Weeks-1-4-Differential-Calculus

1
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __1__
TOPIC/S
LIMITS
I.EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
At the end of the topic the student should be able to:
1. Calculate limits algebraically, or to estimate them from graph or from a table of data.
2. Learn to work with exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions and their
applications in applied problems.
II. CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION
A limit is the value a function (which is usually written “ƒ(x)) approaches as the variable
within that function (usually “x”) gets nearer and nearer to a particular value. In other words,
when x is very close to a certain number, what is ƒ(x) very close to?
A limit tells us the value that a function approaches as that function's inputs get closer
and closer to some number. The idea of a limit is the basis of all calculus (by Sal Khan) and
is used to define continuity, derivatives, and integrals.
Example: What is the limit of the function ƒ(x) = x2 as x approaches 2? In limit notation, the
expression “the limit as x approaches 2” is written like this:
lim
→
In order to evaluate the limit, let’s check out some values of
lim = lim
→ →
as x increases and gets closer to 2 (without ever exactly getting there).

When x = 1.9, ƒ(x) = 3.61.
When x = 1.99, ƒ(x) = 3.9601
When x = 1.999, ƒ(x) = 3.996001.
When x = 1.9999, ƒ(x) = 3.99960001.
2
As x increases and approaches 2, ƒ(x) gets closer and closer to 4. This is called the LEFT-
HAND LIMIT and is written:
lim
→
Notice the little minus sign!

What about when x is bigger than 2?
When x = 2.1, ƒ(x) = 4.41
When x = 2.01, ƒ(x) = 4.0401.
When x = 2.001, ƒ(x) = 4.004001.
When x = 2.0001, ƒ(x) = 4.00040001
As x increases and approaches 2, ƒ(x) gets closer and closer to 4. This is called the
RIGHT-HAND LIMIT and is written:
lim
→
Notice the little plus sign!

We got the same answer when evaluating both the left and right-hand limits, because
when x is 2, ƒ(x) is 4. Therefore, we write that
lim = lim =4
→ →
Example 1: Find
lim
→
The approach is simple: Plug In 5 for x, and you get 25.
Example 2: Find
lim
→
Here the answer is 27.

There are some simple algebraic rules of limits that you should know. These are:
Constant Multiple Rule:
lim k = k lim
→ →
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
3
Example:
lim 3 = 3 lim = 75
→ →
Sum Rule:
lim + = lim + lim

→ → →
Example:
lim + = lim + lim = 150

→ → →
Product Rule:
lim ⋅ = lim ⋅ lim

→ → →
Example:
lim + 1 √ − 1 = lim + 1 ⋅ lim √ − 1 = 52

→ → →
Example 3: Find
lim +5
→!
Plug in 0, and you get 0.

All you do to find the limit of a simple polynomial is plug in the number that the variable
is approaching and see what the answer is. Naturally, the process can get messier-especially if
x approaches zero.
Example 4: Find
1
lim " #
→!
If you plug in some very small values for x, you’ll see that this function approaches infinity.
And it doesn’t matter whether x is positive or negative, you still get infinity. Look at the graph
of y = 1/x2:
4
On either side of x = 0 (the y-axis), the curve approaches infinity.

Although division by zero is undefined, the limit of a rational function where the
numerator approaches some positive value and the denominator approaches zero is infinity. If
the numerator approaches a negative value, and the denominator approaches zero,
the limit is negative infinity.
Example 5: Find
1
lim " #
→!
Here you’ve got a problem. If you Plug In some very small positive values for x (0.1, 0.01,
%
0.001, etc.), you approach infinity. In other words, lim $ &=∞. But if you Plug In some very
→!
%
small negative values for x (-0.1, -0.01, -0.001, etc.) you approach -∞. That is, lim $ &= -∞.
→!
Because the right-hand limit is not equal to the left-hand limit, this limit does not exist.
%
Draw the graph of inside the box.
What can you on the left side of x = 0? The curve approaches what? (write your answer on
space provided base on your graph. ______) and on the right side of x = 0, the curve
approaches (write your answer on space provided base on your graph. ______)
5
There are some very important points that we need to emphasize from the last two examples.
1. If the left-hand limit of a function is not equal to the right-hand limit of the
function, then the limit DOES NOT EXIST.
2. A limit equal to infinity is not the same as a limit that does not exist, but
sometimes you will see the expression “no limit”, which serves both purposes.
( ( (
3. If k is a positive constant, then lim $ &=∞, lim $ &= -∞, and lim $ & does not
→!' →!) →!
exist.
( ( (
4. If k is a positive constant, then lim $ * &=∞, lim $ * &=∞, and lim $ * &=∞.
→!' →!) →!
QUESTION to answer:
Why does the limit exist in Example 4 but not for Example 5?
YOUR ANSWER:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Let’s look at a few examples when the variables approach infinity.

Example 6: Find
1
lim " #
→+
As x gets bigger and bigger, the value of the function gets smaller and smaller. Therefore,
%
lim $ & = 0.
→+
Example 7: Find
1
lim " #
→)+
It’s the same situation as the one in Example 6; as x decreases (it gets more negative), the
value of the function also decreases. We write this:
%
lim $ & = 0
→)+
We don’t have the same problem here that we did when x approached zero because “positive
zero” is the same thing as “negative zero”, whereas positive infinity is different from negative
infinity.
6
Here’s another rule:

( (
If k and n are constants, lxl > 1, and n > 0 then limit lim $ ,&=0, and lim $ ,&=0
→+ →)+
Example 8: Find
3 +5
lim
→+ 7 − 2
When you’ve got variables in both the top and the bottom, you can’t just Plug Infinity into
+
the expression, you’ll get +. We solve this by using the following technique:
When an expression consists of a polynomial divided by another polynomial, divide each

term of the numerator and the denominator by the highest power of x that appears in the
expression.
The highest power of x in this case is x1, so we divide every term in the expression (both top
and bottom) by x, like so:
./ 0/ 0
' ' '
lim = lim / /
1/ * = lim /
*
→+ - ) →+ / )/ →+ -)/
2
Now when we take the limit, the terms containing x approach zero. We’re left with
3
Example 9: Find
8 −4 +1
lim
→∞ 16 +7 −2
Divide each term by x2, you get

