JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN'S VIEWS ON DEMOCRACY

Introduction:
Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979) was a rebel throughout his life. During his youth, he was inspired by
Marx and M.N. Roy. His growth, as a Marxist, did create in him a follower of Marxism, but he did not
subscribe to Marx's violent methodology and did not agree to the revolutionary establishment of
Communist ideology. He was a socialist and spent a considerable span of life as a socialist. He was, in a
way, a theoretician and his admirers called him a Leninist. He was one of the founder of the Congress
Socialist Party, a socialist wing of the Congress Party. The influence of Gandhi on Jayaprakash Narayan was
as clear as marked one. He may rightly be described as a Gandhian socialist. After independence, he
remained active in politics as a father figure of Socialist Party. His differences with Nehru did not attract
him to be a part of the government. He was opposed to the party sort of democracy launched by Nehru
and Indira Gandhi. He apposed the 1975 declaration of Emergency and led the total revolution. He
advocated Lokniti opposed to Rajniti. In 1950, he dedicated his life to Sarvodaya Movement. His views on
democracy can be summed up as under:

1) Power should vest in the masses: a political system based on discriminatory and limited franchise does
not make the system democratic and therefore such a system could never be accountable and responsive.
Adult franchise on functional bases can be resorted.

2) There should not only be decentralization of political power, there has to be decentralized economy as
well. A decentralized polity implies the devolution of political power down to the Panchayat level, each
subsequent level-thana, district, province, nation should have their respective share of power; each such
level be made accountable to its level of corresponding legislature.Economic power is also to be
distributed: each sector of economy be given a share of producing what it is capable of production: small
or village cottage industries be encouraged; industry should response to productive/labour management;
major industries need to be controlled by the state nationalization should be resorted wherever necessary.
Planning should be fruitfully used for purposes of growth and development.

3) State should control foreign trade and both impact, export of items of national importance.

4) Discrimination between the individual, group communities, castes, region shall be discouraged.
Minorities of every type political, social, religious, cultural, caste-be protected by the state: a diversely
plural society should become the basis of society.

5) Equality and Liberty be made the very foundation of the society.

6) States should be as autonomous as possible within the framework of society and integrity of the
country.

7) Rights, liberties, freedom of both the individuals and groups, and minorities be protected and promoted.

The 15 point of All Indian Express Socialist Party (1934) and Thirteen Point Scheme of constructive work
for rural areas formed the basis of Narayan's outlines of economic democracy.
The Fourteen-Point Scheme negotiated between Narayan and Jawahar La Nehru (1953) focus the ideology
of India's democracy, of whose major aspects can be stated as under-
1) Constitutional guarantee provided to the princes and civil servants be abolished.

2) Second Chambers in the state legislature should be abolished as they are usually expensive.

3) Decentralisation of administrative authority should be ensured; reforms in legal procedures be made.

4) Administrative map of India on the basis of linguistic, economic and administrative considerations be
redrawn. Administrative costs should be minimized.

As Jayaprakash Narayan grew in age, he began experiencing the defects of democratic political devices.
During 1954-1973, the period when Narayan entered into Sarvodaya life, he began devising the ideas of
reconstruction of Indian polity which sums up his views on democracy. We may produce his views on
democracy as under:
Immediate steps be taken to remove the following defects of modem democracies.
(a) Expensive elections
(b) Partisanship in relation to sectors, segments and parts
(c) Centralisation
(d) Unemployment
(e) Corruption.

 Participatory Democracy concept —

 He promoted Gandhi's view that as you advance from the bottom to each higher level should have
less and less functions and the top, forces.
 People at all levels will have the greatest ability to handle all political affairs under such a structure.
People will have an interest in democracy as well as a sense of Swaraj under such a democratic
structure.
 Jayaprakash's views on democracy are focused on the Panchayati Rai System. Because it will bring
government to the people's doorstep and enable every person to participate in it.

 He did, however, set some conditions like - People should have access to education, Political parties
do not interfere with Panchayat elections or operations, Power and obligations are truly devolved to
the Panchayats, Local governments should have financial control, and public servants should be held
accountable.

 According to him, the system of participatory democracy must be constructed under these conditions.
 JAWAHAR LAL NEHRU SOCIALISM
 During his Cambridge days, he was inspired from Fabianism of Bernard Shah and Webb.
 Fabianism emerged from the activities of the Fabian Society, which was founded in London in 1884.
 whose purpose is to advance the principles of democratic socialism via gradualist and reformist effort
in democracies, rather than by revolutionary overthrow.

