Agricultural Drainage

Agricultural Drainage is the removal of excess of water known as free water or

gravitational water from surface or below the surface of farmland so as to create favourable
soil condition for plant growth. The process of removal of excess water from the land
surface is known as surface drainage. If the excess water saturates the pores space of the
soil, the process of its removal by downward flow through the soil is known as subsurface
drainage or internal drainage.
The excess water that is drained is gravitational water which is not available for
plant growth. Drainage does not remove the capillary water and there is no danger of over
draining the soil by placing the drains too close together.

Sources of excess water:

Precipitation, snowmelt, irrigation facilities overland flow or underground seepage
from adjacent areas, artesian flow from deep aquifers, floodwaters or water applied for such
special purposes as leaching of salts from soil or from temperature control.

Extents of water logging and salt problems in India

Extensive areas of low lying lands in India have become unproductive due to water
logging and salt accumulation. The lands have high production potential and required by
installing properly designed drainage systems and adopting proper soil management
practice.

The drainage problems are more in Northern Indo gangetic plains, mainly due to flat
topography, frequent floods, canal irrigation and obstruction to natural drainage ways.
Large areas get flooded during monsoon period. It is essential that waterlogged areas of
India amount to about 6 M ha. In addition to this there area drainage problems in many
localized areas along the coastal line due to periodic ingress of sea water during high tides,
thus making the affected areas saline.

Drainage Investigation

Drainage investigation consists of getting the necessary information on economic
feasibility of proposed project and the source of water logging. A general study of problem
area will provide a good deal of information on the possibilities of suitable outlet, area of
the watershed contributing runoff to low ling area, rainfall characteristics, extent severity of
drainage problem, cost of land, soil type and the type of crop which ma grow in the area.
This is followed by topographic and ground water surveys. The topographic map of the
problem area and the surrounding watershed will provide the information on characteristic
of runoff into the area possible location of drains and allied structures including culverts,
overfall structures and preliminary estimates of cost of drainage system.

The characteristics of ground water flow and the extent of waterlogging in the
problem area are determined from the measurements of water level in the observation wells
or piezometers established at selected points in the area. The interpretation of piezometric
observations can give the direction of ground water flow and depth to the water table.


FIGURE



The interpolation of piezometer and observation well readings gives the location,
direction of flow and the depth to water table.


1. Vertical gradient indicates
2. Horizontal ground water movement
If there is no vertical movement of water either down single piezometer will give the water
table depth at that site.
Distance from A-B z
2
-z
1
, so the

Hydraulic gradient =
1 2
2 2 1 1
z z
) z h ( ) z h (

+ +


Drainage properties of soil: A land may need surface /subsurface drainage either one or
both for following reasons.
i) Where there is high water table that should be lowered.
ii) When excess surface water cannot move downward through the soil or over the surface
of soil fast enough to prevent the plant root from suffocation.
Influence of soil types and structure on drainage:
i) Texture of soil, particle size distribution affects the pore size distribution and
drainage property of soil.
ii) Soil structure: Arrangement of soil particles affect the drainage property of the
soil. Soil having platy structure or aggregate with horizontal axis larger than
vertical axis have poor drainage property, Prismatic structure- H.A. < V.A.
permits easy downward movement of water.
iii) Infiltration characteristics of soil surface and permeability of lower horizontal
greatly affect the drainage property.

Benefits of drainage
1) Better environment for plant growth
2) Excess water impedes the root respiration which directly attacks the short tissue of most
crops.
3) Depth of rooting zone increases
4) Presence of air in the soil is essential for the growth of beneficial bacteria which
converts the soil organic matter and fertilizer into available plant food.
5) Drainage improves the soil structure and infiltration capacity of soil is increased. Higher
infiltration capacity reduces the erosion. Optimum conditions for tillage are provided
over a long range of time. Intercultural operation is made in kharif season. Less time
and labour are required for tillage operation in well drained soil.
6) It maintains the soil temperature; it hastens the warming of soil. Proper soil temperature
accelerates the bacterial activity and plant growth.
7) Drainage not only improves the productivity of soil but provide a healthier climate for
man and to the general prosperity of region.