8 9
7) ' * ; <
lim / /
<= >
1 * =
→+ %:'/) *
=
/
Example 10: Find
−3− 70 +
%!
lim
→+ 33 %! + 200 7 − 1000 ?
Divide each term by x10, you get

1@ 9
) 9@ )-! 0 ' . ) ) 0' 1 2 <
lim 9@ ' !! A )%!!! 8 = lim
/ /
*@@ 9@@@ = - 22 = - <<
→+ →+ ' *) B
/ /
7
Focus your attention on the highest power of x. The other powers don’t matter, because
they’re all going to disappear. Now we have three new rules for evaluating the limit of a
rational expression as x approaches infinity:
1. If the highest of x in a rational expression is in the numerator, then the limit as x
approaches infinity is infinity.
1)
Example: lim =∞
→+ %: B ) *
2. If the highest power of x in a rational expression is in the denominator, then the

limit as x approaches infinity is zero.
B)
Example: lim =0
→+ %: 1 ) *
3. If the highest power of x in a rational expression is the same in both the numerator
and denominator, then the limit as x approaches infinity is the coefficient of the
highest term in the numerator divided by the coefficient of the highest term in the
denominator.
1) C
Example: lim
→+ %: 1) * <=
=
More Examples with Detailed Solutions
Example 1
Find the limit.
−5
lim
→ + − 30
Solution to Example 1:
Although the limit in question is the ratio of two polynomials, = 5 makes both the
numerator and denominator equal to zero. We need to factor both numerator and denominator
as shown below.
−5 +5
= lim
→ −5 +6
8
Simplify to obtain,
−5 +5
= lim
→ −5 +6
+5
= lim
→ +6
<D
=
<<
Example 2
Calculate the limit.

+ 4 − 12
lim
→ | − 2|
Solution to Example 2:
We need to look at the limit from the left of 2 and the limit from the right of 2. As x
approaches 2 from the left − 2 < 0 hence,
| − 2| = − −2
Substitute to obtain the limit from the left of 2 as follows,

+ 4 − 12
lim
→ − −2
−2 +6
= lim
→ − −2
=-8
As x approaches 2 from the right − 2 > 0 hence,
| − 2| = − 2)
Substitute to obtain the limit from the right of 2 as follows,
+ 4 − 12
lim
→ −2
−2 +6
= lim
→ −2
=8
The limit from the right of 2 and the limit from the left of 2 are not equal therefore the given
limit DOES NOT EXIST.
9
Limits of Trigonometric Functions
There are four standard limits that you should memorize, with those you can evaluate
all of the trigonometric limits that you will encounter (appear on the assessment), Calculus
requires that you remember all of your trigonometry from the previous years.
LMNK K
Rule No. 1:HIJ K
= 1; HIJ LMNK = 1
K→D K→D
The graph of f(x) = sin x and f(x) = x, they have approximately the same slope near the origin
(as x gets closer to zero). Since x and the sine of x are about the same as x approaches zero,
their quotient will be very close to one. Furthermore, because lim cos = 1 (review cosine
→!
UVW
values if you don’t get this!), we know that lim tan = lim XYU = 0.
→! →!
Z[LK)< K
Rule No. 2: HIJ K
= 0; HIJ Z[L K = 0
K→D K→D
LMN 2K
Example 1. Find the HIJ
K→D K
Use a simple trick: multiply the top and bottom of the expression by 3. This gives us:
2LMN 2K
HIJ . Next, substitute a letter for 3x; for example, a. Now we get the following:
K→D 2K
UVW UVW
lim = 3lim = 3 (1) = 3
→! →!
LMN CK
Example 2. Find the HIJ
K→D LMN \K
Now we get a bit more conflict. First, divide both the numerator and the denominator
by x, like so:
]^_
lim UVW ?
→!
Next, multiply the top and bottom of the numerator by 5, and the top and bottom of
the denominator by 4, which gives us:
]^_
lim ?UVW ?
→!
?
C
\
What we have did in Example 1, we can see that this limit is .
10
LMN `K
Rule No. 3: HIJ =`
K→D K
LMN `K `
Rule No. 4: HIJ LMN aK =
K→D a
2
Example 3. Find the HIJ 1−bcd2
K→D
Using trigonometric identities, you can replace (1 − bcd with de,
2 2
HIJ = HIJ
1−bcd2 K→D de,2
=1
K→D
More examples for you to explore, give them a try, and check your work.
K)2
Illustrative Example 1. Find HIJ
K→2 K'>
!
= =0
)
Answer: If you Plug In 3 for x, you get lim
→ '
K'>
Illustrative Example 2. Find HIJ
K→2 K)2
= −∞
'
Answer: The left-hand limit is: lim−
→3 )
=∞
'
The right-hand limit is: lim
∓ )
→3
These two limits are not the same. Therefore, the limit does not exist.
K'>
Illustrative Example 3. Find HIJ 2
K→2 )3
=∞
'
Answer: The left-hand limit is: lim− 2
→3 )3
=∞
'
The right-hand limit is: lim 2
→3
∓ )3
These two limits are the same. Therefore, so the limit is ∞.
* ': '7
Illustrative Example 4. lim
→)? '?
!
!
Answer: If you plug -4 into the top and bottom, you get . You must factor the
' '?
+2 + 4 to get this: lim
'?
top into
→)?
' '?
Now, it’s time to cancel like terms lim = lim + 2 = -2
→)? '? →)?
11
% * )%%
Illustrative Example 5. lim
→∞ * '?
% * )%% % )
99
<C
Answer: Divide each term by x2: lim = lim /
>>
8
→∞ * '? '
=
→+ /
\K
Illustrative Example 6. HIJ h`N K
K→D
UVW
Answer: Replace tan x with XYU , which changes the expression into:
?
= lim
? ? XYU
lim i jkl / = lim
→! W →! →! UVW
mnj/
Since lim UV = 1and lim cos = 1, the answer is 4.