Nehru believed that socialism has two forms

1. scientific method of social analysis
2. normative doctrine that describe 'a desirable society'

1. Scientific method of analysis:

 Socialism was based on a belief in the primacy of the economic factor. Which means he was strongly
believe that economic interests shape the political views of groups and classes.
 It is the socialist method which explains that British had colonized India not to civilize people but to
produce cheap raw material and a captive market for their goods.
 Even the religious conflict in India had an economic origin; every communal demand in the final
analysis a demand for jobs.

2. Socialism as 'normative doctrine'

 Socialism was a way to transform humanity.
 It was not only limited to end Capitalism or class-war, revolution, economic determinism.
 It was classless, democratic, provided the material and moral conditions necessary for the fullest
development of the human potential.
 It encouraged co-operative and non acquisitive impulses. Production was planned, organized on co-
operative lines, and Directed towards the satisfaction of human needs rather than accumulation of
profit.
 And the basic freedoms and rights of citizens were fully guaranteed.

How his Socialism was different from Marx?

 He did not emphasis on man as producing being.
 He did not talk about popular participation, gradual withering away of state.
 His socialism was basically aesthetic and liberal, concentrating on the individual rather than
community.
PRACTICING SOCIALISM
 In 1929 Lahore session of congress vaguely accepted socialism principles.
 In 1931 Karachi session of congress accepted a definite economic program.
 Socialism was not a mere economic doctrine for Nehru 'It is a vital creed which I hold with all my head
and heart' he stated in 1936 (Lucknow session of Congress).
 In the same session he expressed the desire that Congress should become socialist organization.
 It frightened many of his colleagues and led to several resignation from CWC.
 In 1955 Awadhi session of congress, he declared socialistic pattern of society.

SOCIALISTIC PATTERN OF SOCIETY

 In 1955 Awadhi session of congress, he declared the ideals of socialistic pattern of society:
 Social ownership of the principal means of production (nationalization).
 Growth of national production
 Equitable distribution of wealth of the nation.
 He explained the difference between welfare state and socialistic pattern of economy.
 He explained that without increasing national wealth a welfare state was not possible.
 Thus to distribute wealth one has to create wealth and which could be possible through
socialist pattern of society.
DISCUSS CONTRIBUTION OF SHANKARACHARYA TO DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN CULTURE
OR
DISCUSS ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY OF SHANKARACHARYA

Adi Shankaracharya is also known as Shankara Bhagavatpada. He was a revered Indian philosopher and
theologian who lived in the 8th century CE. Regarded as the greatest exponent of Advaita Vedanta
Philosophy and was the head of the Sringeri Sharada Peeth. This article delves into the early life, great
works and significant contributions of Adi Shankaracharya to the world of spirituality and philosophy.

Adi Shankaracharya (circa 788–820 CE) was one of the most profound philosophers and spiritual leaders in
Indian history. His contributions to the development of Indian culture were far-reaching, touching on
various aspects of religious, philosophical, and social life.

 From a young age, he exhibited remarkable intellectual abilities and immense spiritual inclination.
 He undertook rigorous studies and became a master of various Vedic texts, Upanishads, and other
philosophical treatises.
 Shankaracharya’s sharp intellect and devotion led him to embark on a transformative spiritual journey.
 Guru Govindhabhagavath Pada was the teacher of Adi Shankarayacharya.

CONTRUBUTIONS TO THE DEVLOPMENT OF INDIAN CULTURE

1. Philosophical Contribution: Advaita Vedanta

 Advaita Vedanta: Adi Shankaracharya is most famous for consolidating and systematizing the
philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, which emphasizes the non-dual nature of reality. According to this
philosophy, the ultimate reality (Brahman) is formless, timeless, and beyond all dualities. The
concept that "Brahman is the only truth, the world is an illusion (Maya)," and the individual self
(Atman) is identical with Brahman, was central to his teachings.
 This philosophical stance countered the then prevalent dualistic schools of thought and provided a
unifying perspective in Indian philosophy. It also provided a spiritual path for individuals to seek
liberation (moksha) through knowledge (jnana), self-inquiry, and meditation.