Types of land requiring drainage
1. High water table-The water table is within or near to the root zone within 1.5 m
2. When the water stands on the land surface for long periods. 2-4 hours- vegetable crops
1 day for maize, 4 or more water tolerant grass crops.
3. In the region where the annual evaporation exceeds annual rainfall.
4. Soil salinity, alkalinity, rise of ground water table due to excess irrigation water are
problem of region. Drainage aids leaching of salts accumulation and removes excess
irrigation.
5. Excessive soil moisture content
6. Humid regions with continuous or intermittent heavy rainfall
7. Flat land with fine textured soil.

Planning of drainage system
1. A map of area showing watershed location, area and vegetative cover of the area tributary
to each drainage ditch. Outlet, roads, railway line and other physical feature in the design
of proposed drainage systems.
2. Profile of centre line of the proposed drainage ditches or tile drains.
3. Topographic map of area to determine general layout of the land for designing the
drainage system. Elevation of low point, which needs drainage, is of special importance.
4. Outlet condition adequacy of capacity, high elevation and frequency of floods.
5. Physical properties of soil affecting drainage requirements, infiltration capacity and
permeability capacity of lower horizons.
6. Amounts of soluble salts in the soil to be leached.
7. Determination of exchangeable sodium.
Drainage coefficient
The rate of drainage is key factor in establishing the capacity of drainage system. This rate
is expressed as depth in cm of water drained off from a given area in 24 hours is called the
drainage coefficient. It may also be expressed as flow rate/unit area or as cumec/ Sq Km/ 24
hours or in terms of rate of flow / unit area which varies with the total size of area.
The drainage coefficient varies with geographic location, land use and size of area to
be drained. Rainfall frequency, intensity and duration, other climatic factors, soil
permeability, crops to be grown, size of the area to be drained are considered in selecting
the d. c. of humid area. In arid and semi-arid regions, irrigation system field application
losses rather than the rainfall are principal factors as which drainage coefficients are based.
Prob:
A drainage canal discharges 0.2 m
3
/sec and drains 250 ha What is the drainage coefficient?
Total discharge in 24 hours
= 0.2 60 60 24
= 17,280 cum
Drainage Coefficient
=
10000 x 250
17280

= 0.0069 m = 0.69 cm or 7 cm
Hence, depth of water drained in 24 hours = 7 cm
Surface drainage
Ref: Drainage of Agricultural Land, Soil Cons. Service, USDA, Published by Water
Information Centre, Inc, Chapter III, PP. 99

Surface drainage
Removal of water from surface of land through improved natural channel or constructed
ditches and shaping of land surface.
Surface drainage system applies primarily on flat land where infiltration is slow, low
permeability or restricting layers in the soil profile or shallowness of soil over rock or deep
clays prevent ready percolation of rainfall.
Surface drainage systems include both collection and disposal of ditches. Where the
system or parts of system primarily collect and remove surface water from field or small
land area, the X section, slope, pattern and spacing of ditches are essential factors of design
as covered herein.
Drain may be either interceptor drain or relief drain. The interceptor drains are
located perpendicular to the ground water flow. The purpose of interceptor drain is to
intercept the seepage and runoff and drain it away. Whenever possible they are located at
field boundary in order to provide least interference to farming operation.
Relief drains are installed for lowering the water table. These are parallel to ground
water flow. Water seeps into either sides of drain.

Surface drainage formula: Surface drainage for flat land is given by Cypress Creek
formula.
Q = CM
P