→! →!
2
'ℎ −25
Illustrative Example 7. lim .
o→0 o
Answer: First expand and simplify the numerator like this:
2 2 2
'ℎ −25 '%!o'ℎ −25 %!o'ℎ
lim . = lim = lim
o→0 o o→0 o o→0 o
Next, factor h out of the numerator and the denominator like this:
%!o'o* o %!'o
lim o
= lim o
= lim 10 + ℎ
o→! o→! o→!
Taking the limit, you get: lim 10 + ℎ = 10

o→!
12
III. PROGRESS CHECK
Please refer to the NeoLMS.
IV. REFERENCES
Khan, D. S. (2003). The AP Calculus AB & BC Exams. Random House, Inc. New York
Clyde R., Love & Earl Rainville (1962) Differential And Integral Calculus (6th ed.).
Macmillan Company
Leithold, L.(1986), Calculus with Analytic Geometry (5th ed.). Harper & Row
Feliciano, F.T. et al. (1983) Differential and Integral Calculus, Meriam &, Webster Bookstore,
Inc. Manila, Philippines
13
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __2__
TOPIC/S
CONTINUITY
I.EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
1. Test the continuity of a function in terms of limits

2. Learn the continuous functions graphically.
3. Determine whether a function is continuous or discontinuous at a point
II.CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION
THE DEFINITION OF CONTINUITY
In order for a function q to be continuous at a point x = c, it must fulfil all three of three
following conditions:
Condition 1: b exists
Condition 2: lim x exists

→X
Condition 3: lim x = f(c)

→X
Let’s look at a simple example of a continuous function. (Incidentally, you’ll find that these
functions are continuous almost everywhere, and the only possible difficulty will occur at
a few specific values of x.)
+ 1, < 2
=r
2 − 1, ≥ 2
Example 1: Is the function continuous at the point x = 2?
Condition 1: Does 2 exist?

Yes. It’s equal to 2 2 − 1 = 3.
Condition 2: Does lim exist?

→
You need to look at the limit of both sides of 2. The left-hand limit is:
lim = 2+1= 3
→
14
The right-hand limit is:

lim = 2 2 − 1 = 3
→
Because the two limits are the same, the limit exists.
Condition 3: Does lim = 2 ?

→
The two limits do equal each other, so yes; the function is continuous at x = 2.
A simple and important way to check whether a function is continuous is to sketch

the function. If you can’t sketch the function without lifting your pencil from the paper
at some point, then the function is not continuous.
Now let’s look at some examples of functions that are not continuous.
+ 1, < 2
x =r
2 − 1, > 2
Example 2: Is the function continuous at x = 2?
Condition 1: Does 2 exist?
Nope. The function of x is defined if x is greater than or less than 2, but not if x
is equal to 2. Therefore, the function is not continuous at x = 2.
Notice that we don’t have to bother with the other two conditions. Once you
find a problem, the function is automatically not continuous, and you can stop.
+ 1, < 2
x = r
2 + 1, ≥ 2
Example 3: Is the function continuous at x = 2?
Condition 1: Does exist?
Yes. It is equal to 2 2 + 1 = 5.

→
The left-hand limit is:

lim = 2 + 1 = 3
→

lim = 2 2 + 1 = 5
→
The two limits don’t match, so the limit doesn’t exist, and the function is not continuous
at x = 2.
15
+ 1, < 2
Example 4: Is the function x = w , = 2 continuous at x = 2?
2 − 1, > 2
Condition 1: Does exist?
Yes. It’s equal to 2 = 4.

→
The left-hand limit is:

lim = 2 +1=3
→

lim = 2 2 −1 =3
→
Because the two limits are the same, the limits exist.
Condition 3: Does lim = 2 ?

→
The lim = 3, but 2 = 4. Because these aren’t equal, the answer is “no” and
→
the function is not continuous at x = 2.
TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES
There are four types of discontinuities you have to know: jump, point, essential, and
removable.
A jump discontinuity occurs when the curve “breaks” at a particular place and
starts somewhere else. In other words,
lim v lim
→ →
A sample looks like this:
16
Here’s what a point discontinuity looks like:
An essential discontinuity occurs when the curve has a vertical asymptote.
Like so:
17
A removable discontinuity occurs when you have a rational expression with

common factors in the numerator and denominator. Because these factors can be
cancelled, the discontinuity is “removable”.
Here’s an example:
This curve looks very similar to a point discontinuity, but notice that with a removable
discontinuity, f(x) is not defined at the point. Whereas with a point discontinuity, is
defined there.
Now that you know these four types of discontinuities look like, let’s see what types of
functions are not continuous everywhere.
Example 5: Consider the function:

+ 3, z 2
x =y
, ≥2
The left-hand limit is 5 as x approaches 2, and the right-hand limit is 4 as x approaches 2.

Because the curve has different values on each side of 2, the curve is discontinuous at x = 2.
We say that the curve “jumps” at x = 2 from the left-hand curve to the right-hand curve because
the left and the right-hand limits differ. It looks like this:
5
4
18
This is an example of jump discontinuity.

, v2
x =y
5, =2
Because lim v 2 ; the function is discontinuous at = 2. The curve is continuous
→
everywhere except at the point = 2. It looks like this:
5
4
This is an example of point discontinuity.
Example 7: Consider the function =

)
The function is discontinuous because it’s possible for the denominator to equal zero (at
= 2). This means that 2 doesn’t exist, and the function has an asymptote at = 2. In
addition,
lim = −∞
→
and
lim =∞
→
The graph looks like this:
This is an example of an essential discontinuity.
19

− 8 + 15
=
− 6 + 15
If you factor the top and bottom, you can see where the discontinuities are:
− 8 + 15 −3 −5
= =
− 6 + 15 −1 −5
The function has a zero in the denominator when = 1 or = 5, so the function is
discontinuous at those two points. But you can cancel the term = 5 from both the
numerator and denominator, leaving you with:
−3
=
−1
Now, the reduced function is continuous at = 5. Thus the original function has a
removable discontinuity at = 5. Furthermore, if you now plug = 5 into the reduced
function, you get:
2 1
5 = =
4 2
%
The discontinuity is at = 5,and there’s a hole at$5, &. In other words, if the original
%
function were continuous at = 5, it would have the value . Notice that lim .
→
Here are some sample problems and their solutions. Cover the answers as you work, then
check your results.
2 − 1, < 2
=y = 2?
6 − 3, ≥ 2
Problem 1: Is the function continuous at
Answer: Test the conditions necessary for continuity.