2. Unification of Hinduism

 Reconsolidation of Diverse Traditions: At a time when India was experiencing significant religious
fragmentation, with various sects and philosophical schools emerging, Shankaracharya worked
towards unifying the diverse schools of Hindu thought. He emphasized the oneness of the
Supreme Reality, thereby offering a common ground for different Hindu traditions.
 Four Mathas: Shankaracharya established four major monasteries (mathas) at different corners of
India: Sringeri (South), Puri (East), Dwaraka (West), and Badri (North). These centers helped in
the preservation, dissemination, and continuation of Vedantic knowledge and teachings. Each
matha was dedicated to the study of one of the Vedas and ensured the philosophical cohesion of
Advaita Vedanta across India.
3. Revival of Vedic Traditions

 Shankaracharya's philosophical ideas brought about a resurgence of the study of the Upanishads,
Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita, all of which are foundational texts in Vedanta. His
commentaries on these texts provided clear and coherent interpretations that have influenced
generations of scholars.
 He emphasized the importance of scriptural study and meditation, advocating that intellectual
understanding of the Vedas was crucial for spiritual growth and liberation.

4. Bhakti Movement and Devotional Worship

 While Shankaracharya is often associated with Jnana Yoga (the path of knowledge), he also
contributed to the Bhakti movement, which emphasized devotion to God as a means of attaining
liberation. His composition of hymns (such as the famous "Bhaja Govindam" and "Kanakadhara
Stotra") was a way of making spiritual wisdom accessible to the masses through simple devotional
songs.
 His works also emphasized personal devotion (Bhakti) to deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga,
integrating devotional practices into the philosophical framework of Advaita Vedanta.

5. Social and Cultural Impact

 Cultural Renaissance: By synthesizing different schools of thought, Shankaracharya played a

significant role in the revival of Hindu culture during a period marked by the decline of Buddhist
influence and the political disarray following the fall of the Gupta Empire. His efforts laid the
foundation for a unified Hindu cultural identity that persists to this day.
 Encouraging Debate and Scholarly Exchange: Shankaracharya engaged in debates with scholars of
other philosophical traditions, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and the Nyaya school. His dialectical
method of argumentation not only helped clarify his own philosophical position but also
encouraged a culture of intellectual discourse that became a hallmark of Indian scholarship.

6. Spiritual and Practical Legacy

 Monastic System: Shankaracharya formalized and spread the monastic order in India, where
monks (sannyasis) were not only practitioners of spiritual disciplines but also teachers of
philosophy and ethics. This monastic tradition, with its emphasis on renunciation, scholarship, and
service to society, became an important part of Hindu culture.
 Impact on Education: Shankaracharya's system of teaching at his mathas created a model for
Vedic education. The mathas served as centers of learning, where students could study a wide
range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, grammar, and metaphysics, alongside religious
education.
7. Integration of Local Deities and Practices

 While Shankaracharya championed the idea of non-duality, he also recognized the importance of
local religious practices and deities. Through his temple-centered reforms, he helped integrate the
worship of various local deities within the broader framework of Vedantic monism. His
establishment of temples like the Jagannath Temple in Puri and the Kailasanatha Temple in
Kanchipuram encouraged the harmonious coexistence of local traditions with his philosophical
teachings.

8. Impact on Indian Arts and Literature

 Shankaracharya's works, including his commentaries and hymns, inspired generations of poets,
scholars, and spiritual practitioners. His influence extended into the arts, particularly in the fields
of music and dance, where devotional elements from his teachings were incorporated into classical
traditions like Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam.
 His philosophical writings, hymns, and devotional compositions continue to be part of the spiritual
and cultural heritage of India.

ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY OF ADI SHANKARACHARYA

The Advaita Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya is one of the most significant and influential schools of
thought in Indian philosophy. "Advaita" translates to "non-duality," which is the core of Shankaracharya's
teachings. According to Advaita Vedanta, the ultimate reality is Brahman, which is formless, eternal, and
transcendent, and it is the only true existence. All else, including the material world and individual selves,
are seen as manifestations or illusions (Maya) that arise due to ignorance (Avidya). Shankaracharya's
interpretation of the ancient Vedic teachings offered a profound and systematic explanation of reality, self,
and God.

1. Brahman: The Absolute Reality

 Brahman is the supreme, ultimate, and unchanging reality that transcends all phenomena. It is
formless, infinite, and beyond human perception, yet it is present in everything. According to
Shankaracharya, Brahman is the only truth, and everything else is an illusion.
 Brahman is described as Sat (Existence), Chit (Consciousness), and Ananda (Bliss). This means that
Brahman is the source of all being, it is pure consciousness, and it is the ultimate state of bliss.
2. Atman: The Individual Self

 Atman refers to the individual soul or self. According to Advaita, the Atman is not different from
Brahman; it is, in fact, identical to Brahman. The perceived distinction between individual self and
the ultimate reality is due to ignorance (Avidya).
 Atman is eternal, indestructible, and beyond the physical body. When one realizes the true nature
of the Atman, one understands that it is the same as Brahman, leading to self-realization and
liberation (moksha).