Q = Discharge, cfs
C = Coefficient related to characteristics of watershed and magnitude of the storm against
which the watershed is to be protected.
M= Drainage area in sq. miles.
This formula is applicable to natural land slope are about 1 percent or less.
Stream gauge records and studies made the flow of excess rainfall from flat land watersheds
show that the rate of flow, per unit area, decreases as the total area of the contributing
watershed increases. The rate of change is indicated by the exponent of M, varies somewhat
between watersheds and with intensity and duration of storm producing excess rainfall.
From the data it has been P= 5/6
Values of the coefficient for flat land portions of the watershed may be determined from the
relationship
C = 16.39 + 14.75 Re
Where, Re = Rainfall excess, inches.
A common understanding of 24-hour removal is that rainfall excess from a
particular storm is removed from a watershed within 24 hours after the cessation of rain.
Actually, removal begins as soon as excess develops and the vertical storm for flat
land areas may occur over an extended period of time- often 2-3 days- the analysis for
determining the rainfall excess should be made by taking the maximum 48 hours rainfall for
recurrence frequently against which protection is required, divide the excess from such a
rain by two, and use this in the equation.
C= 1.39 + 14.75 Re to determine the coefficient for the surface drainage formula.
Q= CA
5/6

For general farm crops the level of protection normally planned is from a storm of
48 hours duration and with a frequency of occurrence of 2 to 5 years. For high value crops
with low tolerance to excess water, protection from the 10 year frequency storm may be
desirable or a special analysis may be warranted to remove, for example, the excess from a
24 hour rainfall in a 24-or 36- hour period. This will result in higher value of C.



Computation of C:
Assume protection is to be provided against maximum 48 hour storm of 5 year frequency.
Take 5 year frequency, 2 days precipitation is about 8 ~ 20 cm.
Find soil type, -Group-D 80 % of area is having row-crop- having CN 82 and 20 % is
permanent meadow having a runoff curve number of 78. This gives a weighted value of 81,
which results 5.74 inches for the 2 day storm. Use of of this value or 2.87 in Eq. (2 )
C = 1.39+ 14.75 Re and obtain a value of 59 for C for use in formula Q= CA
5/6

The approximate total runoff may be computed as follows.
1. Determine watershed area and areas of parts of watershed in various soil cover group.
2. Select runoff removal time for drainage based on local crops and area to be protected.
Normally 24 hour duration storm is used.
3. Select rainfall- intensity-frequency chart.
4. Determine rainfall to be used from selected rainfall intensity frequency charts according
to location of job.
5. Select CN to be used for each soil cover group.
6. Tabulate data in columns and compute total runoff.
List and description of column needed
a) Area of each soil cover group
b) Land use or cover- row crops, small grains, wood etc.
c) Treatment of practice-straight row, contour etc.
d) Hydrologic conditions good or poor
e) Hydrologic soil group A, B, C, or D
f) CN
g) Storm runoff in inches from selected runoff curve number and rainfall as described in
step 4.
h) Storm runoff from each soil group obtained by multiplying column by area square
miles.
7. Add column obtained in item h above to obtain total storm runoff from watershed in
inches miles.
8. Divide by total watershed area to obtain total storm runoff inches for watershed for
storm period.

Design standards
Channel design:
V=
n
1
1.486 V
2/3
S
1/2

S= Energy loss /foot length and for open channels with very small slopes it may also be
defined as slope of the energy gradient. For uniform flow, S ~ slope of channel.
Values of n for design of drainage ditch
Hydraulic radius n
Less than 2.5 0.04-0.045
2.5-4.0 0.035-0.040
4 to 5 0.03-0.035
> 5 0.025-0.030

Ref: USDA Technical Bulletin 129. Flow of Water in Drainage Channels, 1929
Channel section: It should be selected such that
a) large enough to permit the required discharge
b) as deep as required to provide satisfactory outlet for both surface and subsurface
drainage needs of the area served
c) The width -depth ratio and side slope which will result in neither cave nor slide.
d) velocity of the flow such that neither serious scouring (removal) nor silting
Table: Allowable velocity in open ditches for different textures

Type of soil Max velocity (m/sec)
Sand and sandy loam 0.75
Silt loam 0.90
Sandy clay loam 1.00
Clay loam 1.20
Stiff clay 1.50

Depth, Bottom width, Side slope and another parameter selected.




Design procedure

1. Check all the basic information such as field elevations control points, soil borings,
bridge footings etc for completeness. Also check the elevation of water at the outlet.
Stage frequency curve should be obtained whenever possible.
2. Establish control points and set hydraulic grade lines for design.
3. Determine watershed areas and equivalent if required at the lower ends of selected
design reaches.
4. Compute design discharge for lower end of each section.
5. Select and record appropriate design criteria including values of n, side slopes,
minimum bottom width and minimum depth below hydraulic grade lines.
Computing ditch sizes at junctions-20-40 rules.