Condition 1: 2 = 9, so we’re okay so far.
Condition 2: The lim = 15 and the lim = 9. These two limits don’t agree, so the
→ →
lim doesn’t exist and the function is not continuous at x = 2.
→
20
+ 3 + 5, < 1
=y = 1?
6 + 3, ≥ 1
Problem 2: Is the function continuous at
Answer:
Condition 1: 1 = 9.
Condition 2: The lim = 9 and the lim = 9.
→% →%
Therefore, the lim exists and is equal to 9.

→%
Condition 3: lim = 1 = 9.
→%
The function satisfies all three conditions, so it is continuous at = 1.
} + 5, < 4
=y = 4?
− , ≥4
Problem 3: For what value of a is the function continuous at
Answer: Since 4 = 12, the function passes the first condition.
For Condition 2 to be satisfied, the lim = 4} + 5 must equal the lim = 12. So
→? →?
-
set 4} + 5 = 12. If } = ?, the limit will exist at = 4 and the other two conditions will also
-
be fulfilled. Therefore, the value } = ? makes the function continuous at = 4.
Problem 4: Where does the function

2 − 7 − 15
=
− − 20
Have: (a) an essential discontinuity; and (b) a removable discontinuity?
Answer: If you factor the top and bottom of this fraction, you get:
2 − 7 − 15 2 +3 −5
= =
− − 20 +4 −5
Thus, the function has an essential discontinuity at = −4. If we then cancel the term − 5 ,
%
and substitute = 5 into the reduced expression, we get 5 = ~ . Therefore, the function
%
has a removable discontinuity at $5, ~ &.
21
III. PROGRESS CHECK
Please refer to NeoLMS.
IV. REFERENCES
Khan, D. S. (2003). The AP Calculus AB & BC Exams. Random House, Inc. New
York
Macmillan Company
Feliciano, F.T. et al. (1983) Differential and Integral Calculus, Meriam &, Webster
Bookstore, Inc. Manila, Philippines
22
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __3__
TOPIC/S
THE DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE: SLOPE AND RATE OF CHANGE
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
1. Use local linear approximation and differentials to estimate the tangent line to a curve
at appoint.
2. Find the instantaneous rate of change of a function using the derivative and as the
limit of the average rate of change of a function.
3. Determine the slope of a curve at appoint, and the tangent and normal lines to a curve
at appoint.
II.CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION
The Definition of The Derivative

The main tool that you’ll use in differential calculus is called the derivative. All the
problems that you’ll encounter in differential calculus make use of the derivative, so your goal
should be to become an expert at finding, or “taking,” derivatives at the end of chapter 4.
However, before you learn a simple way to take a derivative, your teacher will probably make
you learn how derivatives are calculated by teaching you something called the “Definition of
the Derivative.”
Deriving the Formula
The best way to understand the definition of the derivative is to start by looking at the
simplest continuous function: a line. As you should recall, you can determine the slope of a
line by taking two points on that line and plugging them into the slope formula:
{ − {%
•= € d•},‚d cƒ d„c…†.
− %
For example, suppose a line goes through the points (3,7) and (8,22). First, you subtract the
y-coordinates (22-7) = 15. Next, subtract the corresponding x-coordinates (8-3) = 5. Finally,
%
divide the first number by the second: = 3. The result is the slope of the line: • = 3.
23
Notice that you can use the coordinates in reverse order and still get the same result. It
doesn’t matter in which order you do the subtraction as long as you’re consistent (and you
remember to put the y-coordinates in the numerator and the x-coordinates in the denominator).
Let’s look at the graph of that line. The slope measures the steepness of the line, which
looks like this:
{%
You probably remember your teachers referring to the slope as the “rise” over the “run.”
The rise is the difference between the y-coordinates, and the run is the difference between the
x-coordinates. The slope is the ratio of the two.
Now, for a few changes in notation. Instead of calling the x-coordinates % and , we’re
going to call them % and % + ℎ, where ℎ is the difference between the two x-coordinates.
(Sometimes, instead of ℎ, some books use ∆ ). Second, instead of using {% and { we use
% and % + ℎ . So now the graph looks like this:
% +ℎ
% % +ℎ
The picture is exactly the same-only the notation has changed.
24
The Slope of a Curve

Suppose that instead of finding the slope of a line, we wanted to find the slope of a curve.
Here, the slope formula no longer works because the distance from one point to the other is
curved, not straight. But we could find approximate slope if we took the sloop of the line
between the two points. This is called the secant line.
% +ℎ
% % +ℎ
The equation for the slope of the secant line is:

% +ℎ − %
ℎ
Remember this formula!! This is called the “Difference Quotient.”
The Secant and The Tangent
As you can see, the farther apart the two points are, the less the slope of the line corresponds
to the slope of the curve.
% +ℎ
% % +ℎ
25
Conversely, the closer the two points are, the more accurate the approximation is.
% +ℎ
% % +ℎ
In fact, there is one line, called the tangent line, that touches the curve at exactly one point.
The slope of the tangent line is equal to the slope of the curve at exactly this point. The object
of using the above formula, therefore, is to shrink ℎ down to an infinitesimally small amount.
If we could do that, then the difference between % + ℎ and % would be a point. Graphically,
it looks like this:
26
How do we perform this shrinking act? By using the limits, we discussed in chapter 1. We
set up a limit during which ℎ approaches zero, like so:
% +ℎ − %
lim
o→! ℎ
This is the definition of the derivative.
Notice that the equation is just a slightly modified version of the slope formula, with
different notation. The only difference is that we’re finding the slope between two points that
are almost exactly next to each other.
Example 1: Find the slope of the curve ={= at the point (2,4).
This means that % = 2 and 2 = 2 = 4. If we can figure out % + ℎ , then we can
find the slope. Well, how did we find the value of ? We plugged % into the equation
= . To find % + ℎ we plug % + ℎ into the equation, which now looks like this:
% +ℎ = 2+ℎ = 4 + 4ℎ + ℎ
Now plug this into the slope formula:
% +ℎ − % 4 + 4ℎ + ℎ − 4 4ℎ + ℎ
lim = lim = lim
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ o→! ℎ
Next, simplify by factoring ℎ out of the top:
4ℎ + ℎ ℎ 4+ℎ
lim = lim = lim 4 + ℎ
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ o→!
Taking the limit as ℎ approaches 0, we get 4. Therefore, the slope of the curve { = at
the point (2,4) is 4. Now we’ve found the slope of a curve at a certain point, and the notation
looks like this: 2 = 4. Remember this notation!
Example 2: Find the derivative of the equation in Example 1 at the point (5,25). This means
that % = 5 and = 25. This time,
% +ℎ = 5+ℎ = 25 + 10ℎ + ℎ
27
Now plug this into the formula for the derivative:
% +ℎ − % 25 + 10ℎ + ℎ − 25 10ℎ + ℎ
lim = lim = lim
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ o→! ℎ
Once again, simplify by factoring ℎ out of the top:
10ℎ + ℎ ℎ 10 + ℎ
lim = lim = lim 10 + ℎ
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ o→!
Taking the limit as ℎ goes to 0, you get 10. Therefore, the slope of the curve { = at the
point (5,25) is 10, or ˆ 5 = 10.
Using this pattern, let’s forget about the arithmetic for a second and derive a formula.
Example 3: Find the slope of the equation = at the point ( % , % ).

