Limit and Continuity

Discipline Courses-I
Semester-I
Paper II: Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-I
Unit-II
Lesson: Limit and Contiinuity
Lesson Developer: S. K. Taneja
College/Department: Ramlal Anand College (Eve.) , University of
Delhi

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 Limit and Continuity

Content:

1. Learning Outcome

2. Limit

3. Limit of a Rational function

4. Asymptote

5. Continuity

6. Intermediate Value Theorem

7. Reference

1. Learning Outcome:

After reading this chapter you will be able to know the concept
of limit. Limits of a rational function, asymptote. In addition to
limit the concept of continuity and intermediate value theorem
is explain in detail.

2. Limit:

Observe the function given below

x3  1
f  x 
x 1

The function is not defined for x=1, since the result is % which makes
no sense. However we try to see what happens to f(x) when x is slightly
below or above 1. Take a calculator and try to find out the values f(x), when
x taking values which are slightly move than 1 and slightly less then 1.
Some of the values are given below in table 1.

X .5 .6 .9 .99 .9999 1 1.0009 1.009 1.09

Y 1.75 1.96 2.71 2.970 2.9997 . 3.00270087 3.02708 3.27

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 Limit and Continuity

As x approaches 1, f(x) takes values which are closer and closer to 3. So, we
can say that f(x) tends to 3 as x tends to 1. This is written as;

x3  1
lim 3
x 1 x 1

Given the above example the idea of limit should be closed intuitively.
What we are looking at is what happens to the value of the function when
the independent variable x approaches a particular value.

We can make a formal statement like this

Suppose y = f(x)

Defined on the interval (a, b)

lim f  x   L
x v

Now x can approach v either from the right hand side (i.e. x takes
values which are greater than g) or from the left hand side (i.e. x tends to a
taking values which are less than v) when x approaches v from the left hand
side we say L is the left hand limit of f(x)

lim f  x   L
x v 

V means x approaches V from values which are smaller them V.

Similarly

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 Limit and Continuity

lim f  x   L
x V 

This is the right hand side limit of f(x)

The limit of a function exists if R.H.S limit = L.H.S limit

x
Look at the function f  x  
x

x f(x)

1 1

5 1

2.5 1

25 1

In this case we make a table like in the previous example what do we

find? As x approaches o from the left hand side the value of the function
gets closer and closes to -1. On the other hand when x approaches 0 from
the right hand side f(x) approaches 1. In this case the right hand limit and
the left hand limit are not equal. The limit of a function exists if and only if
both the L.H.S. limit and RHS limit exist and are equal. So we can say that
the limit of. This can be verified from the figure and table.

x
lim f  x   lim does not exist
x 0 x 0 x

Take another example

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 Limit and Continuity

1
f  x 
x

What is limit of the function when x tends to 0?

In this case when x tends to 0 from the right hand side the value of
the function increases and when x is very close to zero the value of the
function approaches . On the other hand when x approaches 0 from the left
hand side the value of the function gets closer and closes to  .

This can be observed by glancing at the figure

From the above discussion we can make a statement about the

concept of limit.

Suppose f is defined on an interval (a, b) except possibly at a point C

(a, b). Then f(x)  L if and only if f(x)  L as x  c+

Now we are in a position to give a formal definition of limit of a function.

Definition: Let f be a function defined over an interval containing a, except

possibly at a, and L be a number.

Limit of f(x) as x approaches a, is L, written as

lim f  x   L
x a

If for any  > 0, however small there exists a   0 such that

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 Limit and Continuity

f x   L  

Whenever 0 xa 

What does this formal definition of limit means?

It means that x tends to 'a'

Then limit of f(x) is L

If for every neighborhood of L that can be chosen as small, there can be

found corresponding neighborhood of a (excluding the point x=a)in the
domain of the function such that, for every value of x in the a-neighborhood,
its image lies in the chosen L-neighborhood.

This can be explained with the following example.

