can be no question of its revival under the doctrine of eclipse. [which]cannot confer power on the state to enact a law in breach of Article 13(2) which would be the effect of the application of the doctrine of eclipse to post-constitutional laws. However, interestingly in Bhikaji in which the Supreme Court enunciated the doctrine of
25

eclipse, Das, ACJ made the following observation that tells a different story:

All laws, existing or future, which are inconsistent with the provisions of Part III or our Constitution, are, by the express provision of article 13, rendered void to the extent of such inconsistency. Such laws were not dead for all purposes. They existed for the purpose of pre-Constitution rights and liabilities and they remained operative, even after the Constitution, as against non-citizens. It is only as against the citizens that they remained in a dormant or a moribund condition. It is clearly inferable that the above dictum did not make any distinction between pre- and post-Constitutional laws as H M Seervai commented that It is clear that these observations are not restricted to Art.13 (1), which deals with the pre-Constitutional laws, but also to Art.13 (2), which deals with post-Constitutional laws, because the Court did not rest its decision on the distinction made in American decisions between pre-Constitution and postConstitution laws. The following submission of Seervai sounds convincing when he says:
26

the theory of eclipse is based on the premise that a law which violates fundamental rights is not a nullity or void ab initio, but remains unenforceable(that is, in a moribund condition); and secondly, it implicitly recognises the distinction between a law void for legislative competence and a law void for violating fundamental rights DD Basu is of the view that as far as post-constitutional laws are concerned, the doctrine of eclipse is not applicable. The same view is also shared by MP Jain. Be that as it
27 28

may, in the State of Gujarat v. Shri Ambica Mills , though the doctrine of eclipse was
29

not an issue, the Court through its decision made it clear that the doctrine applies to both the pre-constitutional as well as post-constitutional laws. Mathew, J. observed that any statement that a law which takes away or abridges fundamental rights conferred under Part III is still born or null or void requires qualification in certain situations. Although the general rule is that a statute declared unconstitutional is void at all times and that its invalidity must be recognised and acknowledged for all purposes and is no law and nullity, this neither universal nor absolutely true, and there are many exceptions to it. It is submitted that the view which holds that void under Article 13(2) can only
30

be void against persons whose fundamental rights are taken away or abridged by law, seems reasonable and convincing. The law might be still born so far as the persons, entities or denominations whose fundamental rights are taken away or abridged but there is no reason why the law should be void or still born as against those who have no such rights. Mathew, J. in Ambica Mills makes a valid point when he reasons:
31 32

[T]he real reason why it (pre-constitutional law) remains operative as against noncitizens is that it is void only to the extent of its inconsistency with the rights conferred under Article 19 and that its voidness is, therefore, confined to citizens, as, ex hypothesi, the law became inconsistent with their fundamental rights alone. If that be so, we see no reason why a post-constitutional law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by Article 19 should not be operative in regard to the

non-citizens as it void only to the extent of the contravention of the rights conferred on citizens, namely, those under Article 19. Unconstitutionality and Unenforceability: Resolving the Riddle The voidness of pre-Constitution and post-Constitution laws to the extent of contravention of fundamental rights, proclaimed by Article 13(1) and 13(2) of the constitution has generated much judicial controversy and confusion. One question pertains to the scope of voidness of such laws. Despite the rather lavish use of expressions such as stillborn, law void ab initio, non-est, obliteration from the statute book and repeal, it has been acknowledged by the Court, in a along line decisions, that the voidness arising out of violation of rights conferred upon citizens does not entail voidness for all purposes. Such law may apply in full force to non-citizens. As to the question of deciding the voidness of law,
33

i.e. when does a law become void, we need to make a distinction between voidness and unenforceability. Does a law which is unconstitutional on the ground of lack of legislative competence, stand on the same footing as the law which is violative of constitutional prohibitions? Justice Venkatarama Iyer made a distinction between a law made without legislative competence and a law which violated constitutional limitations on legislative power. The former would be absolutely null and void and non est; the latter was simply unenforceable. The unenforceability arises out of the fact that it is eclipsed by the provisions of fundamental rights. When the long shadow of eclipse is removed, this type of law will be automatically revived from the date of removal, and even retrospectively, if it were to be so provided. On the other hand, a law void for lack of legislative competence does not so revive upon provision of such competence; it has to be re-enacted. Seervai
34

observes:

35

there is a clear distinction between lack of power and disregarding a restriction on power as regards a part of the subject matter of that powerand the most important result of this distinction is that a legislature having a legislative power can legislate conditionally on the limitation on its power being removed, whereas a legislature not possessing legislative power cannot legislate at all. IV. To End The doctrine of eclipse within the broad framework of Part III of the constitution occupies such a pivotal position that it fortifies the shield that protects the fundamental rights from being infringed or violated. It provides doctrinal nourishment necessary for the survival and sustenance of the inalienable rights that have been given recognition and protection under the constitution. However, while doing so, it does take into account the fact that laws enacted are not rendered nugatory for good and for all purpose. And here lies the beauty of the doctrine. It lets a law to be alive though in certain respects and contexts it ceases the vitality that imparts life to the dead words of law. The debates that have been in vogue for sometime along with the judicial dicta have almost taken care of the ruffled edges of the doctrine as is perspicuous from the emerging development of both judicial and juristic opinions as regards the doctrine of eclipse and its application in the realm of constitution.