Follow the steps in the last two problems, but instead of using a number, use % . This means
that % = % and % + ℎ . Then the derivative is:
% + 2 %ℎ + ℎ − % 2 %ℎ + ℎ
lim = lim
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ
Factor ℎ out of the top:
ℎ 2 % +ℎ
lim = lim 2 +ℎ
o→! ℎ o→!
%
Now take the limit as ℎ goes to 0: you get 2 % . Therefore, ′ % = 2 %.

This example gives us a general formula for the derivative of this curve. Now we can pick
any point, plug it into the formula, and determine the slope at that point. For example, the
- %?
derivative at the point = 7 is 14. At the point = , the derivative is .
Differentiability
One of the important requirements for the differentiability of a function is that the function
be continuous. Furthermore, even if a function is continuous at a point, the function is not
necessarily differentiable there. Check out the graph below:
28
If a function has a cusp or a “sharp corner,” you can draw more than one tangent line at that
point. Therefore, the function is not differentiable there.
Another possible problem point occurs when the tangent line is vertical, because a vertical
%
line has an infinite slope. For example, if the derivative of a function is , it doesn’t have a
'%
derivative at = −1.
Try these problems on your own, then check your work against the right answer
immediately beneath each problem.
PROBLEM 1: Find the derivative of =3 at (4,48)
Answer: 4+ℎ = 3 4+ℎ = 48 + 24ℎ + 3ℎ . Use the definition of the derivative
48 + 24ℎ + 3ℎ − 48
′ 4 lim
o→! ℎ
Simplify:
24ℎ + 3ℎ
lim = lim 24 + 3ℎ = 24
o→! ℎ o→!
The slope of the curve at the point (4,48) is 24.
PROBLEM 2: Find the derivative of =3 .

Answer: +ℎ =3 +ℎ =3 + 6 ℎ + 3ℎ . Use the definition of the derivative:
3 + 6 ℎ + 3ℎ − 3
′ = lim .
o→! ℎ
Simplify:
6 ℎ + 3ℎ
lim = lim 6 + 3ℎ = 6
o→! ℎ o→!
The derivative is 6x.

PROBLEM 3: Find the derivative of = .
Answer: +ℎ = +ℎ = +3 ℎ + 3 ℎ + ℎ . First, use the definition of the
derivative:
+3 ℎ+3 ℎ +ℎ −
ˆ
= lim
o→! ℎ
And simplify:
3 ℎ+3 ℎ +ℎ
lim = lim 3 +3 ℎ+ℎ =3
o→! ℎ o→!
The derivative is 3 .
29
This next one will test your algebraic skills. Don’t say we didn’t warn you!
PROBLEM 4: Find the derivative of =√ .
Answer: + ℎ = √ + ℎ. Use the definition of the derivative:
√ +ℎ−√
ˆ
= lim
o→! ℎ
Notice that this one doesn’t cancel as conveniently as the other problems did. In order to
simplify this expression, we have to multiply both the top and the bottom of the expression by
√ + ℎ + √ (the conjugate of the numerator):
√ +ℎ−√ √ +ℎ+√ +ℎ− ℎ
ˆ
= lim Š ‹ = lim = lim
o→! ℎ √ +ℎ+√ o→! ℎ √ + ℎ + √ o→! ℎ √ +ℎ+√
Simplify:
1 1
lim =
o→! Œ√ +ℎ+√ • 2√
%
The derivative is .
√
PROBLEM 5: Find the derivative of = sin .

Answer: + ℎ = sin + ℎ = sin cos ℎ + cos sin ℎ.
Note: Don’t confuse the sin c ℎ with hyperbolic sine, which abbreviated “sin ℎ”.
The same is true for “cos ℎ”. It doesn’t cover hyperbolic function anyways, so you don’t
need to worry about them. Also, if you don’t remember the formula for the sine of the sum of
two angles, review it!
Using the definition, you get this:
sin cos ℎ + cos sin ℎ − sin

ˆ
= lim
o→! ℎ
First, rearrange the numerator:
sin cos ℎ − 1 + cos sin ℎ

ˆ
= lim
o→! ℎ
Next, split the expression into two fractions:
sin cos ℎ − 1 cos sin ℎ

lim + lim
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ
Ž•] o)% ]^_ o
As you learned in Chapter 2, lim = 0 and lim = 1. Therefore, we have:
o→! o o→! o
lim sin 0 + lim cos 1 = cos .

