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Francis A. Kulacki
Editor-in-Chief
Sumanta Acharya · Yaroslav Chudnovsky
Renato Machado Cotta · Ram Devireddy
Vijay K. Dhir · M. Pinar Mengüç
Javad Mostaghimi · Kambiz Vafai Section Editors

Handbook of
Thermal
Science and
Engineering
Handbook of Thermal Science and
Engineering
Francis A. Kulacki
Editor-in-Chief

Sumanta Acharya • Yaroslav Chudnovsky

Renato Machado Cotta • Ram Devireddy
Vijay K. Dhir • M. Pinar Mengüç
Javad Mostaghimi • Kambiz Vafai
Section Editors

Handbook of Thermal
Science and Engineering

With 1375 Figures and 184 Tables

Editor-in-Chief
Francis A. Kulacki
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN, USA
Section Editors
Sumanta Acharya Yaroslav Chudnovsky
Armour College of Engineering Gas Technology Institute
Department of Mechanical, Materials and Des Plaines, IL, USA
Aerospace Engineering
Illinois Institute of Technology
Chicago, IL, USA

Renato Machado Cotta Ram Devireddy

Universidade Federal do Rio de Department of Mechanical Engineering
Janeiro – UFRJ Louisiana State University
Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Vijay K. Dhir M. Pinar Mengüç
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Cekmeköy Campus
University of California Los Angeles Özyegin University
Los Angeles, CA, USA Çekmeköy - Istanbul, Turkey
Javad Mostaghimi Kambiz Vafai
Centre for Advanced Coating Technologies Department of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Mechanical and Industrial University of California
Engineering Riverside, CA, USA
Faculty of Applied Science + Engineering
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada

ISBN 978-3-319-26694-7 ISBN 978-3-319-26695-4 (eBook)

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2018935388

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In memoriam: Professor Emil Pfender
We dedicate the section on plasma heat transfer to the memory of
Professor Emil Pfender (1925–2016) of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, for his
outstanding and lasting contributions to the field of thermal plasma
heat transfer and materials processing by thermal plasmas.
During his lifetime, Professor Pfender spearheaded pioneering studies
on particle heat and mass transfer in thermal plasmas, anode
boundary layer, and free burning arcs including the electrode
regions, as well as nonequilibrium effects in arc plasma torches. He
studied extensively plasma synthesis of ultrafine powders, later called
“nanoparticles,” and developed processes for deposition of thin films,
e.g., diamond films, by thermal plasma technology. His extensive
research on plasma spray coating process has had applications
ranging from jet engine turbine blades and combustors to medical
hip implants.
Professor Pfender received a Diploma in Physics in 1953, followed
by Dr. Ing. in Electrical Engineering in 1959 at the Technical University
of Stuttgart. He then became Chief Assistant and Lecturer at the
Institute for Gaseous Electronics at the same university. He spent a
year (1961) as a Visiting Scientist at the Plasma Physics Branch of the
Air Force Research Laboratories, at Wright Patterson Air Force Base in
Ohio. In 1964, Professor Pfender was recruited by Professor Ernst
R.G. Eckert and joined the Department of Mechanical Engineering at
the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. There, he
established the High Temperature Laboratory (HTL), which quickly
became one of the highest regarded laboratories in the field.
Professor Pfender was the recipient of many honors and awards. In
1986, he was elected as a member of the US National Academy of
Engineering. He was a Fellow of the ASME, the recipient of the
Alexander von Humboldt Award of the German Government, the
Gold Honorary F. Krizik Medal for Merits in the Field of Technical
Sciences of the Czech Academy of Sciences, the Honorary Doctor’s
degree from the Technical University of Ilmenau, Germany, and the
Plasma Chemistry Award from the International Union for Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). In 1980, he co-founded the Journal of
Plasma Processing and Plasma Chemistry and remained its
co-Editor-in-Chief until 2005.
On a personal level, it was an honor to have been his student
(1976–1982) and to have learned from his vast knowledge. He was
generous, courteous, amiable, and a true gentleman.
Preface