1 State v. Acheson, 1991 (2) SA (Nm) at 813. 2 John Hatchard et. al., Comparative Constitutionalism and Good Governance in the Commonwealth, 12(2004), Cambridge University Press. 3 Upendra Baxi, The (Im) possibility of Constitutional Justice: Seismographic Notes on Indian Constitutionalism in Zoya Hasan et.al.(ed) , Indias Living Constitution,32 (2002).According to Upendra Baxi, In an era of global digital capitalism one may, further, conceptualize constitutions in terms of hardware and software programming of codes of justice and of injustice. On this view, notions of justice are programmed into the constitutional hardware as well as software, which determine the (im) possibility of justice under constitutions. The hardware is the stuff that constitutes the materiality of state power, the institutions and apparatuses of governance, the web of coercion and the state as a war machine.

4 Erwin Chemerwinsky, Constitutional Law, 7(2006). 5 Ibid. History teaches that the passion of the moment can cause people to sacrifice even the most basic principles of liberty and justice. The constitution enumerates basic values regular election, separation of powers, individual rights, equality,--and makes changes or departure very difficult. 6 Articles 12-35. Our constitution enacted the fundamental rights following the United States precedent. H M Seervai says The historical and political developments in India made it inevitable that a Bill of Rights, or Fundamental Rights, as we call them, should be enacted in our Constitution. See, H M Seervai, Constitutional Law of India, Vol.1, 349(2005). 7 The governmental action implies that the State as broadly defined under Article 12 cannot take any action that threatens the exercise of fundamental rights. The word State includes the Government and Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India. 8 See, M P Jain, Indian Constitutional Law, 827(2005). 9 This power is exercised by the Supreme Court under Article 32 and by the High Courts under Article 226. 10 The fundamental rights cannot be infringed either by enacting a law or through administrative action 11 Explaining the import of the term justiciable in the context of American Constitution, Christopher N May and Allan Ides observe : Stated very broadly, a matter is deemed justiciable, i.e. one over which an Article III court may exercise authority if it possesses a sufficient number of those characteristics historically associated with the judicial function of dispute resolution . Christopher N May and Allan Ides, Constitutional Law- Power and Federalism, 93 (2004). 12 Aetna Life Ins Co v. Haworth, 300 U.S. 227,240-241(1937), where it was observed that [A] justiciable controversy is thus distinguished from a difference or dispute of a hypothetical or abstract character ; from that is hypothetical or moot The term justiciability refers to a body of judicially created doctrines that define and limit the circumstances under which an Article III federal court may exercise its constitutional authority, including its authority to engage in judicial review 13 A K Gopalan v. State of Madras, AIR 1950 SC 27(107). In this respect the Court has supremacy over the legislature. 14 Mahendra P Singh, V N Shuklas Constitution of India, 36 (2008). 15 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab, AIR 1967 SC 1643. 16 (1950) SCR 88, 100. Per Kania, CJ. 17 D D Basu, Commentary on the Constitution of India, 689, Vol. 1(2007)

18 AIR 1951 SC 128. Also see, Behram Khurshid Pesikaka v. State of Bombay, AIR 1955 SC 123. 19 In Pannalal Binjraj v. Union of India, (1957) SCR 233, it was held that Article 13 has retrospective effect 20 AIR 1955 SC 781 21 Supra note 41. 22 Supra note 4 at 411. 23 AIR 1959 SC 648. 24 AIR 1963 SC 1019. 25 Supra note 43. 26 Seervai op. cit. at 413. Das, ACJ in Bhikaji observed that The American authorities refer only to post-constitutional laws which were inconsistent with the provisions of the constitution.The American authorities, therefore, cannot fully apply to pre-constitutional laws which we were perfectly valid before the Constitution.it must be held that these American authorities can have no application to our Constitution. 27 DD Basu, Commentary on the Constitution of India, Vol. 1, 692 (2007) 28 Supra note 6. 29 AIR 1974 SC 1300. 30 Id. 31 Cf. Jain op.cit. at 849. 32 Id. Para 43. 33 Upendra Baxi, KK Mathew on Democracy, Equality, and Freedom, XXXV (1978). 34 Id. at XXXVI. 35 Seervai op.cit. at 421.