o→! o→!
The derivative of sin ed cos .
30
III. PROGRESS CHECK
Please see the NeoLMS.
IV. REFERENCES
Khan, D. S. (2003). The AP Calculus AB & BC Exams. Random House, Inc. New York
Macmillan Company
31
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __4__
TOPIC/S
BASIC DIFFERENTIATION I
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
1. Relate the graph of a function and the graph of its derivative, and vice-versa
2. Explain the relationship between the sign of a derivative and weather the function is
increasing or decreasing (Positive derivative means increasing; Negative means
decreasing)
3. Determine the relative and absolute maxima and minima.
II. TECHNICAL INFORMATION / CONTENT
Before we get about the business of learning how to take derivatives, here’s a brief
note about notation.
NOTATION
There are several different notations for derivatives in calculus. We’ll refer to
functions in three different ways: f(x), u and y. For example, we might write f(x) = x3,
g(x) = x4, h(x) = x5. Or we might use y = √x. We’ll also use notation like u = sin x and
v = cos x.
Function First Derivative Second Derivative

f(x) f’(x) f’’(x)
g(x) g’(x) g’’(x)
y y’ or dy / dx y’’ or d2y / dx2
In addition, if we refer to a derivative of a function in general (for example, ax2 + bx + c),

we might enclose the expression in parentheses and use either of the following notations:
(ax2 + bx + c)’, or d/dx (ax2 + bx + c)
32
In this section we learn how to differentiate constant functions, power functions,

polynomials, and exponential functions.
Let’s start with the simplest of all functions, the constant function = b.
The graph of this function is the horizontal line { = b, which has slope 0, so we
must have ˆ = 0. (See Figure 1.) A formal proof, from the definition of a
derivative, is also easy:
+ℎ − b−b
ˆ
= lim = lim = lim 0 = 0
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ o→!
We write this rule as follows.
Derivative of a Constant Function
‚
b =0
‚
OWER FUNCTIONS
We next look at the functions = W , where n is a positive integer. If , = 1, the graph

of = is the line { = , which has slope 1. (See Figure 2.) So
‚
=1
‚
1
(You can also verify Equation 1 from the definition of a derivative.) We have already
investigated the cases , = 2 and , = 3. We found that,
‚ ‚
=2 =3
‚ ‚
2
33
For , = 4, we find the derivative of = ?

as follows:
+ℎ − +ℎ ?− ?
ˆ
= lim = lim
o→! ℎ o→! ℎ
?
+4 o+6 ℎ + 4 ℎ + ℎ? − ?
= lim
o→! ℎ
4 o + 6 ℎ + 4 ℎ + ℎ?
= lim
o→! ℎ
= lim 4 + 6 ℎ + 4 ℎ + ℎ = 4
o→!
Thus,
‚ ?
=4
‚
3
Comparing the equations in (1), (2), and (3), we see a pattern emerging. It seems to be a
reasonable guess that, when n is a positive integer,‚•‚ W
= , W)% . This turns out to be
true.
We illustrate the Power Rule using various notations in Example 1.
Rule No. 1. The Power Rule

If n is any real number, then
‚ W
=, W)%
‚
Notice that when the power of the function is negative, the power of the derivative is
more negative.
EXAMPLE 1. Power Rule in action:
a. If = : , then ′ =6
b. If { = %!!! , then { ˆ = 1000 ~~~
‘’
c. If { = • ? , then ‘i = 4•
‘
d. ƒ = 3ƒ
‘“
EXAMPLE 2. Differentiate:
%
a. = *
b. { = √
.
34
SOLUTION In each case we rewrite the function as a power of x.
a. Since = )
, we use the Power Rule with , = −2:
‚ ) 2
ˆ
= = −2 ) )% = −2 ) = −
‚
* * 9
‘’ ‘ ‘
= Œ√ • = $ . & = .)% = ).
.
b.
‘ ‘ ‘
Observe from Figure 3 that the function y in Example 2b is increasing when y9 is positive
and is decreasing when {′ is negative.
The Power Rule enables us to find tangent lines without having to resort to the definition
of a derivative. It also enables us to find normal lines. The normal line to a curve C at a point
P is the line through P that is perpendicular to the tangent line at P.
EXAMPLE 3. Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve { = √ at the
point (1, 1). Illustrate by graphing the curve and these lines.
SOLUTION:
9 .
The derivative of = √ = * = * is
3 . 3
= *
)%
= √
2 2
So, the slope of the tangent line at (1, 1) is ′ 1 = . Therefore, an equation of the tangent
line is
%
{−1= −1 or {= −
35
The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, so its slope is the negative reciprocal
of , that is, − . Thus, an equation of the normal line is
{−1=− −1 or {=− +
We graph the curve and its tangent line and normal line in Figure 4.
‘’
Rule No. 2: If y = x, then =1
‘
‘’
Rule No. 3: If y = kx, then ‘
=1
‘’
Rule No. 4: If y = k, then then ‘
=0
Note: For future reference, a, b, c, n and k always stand for constants.
NEW DERIVATIVES FROM OLD
When new functions are formed from old functions by addition, subtraction, or
multiplication by a constant, their derivatives can be calculated in terms of derivatives of the
old functions. In particular, the following formula says that the derivative of a constant times
a function is the constant times the derivative of the function.
The Constant Multiple Rule

If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then
‚ ‚
b =b
‚ ‚
EXAMPLE 4.
‘ ‘
a. 3 ?
= 3‘ ?
=3 4 = 12
‘
‘ ‘ ‘
b. ‘
− =‘ −1 = −1 ‘
= −1 1 = −1
36
The next rule tells us that the derivative of a sum of functions is the sum of the derivatives.
The Sum (Addition) Rule

If y = axn + bxm, where a and b are constants, then
‘’
= a(nxn-1) + b(mxm-1)
‘
This works for SUBTRACTION, too.
EXAMPLE 5.
‚ 7
+ 12 −4 ?
+ 10 −6 +5
‚
‚ 7 ‚ ‚ ? ‚ ‚ ‚
= + 12 −4 + 10 −6 + 5
‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚
= 8 - + 12 5 ? − 4 4 + 10 3 −6 1 +0
= 8 - + 60 ? − 16 + 30 − 6
EXAMPLE 6 Find the points on the curve { = ?