Drainage requirements: The rate of removal of water by open ditches is influence by (i)
rainfall (ii) size of drainage area (iii) runoff characteristics of area, including slope, soil, soil
and vegetation and (iv) crop
The watershed area tributary to each ditch at each design point needs to be
determined. Ordinarily design points are selected at the junction of mains, laterals, change
in grade and at culverts.
20-40 rules
An open ditch properly designed should provide following:
i) sufficient capacity to carry design flow which depend upon as the degree of protection
required
ii) water surface elevation low enough to drain the land
iii) side slopes limited in such a way that banks will neither cave in nor slide and
iv) Velocity of flow such that neither serious scouring (removal) nor silting (deposition) of
any considerable extent will occur.

Allowable velocity in open ditches
Type of soil Maximum velocity (m/sec)
Sand and sandy loam 0.75
Silt loam 0.90
Sandy clay loam 1.00 -1.20
Stiff clay 1.50

X- Section trapezoidal section
n= 0.035 to 0.04
d= 1.2 m is minimum depth
Channel side slopes determined by soil texture
Clay 1:1, Silt loam - 1 ;1, Sandy loam- 2:1, Loose sandy soil -3:1
b= 2d tan /2, Side angle slope.

1) The drainage coefficient of land is 10 mm. Calculate the capacity required at the end of
outlet end of drainage ditch draining a watershed of 300 hectare
2) Calculate the most efficient bottom width for drainage channel to carry the flow 2 m
deep in clay soil. Compute the velocity and drainage capacity of channel if channel
gradient is 0.04 %
3) Design drainage canal to drain 550 ha of land having drainage coefficient of 2-5 cm. the
soil is silt loam. The maximum permissible slope is 0.1 %.
Drainage capacity required of the ditch = 2.5/100 * 550*10000/24*60*60
Surface drainage principles
a) Excess water is collected and removed from the ground surface within the area affected,
b) by means of construction outside the area, water is diverted away from the area to be
protected. Surface drainage system is divided into three functional parts.
1. Collection system, bedding, field ditches, row ditches or diversion ditches are part of
the system
2. Disposal system: This is the part of the system that receives the water from
collection system and conveys it, usually in an open ditch, to the outlet.
3. Outlet: This is the end point of drainage system under consideration.

The basic surface drainage system are the parallel, the random and the cross slope or
diversion system.
The random system Where the topography is irregular but so flat or gently sloping as to
have wet depression scattered over the area, a system is used.

Field ditches should not shallower than feet and not deeper than 1 feet.
Land grading and land smoothing or bedding will usually be on the less permeable soil.
The parallel system

Orientation of direction of field ditches will upon the direction of the field slope.
Sub surface drainage system
Sub surface drains are artificial drainage channel through which the excess water may flow
to a suitable outlet. Their purpose is to lower the water table below the root zone of the
plants.
Sub surface drainage has the following advantages
1. Removal of gravitational or free water which is not available for plant thus provide
aeration and optimum temperature for plant.
2. Increase volume of soil from which root can obtain food.
3. Permit increase the bacterial activity in the soil which improves the soil structure and
make plant food more readily available.
4. Increases the moisture available to the plants because the root zone (from which food
and water is drawn) is deepened.
5. Reduces the soil erosion since well drained soil has more capacity to hold rainfall,
resulting less runoff.
6. Improves the soil moisture condition in relation to operations of tillage, planting,
harvesting.
7. Removes toxic substances such as alkali from the root zone.
The beds should be led out with the dead furrows running in the direction of greatest slope
Principles of flow in saturated zone:
The flow of water in the saturated zone involves mechanical, chemical and thermal
molecular attraction.
Hydraulic Head:
Total Energy E = Kinetic energy + Pressure energy + Elevation
Z
w
P
g 2
E
2
v
+ + =

Z H
w
P
+ =

H = Hydraulic Head, m
P = Pressure at a point, referred to atmosphere, kg/sq m
w = Specific weight of water, kg/m
3

Z = Elevation of point above a datum
w
P
Elevation head at point P
Z
Datum

The energy / unit volume of fluid along streamline for steady flow with no acceleration is
given by
Z P
g 2
V
dE
2
s
v
+ + =
}
Drainable Pore volume: Represents the volume of water that can be drained from a unit
volume of soil when the soil moisture pressure is decreased from atmospheric pressure to
specific negative pressure. Specific yield is the amount of water which can be drained from
a unit cross section of soil per unit change or decline in head.