3. Maya: The Illusion of Duality

 Maya is the concept of illusion or cosmic ignorance. It is the force that causes the world to appear
as though it is made up of separate and distinct entities when, in reality, it is all one with Brahman.
 Maya causes the world to appear as dualistic: subject and object, good and bad, self and other.
This illusion is the root cause of human suffering and bondage. It leads people to believe in the
reality of the material world and their individual ego, which keeps them from realizing the unity of
Brahman and Atman.
 Shankaracharya often used the analogy of the rope and snake to explain Maya: just as a rope may
appear to be a snake in dim light (but is actually a rope), the world appears as dualistic, but in truth,
it is non-dual and is Brahman.

4. Jnana (Knowledge) as the Path to Liberation

 Advaita Vedanta emphasizes Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge, as the means to attain liberation.
This path involves the realization that the individual self (Atman) is not separate from the ultimate
reality (Brahman).
 Liberation (moksha) is attained through direct realization of this non-dual truth, which removes the
veil of ignorance (Avidya). This realization is often described as self-inquiry or Neti Neti (not this,
not this), where one rejects all notions of the body, mind, and ego, and seeks the true, formless
self.
 Meditation, contemplation, and reflection on the teachings of the Upanishads are key practices in
Advaita Vedanta, allowing the individual to understand the nature of Brahman and Atman.

5. The Role of the Scriptures: Upanishads, Brahma Sutra, and Bhagavad Gita

 Shankaracharya's interpretation of the Upanishads, Brahma Sutra, and the Bhagavad Gita is
central to Advaita Vedanta. These texts are seen as the most authoritative sources of spiritual
knowledge in Hinduism.
o Upanishads: The Upanishads contain the mystical and philosophical teachings that reveal
the nature of Brahman and Atman. Shankaracharya wrote detailed commentaries
(Bhashyas) on these texts to explain their non-dual meaning.
o Brahma Sutra: This text, written by Sage Vyasa, is a foundational work in Vedanta.
Shankaracharya’s commentary on the Brahma Sutra systematically addresses the core
philosophical questions about the nature of reality, the self, and God.
o Bhagavad Gita: In his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, Shankaracharya interpreted
Krishna’s teachings as aligning with the Advaita philosophy, emphasizing that true devotion
(Bhakti) is recognizing the unity of the self with the Divine.
6. The Concept of Liberation (Moksha)

 Moksha, or liberation, in Advaita Vedanta is the realization of the oneness of Atman (the self) with
Brahman (the supreme reality). Once an individual attains this realization, they are freed from the
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).
 Liberation involves transcending the illusion of duality and recognizing that the ego, body, and
mind are transient and not the true self. The experience of moksha is described as the realization
of infinite bliss and the end of all suffering.
 Moksha is not an external state to be attained; it is the realization of one's true nature, which has
always been one with Brahman. It is described as Ananda (bliss), Sat (existence), and Chit
(consciousness).

7. The Importance of the Guru

 Shankaracharya stressed the role of the Guru (spiritual teacher) in guiding the seeker on the path
of knowledge. The Guru dispels ignorance and helps the student see beyond the illusion of duality,
leading them to self-realization.
 In Advaita Vedanta, the teacher is seen as an embodiment of Brahman who transmits the truth to
the disciple. The Guru plays a crucial role in awakening the disciple to the non-dual nature of
reality.

8. The Role of Rituals and Bhakti

 While Advaita Vedanta primarily emphasizes knowledge (Jnana), Shankaracharya did not
completely disregard the importance of rituals (puja) and devotion (Bhakti). He acknowledged that
for those who are not yet prepared for the path of knowledge, Bhakti and rituals can serve as a
means to purify the mind and prepare it for the higher realization of non-duality.
 In his hymns and prayers, Shankaracharya encouraged devotion to deities like Shiva and Vishnu
but interpreted such devotion as a means to ultimately realize the oneness of the devotee with the
Divine.

9. Shankaracharya’s Legacy and Influence

 Shankaracharya's Advaita philosophy became one of the cornerstones of Vedantic thought,

influencing not only Hindu philosophy but also shaping spiritual and intellectual traditions
throughout India.
 His contributions to the development of monastic institutions, his commentaries on key texts, and
his philosophical clarity continue to inspire scholars, spiritual seekers, and practitioners around the
world.