−6 + 4 where the tangent line is
horizontal.
SOLUTION:
Horizontal tangents occur where the derivative is zero. We have
‚{ ‚ ‚ ‚
= ?
−6 + 4
‚ ‚ ‚ ‚
= 4 − 12 + 0 = 4 −3
‘’
Thus ‘ = 0 if = 0 or − 3 = 0 , that is, = ±√3 . So the given curve has horizontal
tangents when = 0, √3, and−√3 . The corresponding points are (0, 4), (√3, −5), and
(−√3, 5). (See Figure 5.)
37
EXAMPLE 7. The equation of motion of a particle is d = 2• − 5• + 3• + 4, where s is

measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find the acceleration as a function of time. What is
the acceleration after 2 seconds?
SOLUTION:
The velocity and acceleration are
‚d
– • = = 6• − 10• + 3
‚•
‚–
} • = = 12• − 10
‚•
The acceleration after 2 s is } 2 = 14 b•/d .
THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES
The formulas of this section enable us to differentiate new functions formed from old
functions by multiplication or division.
Before stating the Product Rule, let’s see how we might discover it. We start by assuming
that • = and – = are both positive differentiable functions. Then we can interpret
the product •– as an area of a rectangle (see Figure 1). If changes by an amount∆ , then the
corresponding changes in • and – are
∆• = +∆ − ∆– = +∆ −
and the new value of the product, • + ∆• – + Δ– , can be interpreted as the area of the large
rectangle in Figure 1 (provided that Δ• and Δ– happen to be positive).
The change in the area of the rectangle is,
Δ •– = • + ∆• – + Δ– − •– = •Δ– + –Δ• + Δ•Δ–

1
= the sum of the three shaded areas
38
If we divide by Δ , we get
∆•– Δ– Δ• Δ–
=• +– + Δ•
Δ Δ Δ Δ
If we now let Δ → 0, we get the derivative of •–:
‚ Δ •– Δ– Δ• Δ–
•– = lim = lim • +– + Δ•
‚ œ →! Δ œ →! Δ Δ Δ
Δ– Δ• Δ–
= • lim + – lim + $ lim Δ•& " lim #
œ →! Δ œ →! Δ œ →! œ →! Δ
‚– ‚• ‚–
=• +– +0
‚ ‚ ‚
‚ ‚– ‚•
•– = • +–
2 ‚ ‚ ‚
(Notice that Δ• → 0 as Δ → 0 since is differentiable and therefore continuous.)

Although we started by assuming (for the geometric interpretation) that all the quantities
are positive, we notice that Equation 1 is always true. (The algebra is valid whether •, –, Δ•
and Δ– are positive or negative.) So, we have proved Equation 2, known as the Product Rule,
for all differentiable functions • and –.
The Product Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then
‚ ‚ ‚
= −
‚ ‚ ‚
‘š ‘›
or if f(x) = uv, then f’(x) = • ‘ + – ‘
In words, the Product Rule says that the derivative of a product of two functions is the first
function times the derivative of the second function plus the second function times the derivative
of the first function.
EXAMPLE 1.
a. If = † , find ′ .
W
b. Find the nth derivative, .
SOLUTION
a. By the Product Rule, we have
‚
ˆ
= †
‚
‚ ‚
= † +†
‚ ‚
= † +† ⋅1= +1 †
39
b. Using the Product Rule, a second time, we get
‚
″ = +1 †
‚
‚ ‚
= +1 † +† +1
‚ ‚
= +1 † +† ⋅1= +2 †
Further applications of the Product Rule give
‴ = +3 † ⁗ = +4 †
In fact, each successive differentiation adds another term † , so

W
= +, †
EXAMPLE 2.
Differentiate the function • = √• } + ž• .

SOLUTION 1. Using the Product Rule, we have
‚ ‚
• = √• } + ž• + } + ž• Œ√••
‚• ‚•
1 )9
= √• ⋅ ž + } + ž• • *
2
} + ž• } + 3ž•
= ž √• + =
2 √• 2 √•
SOLUTION 2. If we first use the laws of exponents to rewrite • , then we can proceed
directly without using the Product Rule.
9 .
• = }√• + ž•√• = }• * + ž• *
1 )9 3 9
ˆ
• = }• * + ž• *
2 2
which is equivalent to the answer given in Solution 1.
Example 2 shows that it is sometimes easier to simplify a product of functions before
differentiating than to use the Product Rule. In Example 1, however, the Product Rule is the
only possible method.
40
EXAMPLE 3.
If =√ , where 4 = 2 and ˆ
4 = 3, find ′ 4 .
SOLUTION: Applying the Product Rule, we get

‚ ‚ ‚
ˆ
= √ =√ + ¡√ ¢
‚ ‚ ‚
1 9
=√ ˆ
+ ⋅ )
*
2
=√ ˆ
+
2√
4 2
So, ˆ
4 = √4 ˆ
4 + =2⋅3+ = 6.5
2√4 2⋅2
THE QUOTIENT RULE
We find a rule for differentiating the quotient of two differentiable functions • = and
–= in much the same way that we found the Product Rule. If , • and – change by
amounts Δ , Δ• and Δ–, then the corresponding change in the quotient •⁄– is
• • + Δ• • • + Δ• – − • – + Δ–
Δ$ & = − =
– – + Δ– – – – + Δ–
–Δ• − •Δ–
=
– – + Δ–
so
Δ• Δ–
‚ • Δ •⁄– – − •Δ
$ & = lim = lim Δ
‚ – Δ →0 Δ Δ →0 – – + Δ–
As Δ → 0, Δ– → 0 also, because – = is differentiable and therefore continuous.

Thus, using the Limit Laws, we get
Δ• Δ–
‚ • – lim Δ − • lim Δ
‚•
–‚ − •‚
‚–
$ & = Δ →0 Δ →0
=
‚ – – lim – + Δ– –
Δ →0
41
The Quotient Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then
‘ ‘
‚ −
¤ ¥= ‘ ‘
‚
¦§ ¦¨
› š )›
¦/ ¦/
or If f(x) = then f’(x) =
š š*
In words, the Quotient Rule says that the derivative of a quotient is the denominator times
the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator,
all divided by the square of the denominator.
The Quotient Rule and the other differentiation formulas enable us to compute the
derivative of any rational function, as the next example illustrates.
A good way to remember this is to say the following:
"ªc«†¬e − ¬e«†ªc
ªc
42
NOTE: Don’t use the Quotient Rule every time you see a quotient. Sometimes it’s easier to
rewrite a quotient first to put it in a form that is simpler for the purpose of differentiation. For
instance, although it is possible to differentiate the function
3 + 2√
- =
using the Quotient Rule, it is much easier to perform the division first and write the function
as
9
- =3 +2 )
*
before differentiating.
THE CHAIN RULE
The most important rule (and sometimes the most difficult one) is called the Chain
Rule. It’s used when you’re given composite functions-that is, a function inside of another
function.
The Chain Rule