Soil Surface
Water Table
1
WT
2
WT



The amount that water has drained out of soil must be equal to the decrease that has
occurred in the soil moisture above the water table.
Suppose a soil contains 35% of moisture by d.w. when it is saturated or soil moisture
pressure is zero. When soil moisture capillary pressure is increased by 100 cm of head soil
moisture becomes 30 %. Assume bulk density of soil is 1.40, 1 cc of dry soil will weight
1.40 g. At saturation 1 cc of dry soil will contain 1.40 0.35 = 0.49 g of water. If we
assume density of water is 1.00 moisture concentration at saturation is 0.49 cc of water per
cc of soil.
Similarly capillary pressure of 100 cm the soil moisture concentration is 1.40 0.30 = 0.42
cc of water per cc of soil.
The drainable porosity at saturation is zero and at 100 cm is 0.49-0.42 = 0.07 cc of water
per cc of soil. This is the amount of water that will drain out of 1 cc of soil surface when
water table drops from soil surface to point 100 cm below the soil surface.


Hooghoudts Equations for spacing of Drains
H
h
d
2
S

v
) dh 2 dH 2 h H ( k 4
S
2
2
2
+
=
h=0, Hence
v
) H d 2 ( kH 4
S
2
+
=
Ellipse equation for steady state case.

Movement of water into subsurface drains:
This is influenced by the following factors
(i) k of soil (ii) Configuration of location of free water surface and presence of magnitude
and artesian pressure (iii) depth of drain below the ground surface and locat ion of drain with
respect to various soil horizon (iv) horizontal distance between the drains (v) diameter of
drain (vi) tile joint spacing (vii)depth to impervious layer below ground surface.

In subsurface drainage drains water must enter the pipe through the cracks between
successive pipes or through holes provided in the pipe for water entry.
Rate of flow into the drain is directly related to the rate of fall of watertable.
Determination of hydraulic conductivity

Depth and spacing of tile drains:
The depth and spacing of tiles apply only to laterals and not to mains and sub mains.
The depth and mains and sub mains depend upon the outlet condition and topography of the
area. The optimum depths of tile laterals are governed by K, I, type of crop and optimum
water table depth, crop response to fluctuating water table and depth of impermeable layer.
Depth and spacing of tile drains are determined by experience and judgment for
given condition.
Table :Average depth and spacing of tile drain
Soil Spacing (m) Depth (m)
Clay 9-15 0.90-1.05
Clay loam 12-21 0.90-1.05
Loam 18-30 1.05-1.20
Sandy loam 30-60 1.20-1.50

Tile joint spacing
In the case of drains water must enter through the space (crack width) between successive
tile. Double the crack width 10 % increase in the flow. Ponded condition hack width 1-3
mm.
Perforation in drain pipe: double the dia of perforation from 6-12 mm at 1-2 m depth
increase in the flow 68 and 46 for 13 and 33 holes respectively.
Determine the size of the tile drain required at the end of 500 m long if the drainage
coefficient is 1 cm, grade 0.3 % and tile spacing 50 m.
Drainage from the area drained
= 500 50
100
1
= 0.0288 m
3
Assume dia 12.5
Wetted perimeter = d t = 0.3925
A =
4
d
2
t

2 / 1 3 / 2
S R
n
1
v = R ---
A = Area required =
V
Q

Unsteady State rise of water table:
Watertable fluctuating with time. Glovers equation
2
2
dx
y d
f
kd
dt
dy
=


d
y
0
y
x
2
S

y
0
= Maximum height of water table t=0
y = Height of water table at time t
For unsteady state
)
t
h
( f ) hV (
z
) hV (
y
) hV (
x
z y x
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