Let f  x   x2

Now that

lim x 2  4
x 2

Select a small neighbor of L (Here L=4) so the neighborhood of 4

(4-, 4+). Now we construct a neighborhood of 2, say 2   , 2    such that

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 Limit and Continuity

the two neighborhoods define a rectangle (see the diagram). With two of its
converse lying on the curve. It can be seen that for every value of x lying in
the neighborhood of 2, the corresponding value of the f(x) lies in the
neighborhood of 4. Thus 4 fulfills the definition of limit.

Example:

f  x   x2 x2

lim f x   4
x2

We can make x closes and closes to 2 from both sides (left hand side
and write hand side)

x  2  x  1.8, 1.9, 1.92, 1.98, 1.99..

x  2  x  1.5, 2.25, 2.10, 2.05, 2.005..

As we put this values in the function the value of function gets closes
used closes to 4.

This is happen even thought the function may not be defined for when x= 2.

In order to prove that the limit of the function is 4. We use the formal
definition of limit.

We must show that given any >0 we can find   0 such that

x2  4  when 0 x2 

Choose   1 so that 0  x  2 1

 1   x  2   1

 1 x  3 x2

Thus x2  4   x  2  x  2  x2 x2  x2

So  x  2  5

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Take  as 1 or /5 whichever is smaller. Then we have x 2  4   whenever

0  x  2   and required result L is proved.

Theorems of limit.

If lim f  x   h1 and lim g  x   h2

x a xa

(i) lim  f  x   g  x   h1  h2

x a

(ii) lim  f  x   g  x   h1  h2

x a

(iii) lim  f  x  g  x   h1 h2

x a

 f  x  h
(iv) lim   1 , provided L2 is not 0 (L2  0)
xa
 g  
x  h2

Limit of a constant is constant itself.

Suppose f  x   a where a is constant

Them lim f x   a
x B

Theorem:

For any polynomial

f x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ......  a x n

And for any real number a

lim f  x   a0  a1 a  a2 a 2  ......an a n
x 0

 f a

This means that limit of a polynomial f(x) at x=a is the same as the
value of the polynomial at x= a. In the case of polynomial, to find out the
limit at x = a we just are required to evaluate the polynomial at x = a.

3. Limit of a Rational function:

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 Limit and Continuity

A rational function is the ratio of two polynomials. The above mentioned

theorem can be used for computing the limits of rational functions.

Example

x4  4
f  x 
x3

x4  4 lim  x 4  4 
lim f  x   lim  x 2
x 2 x 2 x3 lim  x  3
x 2

20
   20
1

We can say if

h x 
f x  
g x 

Where h(x) and g(x) are polynomial

For any real number a

(i) if g  a   0 the lim f  x   f  a 

x a

(ii) if g  a   0 but h  a   0, lim f  x  does not exist

x a

There is a useful principle for polynomial which in simple words states that.

‘The end behavior of a polynomial matches the end behavior of its highest
degree term'.

lim  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  .......an x n   lim an x n

x  x 

lim
x 
a
0  a1 x  a2 x 2  .......  an x n   lim an x n
x 

This can be seen by looking at the following:

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 Limit and Continuity

f  x    a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  .......an x n 

Factoring one the highest power of x from the polynomial

a a a 
f  x   x n  0n  n11  n22  ......  an 
x x x 

Now as x approach  or  all the terms with positive powers of x in

the denominator tend to '0'. So, the above mentioned principles are valid.

4. Asymptote

Definition: a line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of the

function if f(x)  +  or f(x)   as x approaches a from left or right.

(a) (b)

1 1
Lim   Lim  
x a xa x a  xa

In the case of the above two functions the vertical asymptote is the
line x =a

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 Limit and Continuity

3x  1
Look at the function y 
x

f x   3 
1
x
lim f x   3 lim f x   3
x  x  

As x tends to   the graph of the function y = f(x) gets closer and

closer to line y = 3. Same thing happens when the x tends to. In either
case we call the line y = L, a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the
function f.