If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at , then the composite function
- = ∘ defined by Equation 2. - = Œ • is differentiable at x and - ˆ is
given by the product
-ˆ = ′Œ •⋅
In Leibniz notation, if { = • and • = are both differentiable functions,
then
‘’ ‘’ ‘›
Equation 3. F’(x) = ‘ = ‘› ‘
This rule is tricky, so here are several examples. The last couple incorporate the
Product Rule and the Quotient Rule as well.
43
Illustrative Example:
If y = 5 +3
‘’
then =5 5 +3 ?
15 +3
‘
We just dealt with the derivative of something to the fifth power, like this:
‘’
y= ‘
=5 ?
, where g = 5 +3
Then we multiplied by the derivative of g: (15x2 + 3)
Always do it this way. The process has several successive steps, like peeling away the
layers of an onion until you reach the center.
More Examples:
44
In Example 2(a) we combined the Chain Rule with the rule for differentiating the sine
function. In general, if { = sin • , where u is a differentiable function of x, then, by the
Chain Rule,
45
46
47
III. PROGRESS CHECK
Please refer to NeoLMS.
IV. REFERENCES
J. Stewart (2015). Calculus: Early Transcendental, 8th ed., Brooks Cole.
York
48
LIST OF REFERENCES
J. Stewart (2015). Calculus: Early Transcendental, 8th ed., Brooks Cole.
York
Macmillan Company
ABOUT THE AUTHOR/S
DUNCAN V. BERNADAS
Magsaysay Avenue, Barangay 9
Isabela, Negros Occidental, 6128
[email protected]
09164942361
Doctor of Technology, 2015 up to present – Technological University of the Philippines

Master of Technology, June 2013 – Technological University of the Philippines
BS Mechanical Engineering, 1999 – Technological University of the Philippines Visayas
49
ELEAZAR F. TANTIADO
Magsaysay Avenue, Barangay 9
Isabela, Negros Occidental, 6128
[email protected]
09164942361
Doctor of Technology, 2015 up to present – Technological University of the Philippines

Master of Technology, June 2013 – Technological University of the Philippines
BS Mechanical Engineering, 1999 – Technological University of the Philippines Visayas
Designations
Department in Charge MET Department Jun 2019 to present

Head (University Curriculum and Instructional Materials Development) Oct 2017 to present
BAC Member TUP Visayas 2017 to present
Internal Auditor TUP V Internal Audit Team 2016 to present
Senior High School Administrator SHS Department Jun 2016 - Apr2019
Program Coordinator COET Feb2016 - Sept 2017
Department in Charge MET Department Sept 2014 – Jan 2016
RESEARCH PRESENTATION / CONFERENCE
May 26-29, 2015. National Engineering Research Symposium: Development of Automated

Steam Turbine Water Cooling System, MMSU-Batac, Ilocos Norte
May 16-18, 2018. International-Workshop on “Action Research as a Qualitative Research

Design, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines (Johanna Research and Training Center)
TEACHING EXPERIENCE
June 2010 to present Faculty COET - MET Department TUP Visayas

November 2009 – March 2010 Faculty COE – ME Department CSA-Bacolod
NON-ACADEMIC DISTINCTIONS / RECOGNITION:
NC II - Driving August 20, 2012 - August 20, 2017

NCII - Machining March 28, 2016 - March 27, 2021
NC I – Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) August 24, 2017 – August 23, 2022
MEMBERSHIPS / AFFILIATIONS
Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers Board of Director 2015 – 2018

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1

Week No.: __1__

At the end of the topic the student should be able to:

II. CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION

In order to evaluate the limit, let’s check out some values of

as x increases and gets closer to 2 (without ever exactly getting there).

Notice the little minus sign!

Notice the little plus sign!

The approach is simple: Plug In 5 for x, and you get 25.

Here the answer is 27.

Constant Multiple Rule:

lim + = lim + lim

lim + = lim + lim = 150

lim ⋅ = lim ⋅ lim

lim + 1 √ − 1 = lim + 1 ⋅ lim √ − 1 = 52

Plug in 0, and you get 0.

On either side of x = 0 (the y-axis), the curve approaches infinity.

Let’s look at a few examples when the variables approach infinity.

Here’s another rule:

When an expression consists of a polynomial divided by another polynomial, divide each

Divide each term by x2, you get

Example 10: Find

Divide each term by x10, you get

2. If the highest power of x in a rational expression is in the denominator, then the

More Examples with Detailed Solutions

Find the limit.

Calculate the limit.

Substitute to obtain the limit from the left of 2 as follows,

As x approaches 2 from the right − 2 > 0 hence,

Substitute to obtain the limit from the right of 2 as follows,

Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Using trigonometric identities, you can replace (1 − bcd with de,

These two limits are the same. Therefore, so the limit is ∞.

Since lim UV = 1and lim cos = 1, the answer is 4.

Answer: First expand and simplify the numerator like this:

Taking the limit, you get: lim 10 + ℎ = 10

III. PROGRESS CHECK

Please refer to the NeoLMS.

Week No.: __2__

At the end of the topic the student should be able to:

1. Test the continuity of a function in terms of limits

II.CONTENT / TECHNICAL INFORMATION

THE DEFINITION OF CONTINUITY

Condition 2: lim x exists

Condition 3: lim x = f(c)

Condition 1: Does 2 exist?

Condition 2: Does lim exist?

The right-hand limit is:

Condition 3: Does lim = 2 ?

A simple and important way to check whether a function is continuous is to sketch

Condition 1: Does 2 exist?

Condition 2: Does lim exist?

The left-hand limit is:

The right-hand limit is:

Condition 2: Does lim exist?

The left-hand limit is:

The right-hand limit is:

Condition 3: Does lim = 2 ?

A sample looks like this:

Here’s what a point discontinuity looks like:

Week No.: 1

Week No.: 2

Week No.: 3

Week No.: 4