For one dimensional flow
)
t
h
( f ) hV (
x
x
c
c
=
c
c

)
t
h
( f )
x
h
hK (
x c
c
=
c
c
c
c

h is replaced with dty if d>> y
2
2
dx
y d
f
kd
dt
dy
=

Here we assume D = dt y
0
/2 and y
0
/2 is much less than d.
Then we get
2
dx
dy
f
kD
dt
dy
=

At time t=0, y = y
0
at any value of x
Initial conditions
0 < x <S y (x , 0) = y
0

x = 0 and x = S y (0 , t) = 0

The equation is solved by substituting above I.C. and B.C.
2 / 1
2 / L
0
y
y 4
ln( f KDt L

t
t =

t has to be taken into consideration according to situation or own convenience.
Tile drainage system
Series of tiles are laid in a continuous line at a specified depth and grade so that free water
entering the system will flow out by gravity.
Tile drainage system consists of drainage outlet Tile main Sub mains
Laterals.
Movement of water in subsurface drains are influenced by (i) K of soil (ii) configuration
and location of free water surface (iii) Depth of drain below the ground surface and their
locations (iv) horizontal distance between the drains (spacing) (v) dia of drains (vi) tile joint
spacing (vii) depth to impervious layer below the ground surface

(1) In subsurface drains the water must enter through the cracks between the successive
pipes or through holes provided in pipe, porous pipe or mole drains
(2) Flow Q =f (K, h), Q o Rate of fall of water table
Rate of fall f (S, D, Soil texture) Soil Texture --- Sandy soil when movement is fast
Shape of water table between the two tile drains is semi elliptical
24 hours of rain
48 hours
Dry seas

Depth and spacing of tile drains
The depth and spacing of tiles apply only to laterals and not to mains and sub mains.
The depth of mains and sub mains are governed by outlet conditions and topography of
drainage area.
Optimum tile depth is governed by K, rate of infiltration, type of crops and its
optimum water table depth, crop response to fluctuating water table and depth of
impermeable strata.
Limitation of trenching equipment
Problems on steady and unsteady rise of water tables



Hooghoudts Equations for spacing of tile drains
SB Hooghoudt Homogeneous soil equilibrium watertable condition
Assumptions
(1) Soil profile homogeneous, K
(2) Drains are spaced evenly at a spacing S
(3) i at point in the soil profile
dx
dy

(4) Darcys Law is valid
(5) The rate of replenishment of water by infiltration or rainfall is v
(6) There is an impermeable layer underlying the drain at depth d.
(7) The origin of co-ordinate is assumed to be on the impermeable layer below the centre of
one of the drains.
H
h
d
v
h
2 S
x
y
Soil Surface

Since v quantity of water entering a unit area of the soil surface, the total quantity of
water passing through the plane will be equal to the product of v and the surface area from
the plane to the mid point between the tile lines.
The surface area of the plane (S/2 x) .1
1 denotes the unit distance measured out from the plane of paper, or unit thickness of soil.
The quantity of water flowing / unit time through the plane is
q
x
= (S/2 x) .v The cross sectional area of flow = y 1
dx
dy
Ky q
x
=
(Darcys Law)
Therefore
dx
dy
Ky v ) x 2 S ( =

Kydy vdx ) x 2 S ( =
} }
=
}
Kydy vxdx dx
2
vs

On integration yields
2
Ky
2
vx
x
2
vs
2 2
= |
.
|

\
|
-----(A)
limit x = 0 When y = h + d
and x = S/2 at y = H+d

d H
d h
2
2 / S
0
2
2 / S
0
Ky
2
1
vx
2
1
x
2
vs
+
+
(

=
(

v
) dH 2 dH 2 h H ( K 4
S
2 2
2
+
=

If the drains are considered to be empty
| | H d 2
v
KH 4
S
2
+ =

Luthin (1973) has shown that equation (A) is the equation of ellipse. This is shown by
transforming the origin of the co-ordinate system to the mid-point between the drains the
following transformation was substituted.
X
1
= S/2 -x
On substitution
x
2
vs
2
vx
2
Ky
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
= +