We can define:

A line y= L is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the

function f if

lim f x   L or lim f x   L
x  x  

Very often when the limit of the function does not exist we may be
interest in finding how the function f(x) behavior when x tends to () and x
tends to 0 (zero) or x tends to a value N.

Vertical asymptote is a vertical line x = c to which the graph of the

function gets closer and closer as x approaches c from the write or from the
left. We are able to get the vertical asymptote by setting the denominator
of the function equal to zero.
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 Limit and Continuity

Horizontal Asymptote: It is a line y= d to which the graph gets closer

and closer as x+ or x-

Example:
 4 x  5
 3x  2 
Vertical Asymptote

2
3x  2  0  x 
3

2 2
This only vertical asymptote is x  . As x approaches from the left or
3 3
2
right f(x) approach the vertical line x  ,
3

4x  5
But, the Horizontal asymptote lim
x  3x  2

45
lim x  4
x 
3 2 3
x

y  4 is the horizontal Asymptote.

3

Example:
2 x  3
x2  2x  3

Vertical Asymptote

x2  2 x  3  0

 x  3  x  1  0

Hence the denominator is zero when x=3 or x=-1

So these lines are vertical asymptotes. The numerator is not zero

when x = 3 or x = -1

Horizontal Asymptote

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2x  3 2 3
lim  lim x
x 
x  2x  3
2 x 
1 2  3
x x

2
=  2
1

Note x   x 2 when x<0

2x  3
lim
x 
x2  2 x  3

23x
 lim
x 
 x 2
 2x   3 x2

23x 20
 lim   2
x   1  2 x  3 x2  1 0  0

Hence y = 2 and y = 2 are horizontal asymptote.

5. Continuity

A function can be regarded as continuous if its graph can be drawn

without lifting pencil from the paper.

The graph is unbroken

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 Limit and Continuity

In the first figure when x takes a value slightly greater them a the
value of the f(x) jumps up from y1 to y2. The function is not continuous at
x= a if the function is continuous at a point x, there will be small changes in
the value of f(x) for small change in the value of x.

Definition :

A function f is continuous at x = a provided the following conditions

are satisfied

(i) f (a) is defined

(ii) lim f  x  exists.

x a

(iii) lim f  x   f  a 
x a

If one or more of these conditions fail to hold then the functions is

discontinuous at x= a

The function drawn in Fig (1a) is discontinuous at x=a. The limit does not
exist.

In Fig. 2a the function is not defined at x= a. In Fig 2b the f(a) = d

the lim f  x   f  a  . In this figure this function is defined at x= a. The limit
xa

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 Limit and Continuity

of the function at x= a exists but f(x) is not equal to the value of the
function at x = a.

Actually the third condition implies the first two conditions, since it
means, lim f  x   f  a  . This actually means limit exists and the function is
xa

defined at x=a which is f(a) = d

Example:

x2  4
at x  2
x2

F(2) is not defined

lim f  x  exists. lim f  x   2

x 2 x2

the f(x) is not continuous at x = a

 x2  4 
 x  2
f  x   x  2 
 3 x  2 


The function is discontinuous at x = 

Since lim f  x   f  2   3
x 2

 x2  4
 x2
f  x   x  2
 4 x2


F(2) = 4 which is the same as lim f x   4

x 2

Notes :

(1) If a function is continuous at each number in an open interval (a, b)

then we say f is continuous on (a, b).

If the function is continuous on (-, ) we can say that f is continuous

everywhere.

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 Limit and Continuity

The general method of showing that the function is continuous

everywhere is to show that it is continuous at an arbitrary real
number.

While discussing limit of a polynomial we saw that

lim f  x   f  a 
x a

Thus we can make the following statement.

Polynomials are continuous everywhere.