1
x
4
v
S
y
4
S
2
2
2
2
= +

Tile joint spacing
In case of tile drains the water must enter through the space (cracks width) between
successive tiles.
2 crack width = 10 5 increase in the flow under ponded condition
The maximum permissible crack width usually recommended for silt loam soil and silt clay
loam soil vary from 1 mm to 3 mm. In sandy and sandy loam soils their ends are placed as
close as possible. Inflow rate measurement
Perforation in drain pipes: the effect of perforations on the flow of water into drain pipes
has been obtained by Kirkham and Schwab (Luthin, 1973). As the number of holes is
increased the relative increase in the flow decreases, if there more than 65 holes/meters.
Double the dia of 6-12 m at 1.2 m depth increased the flow 68% and 46% for 13 and 33
holes respectively.
Selection of tile materials
Clay concrete It should be strong enough to withstand the pressure that will be put on it.
Plastic pipes- 4 - 6 m long, 4-10 cm dia 30 or 60 holes /m 0.6 cm width 2.5
Filter for tile drains Hay straw, straw, saw dust wood chip and corn .
Joints are covered tar impregnated roofing paper, glass filter fibre, plastic guards
50 % size of filter = 12 to 58
50 % size of the base

15 % size of fine size filter = 12 to 40
15 % size of fine size of base

Filter stability ratio of less than 5 is safe, thus
15 % fine size filter = less than 5
85 % fine size of base

Types of tile drainage systems
(1) Random (2) Gridiron (3) Herringbone and (4) Interceptor and combination of two or
more of these types
(1) Random or natural system of tile is used where there are scattered wet areas in a field
somewhat isolated from each other. Tiles are laid more or less random to drain these wet
areas. In most cases the tile main follows the largest natural depression in the field, and
sub mains and laterals extend to these natural wet areas. If the natural wet areas are
large, the arrangement of sub mains and mains for each wet area may utilize the gridiron
or herringbone tile pattern to provide required drainage.
(2) Herringbone: This system consists of parallel laterals that enter the main at angle,
usually from both sides. This system is used where the main and sub main lies in narrow
depression. In this system, there is considerable double drainage where the laterals and
mains join and the system may not be very economical. However, it is particularly
suitable where laterals are long and the area requires thorough drainage.
(3) Gridiron: The gridiron or parallel system is similar to the herringbone system except
that laterals enter main from only one side. It is used on flat regularly shaped fields and
on uniform soil. It is more economical than herringbone system because the number of
junctions and the double drained areas are reduced.
(4) Double system: When there is broad flat depression which is frequently natural
watercourse, a main may be placed on both the side of waterway. This system is known
as double main system, is essentially two desperate gridiron patterns. Placing the main
on each side of the depression serves a dual purpose, it intercepts the seepage water and
provides an outlet for the tile laterals.
(5) Interceptor: The interceptor or cutoff system is used to intercept seepage water from
hill sides, wet areas are formed by seepage water moving horizontally through
permeable layers which lies over an impermeable layer. This condition is indicated
seepage along horizontal plane near the fort of the slope or break in the grade. The
interceptor drains should be laid along the bottom of permeable layer in order to
intercept the seepage causing damage.
Intercepted drains are used where there is an active ground water flow or movement.
(6) Relief drains: The position of open type and covered type relief drains relative to the
watertable. Relief drains are oriented parallel to the direction of ground water flow and
have or similar drawdown effect equidistant on either side of the drain as illustrated.
These drains are used in areas where the ground water does not flow and where it is
impossible to intercept the ground water effectively. Relief drains are usually planned in
series following some pattern such as gridiron or herringbone.

Special methods of drainage
Vertical drainage
Disposal of drainage water through wells into porous layer of earth or an open rock
formation. Such a formation must be capable of taking large volumes of water rapidly.
Mole drains are unlined circular earthen channel formed within highly cohesive soil or
fibrous soil by a mole plough. The long plough has a long blade like shank to which is
attached a cylindrical bullet nosed plug, known as mole. As the plough is drawn through the
soil, moles form a cavity at a certain depth. The fracture formed by the coulter and moles
provide escape routes for water through soil and into the mole channel. Mole drains are not
suitable for loose soils, channel produced by plough will collapse. They are also not suitable
for high plastic soil where the mole seals the soil to the movement of water.

Installation of tiles
(1) Digging the trench -
Hand tools/ mechanically powered trench
(1) Tile spade (2) Tile hoe (3) Tile hoe with pick age face (4) Tile scoop (5) Tile hook
Bottom of the trench is finished with the tile scoop so that 1/3 rd of tile circumference.

Soil Space Depth
Clay-Clay loam soils 12-21 m 15-90 cm
Silt loam 18-30 m 1 to 1.2 m
Sandy loam soil 30-90 m 1 to 1.4 m

Grade for tile drains
Tile should be laid in the direction of the greatest slope in the field.
0.10 % for 10 cm tile drain
0.01% for 12.5 cm to 15 and 17.5 cm tiles
Steepest grade should not be greater than 2 %
Drainage coefficient
Determination of drainage area
Size of drains Wall thickness 1/12 ID.
Sizes of drains depend upon the drainage area, drainage coefficient and the grade.
10.5, 12.5 and 15 cm
With the slight in the dia.
Laying the tile: Like trenching or laying should begin at the lower end or and
progress upgrade following closely the excavation of the trench.
Binding the tile
Covered with a loose earth to depth of 15 to 30 cm.
Backfilling the trenches- Backfilling may be done by hand or by back scraper or bulldozer.

Surface drainage system
Surface drainage uses the potential energy that exists due to the land elevation to provide
hydraulic gradient for the movement of water. The system can be considered in three
functional parts viz (i) collection system (ii) disposal system (iii) outlet
Water from individual is collected through the collection system and moves through the
disposal system to the outlet.
There are four types of drainage system used in flat areas (less than 2%) these are
(i) Random drain system
(ii) Parallel field drain system
(iii) Parallel open ditch system, and
(iv) Bedding system
The random drain system is used where small scattered depressions to be drained occur
over the area. Where possible, drains are designed to connect one depression to another and
water is conveyed to an outlet.
The drains connecting the depression could be surface drains or under ground pipelines or
sub-surface drains.

The parallel field drain system is the most effective method of surface drainage and is
well suited both for irrigated and rainfed areas. In this system, individual fields are properly
graded such that they discharge into field drains. The field drains may discharge into field
laterals bordering the fields and the laterals in turn lead to the mains. The laterals and mains
should be deeper than field ditches to provide free outfall. This is also referred to as the
field ditch system.

The parallel open ditch system is applicable in soils that require both surface and
subsurface drainage. It is similar to the parallel field drain system, except that in this system
the drains are replaced by open ditches which are comparatively deeper and have steeper
side slopes than the field drains The open ditch can not be crossed by farm implements.

The spacing of ditches depends upon the soil and water table conditions and may vary from
60-200 m. The open ditches occupy considerable land area and they are often replaced by
subsurface drains. This system is also known as diversion ditch system.

The bedding system for surface drainage is essentially a land forming process. The land is
ploughed into beds, separated by dead furrows which run in the direction of prevailing
slope. Ploughing is to be done parallel to furrows. All other farming operations can be done
either across the beds or parallel to the furrow. Bedding was proved to be successful in
poorly drained soils on flat lands and on slopes of 1.5 %. The bed width depends upon the
land use, slope of field, soil permeability and farming operation.




Permeability K (cm/day) Bed Width (m)
Very low 0.5 8-12
Low 5-10 15-17
Good 10-20 20-30
The length depends upon the field conditions and may vary from 100 m 300m. The water
from dead furrows discharge into the main drain constructed at the lower end and normal to
the dead furrows.

Disadvantage of bedding system:
(1) System is unsatisfactory if the crop is grown parallel to furrows (2) furrow requires
regular maintenance (3) Slope of the furrows may not be enough for drainage. (4) Due to
movement of top soil reduction in the yield nearer the furrow could occur.