All rational functions are continuous on any interval not containing

zero of the denominator. In other words rational function is
continuous on the interval on which it is defined.

Now we shall state briefly certain theorems of continuous function

which will be useful while finding out whether the function is
continuous or not.

Theorem : If the functions f and g are continuous at c, then,

(i) f + g is continuous at c

(i) f  g is continuous at c

(ii) fg is continuous at c

(iv) f/g is continuous at g if g(c)  0

It will have a discontinuity at c if g(c) = 0

x2  9
Example :
x2  5x  6

The function is a rational function. The denominator becomes o when

x = 2 and at x = 3

If implies that g (c) = g(2) and g (3) = 0. So the function is

discontinuous at x= 2 and x=3.

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Theorem: If lim g  x   L and if t he function f is continuous at L then

x c

lim f  g  x   f  h  .
xh

That is

 
lim f  g  x    f lim g  x  
x c
 x  c 

Example: f(x) = 5- x2 is continuous everywhere. It is continuous at 3.

lim  5  x 2   5  9   4
x 3

f (3)   4

lim f  x   f  3
x 3

Now f  x   5  x 2 is also continuous at 3

lim 5  x 2  lim  5  x 2   4  4
x 3 x 3

The absolute values of a continuous function is continuous.

Properties of a function defined over closed interval [a, b]. A function

f(x) is said to be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if the following
conditions are satisfied.

(a) F(x) is continuous an (a, b)

(b) F (x) is continuous from right to a that is lim f  x   f  a 

x a

(c) F(x) is continuous from left at b that is lim f  x   f  b 

x b

Example: f  x   4  x2

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The natural domain is the closed interval [-2, 2] we will have to find
out the f continuity on open interval (-2, 2) and at two end points -2 and 2.
Take an arbitrary point C

lim f  x   lim  4  x 2   4  c2  f  c 
x c x c

Which proves f(x) is continuous on (2, 2)

The function f(x) is also continuous an end points.

lim f  x   lim  4  x 2   4  4  0  f  2
x  2 x  2

lim  lim  4  x 2   0  f  2 
x   2 x   2

Then f(x) is continuous on closed interval [-2, 2]

6. Intermediate value Theorem:

If f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and k is any number

between f(a) and f(b) (inclusive of end points) then there is at least are
number x in the interval [a, b] such
that

F(x) = k.

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The theorem becomes obvious if we draw the graph of the function.

From the above we can draw another theorem.

If f is continuous on [a,b] and if f(a) and f(b) are non-zero and have
opposite signs, then there is at least one solution of the equation in the
interval (a, b)

f(x) = 0

Example:

f(x) = x3  x  1

When x=1 f(1) = 1

When x=2 f(2) = 5

So the graph of the function intersect the x axis at least once.

We can make the approximation better by reducing the size of interval [1,2]

Example :

(a) X3 – 4x+1 = 0; [1, 2]

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(b) X3 + x2 -2x = 1; [1,1]

A function f(x) is said to have a removable discontinuity at x = 0 if

lim f  x  exist.
xc

But f(x) is not continuous at x=c either because (i) or (ii)

(i) f(x) is not defined at c

(ii) f(c) differ from lim f  x 

xc

Show that the following functions have removable discontinuities at x = 1

x2 1
(i) f  x 
x 1

1 x  1

(ii) g  x   0 x  1
1, x  1


Solution:

(1) The lim f  x   lim

 x  1  x  1  2
x 1 x 1 x 1

But f(1) is not defined.

So the function is discontinuous at f(x) = 1

Now if we redefine the function

 x2  1
 for x  1
f  x    x 1
 2 if x  1


Then the function becomes continuous.

(i) Similarly in the case of g(x) the limit when x  1 is 1.

So if g(x) = 1 when x = 1

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The function becomes continuous.

Note: In case the limit does not exist at C then the discontinuity is
irremovable.

7. References:

K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis, Pearson

Educational Asia, Delhi, 2002.

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