Thermal engineering and science touches almost all branches of modern industrial
activity, from the production and refining of mineral resources, to processing and
production of basic food stuffs, to manufacturing processes, to energy conversion
devices and systems, to environmental engineering, and to biological engineering. In
all of these fields, technologies involve the transport of thermal energy, or heat, and
in many cases mass transfer. I cannot think of an area of human activity that does not
involve either the removal of thermal energy or the addition of thermal energy to an
engineering process or manufactured product. The applied thermal sciences and
engineering now apply to processes and systems from the near-atomic scale to the
familiar macro-scales of industry and the environment. The topics in this handbook
have been selected with this view in mind, and the goal has been to include topics
that hitherto have not appeared in similar handbooks on heat and mass transfer in
the past.
The theory of heat on the macroscale is now well developed. This development
began haltingly in the sixteenth century and blossomed in the nineteenth century
with the expansion of process industries and the perfection of energy conversion
devices and systems. The design of familiar thermal systems and equipment – heat
exchangers, heat-treating equipment, and gas turbines for power and propulsion,
refrigeration systems, conventional electronic cooling equipment, and energy con-
version devices – all rest on this foundation. Nowadays, we have highly developed
theoretical and empirical foundations for describing and reducing to practice knowl-
edge of the basic modes of thermal energy transport: diffusion or heat conduction;
convection; thermal radiation; and phase-change processes, principally boiling and
condensation. Various levels of analysis and empiricism pertain to each, and some
subfields remain resistant to complete mathematical description. We continue to rely
on ad hoc closure models for predicting turbulent convective heat transfer coeffi-
cients, and heat at the nano-scale is a subject of fundamental investigation on the
dominant transport mechanisms in various applications. But what is different today
is the co-mingling of our understanding of the fundamental modes of heat and mass
transfer and thermal physics with knowledge from widely different disciplines. In a
real sense, the necessity of determining thermal effects across a range of processes
and applications has brought transdisciplinarity to the forefront of thermal engineer-
ing. The applied thermal sciences at the micro- and nanoscales have also advanced

vii
viii Preface

rapidly from their theoretical and empirical foundations established in the twentieth
century to where engineering applications – devices and manufactured products –
are an emergent reality. While thermal energy transport at the nanoscale is certainly a
focus of much applied and fundamental research today, the development of submi-
cron sized devices means that thermal engineering of a wholly different character
may well be needed, and a chapter focusing on thermal transport in micro- and
nanoscale systems is included.
The handbook is intended for researchers, practitioners, and graduate students. A
good number of chapters are focused on fundamental descriptions of all modes of
thermal energy transport, and this makes the handbook a general reference and
introduction to the field. Applications to new and developing technologies and
applied topics are also included. The section on heat transfer in biology and
biological systems elaborates the techniques and several active topical areas at the
intersection of biology and medicine with heat and mass transfer. A section on heat
transfer in plasmas provides a comprehensive picture of contemporary industrial
applications of ionized gases and their use in materials engineering.
I extend my appreciation and thanks to all of those who have contributed to this
handbook. The section editors have superbly managed an extraordinary wide range
of topics, and authors of the chapters have skillfully summarized both classical and
contemporary developments of their subjects. We hope the range of topics will serve
not only current thermal engineers and scientists but also those to come in the years
ahead.
We have dedicated the section on heat transfer in plasmas to the memory of
Dr. Emil Pfender. He was a colleague and friend to his colleagues and the many
students who studied under him at the University of Minnesota. His research and
professional contributions continue to have a major influence on the field of plasma
heat transfer.

University of Minnesota Francis A. Kulacki

Editor-in-Chief
Contents

Volume 1

Part I Heat Transfer Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Macroscopic Heat Conduction Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Leandro A. Sphaier, Jian Su, and Renato Machado Cotta

2 Analytical Methods in Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Renato Machado Cotta, Diego C. Knupp, and João N. N. Quaresma

3 Numerical Methods for Conduction-Type Phenomena . . . . . . . . . 127

Bantwal R. Baliga, Iurii Lokhmanets, and Massimo Cimmino

4 Thermophysical Properties Measurement and Identification . . . . . 179

Helcio R. B. Orlande and Olivier Fudym

5 Design of Thermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Yogesh Jaluria

6 Thermal Transport in Micro- and Nanoscale Systems . . . . . . . . . . 277

Tanmoy Maitra, Shigang Zhang, and Manish K. Tiwari

7 Constructal Theory in Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Luiz A. O. Rocha, S. Lorente, and A. Bejan

Part II Convective Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

8 Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer: Basic Equations and

Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Sumanta Acharya

9 Turbulence Effects on Convective Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Forrest E. Ames

ix
x Contents

10 Full-Coverage Effusion Cooling in External Forced Convection:

Sparse and Dense Hole Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Phil Ligrani

11 Enhancement of Convective Heat Transfer .................. 447

Raj M. Manglik

12 Electrohydrodynamically Augmented Internal Forced

Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Michal Talmor and Jamal Seyed-Yagoobi

13 Free Convection: External Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Patrick H. Oosthuizen

14 Free Convection: Cavities and Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603

Andrey V. Kuznetsov and Ivan A. Kuznetsov

15 Heat Transfer in Rotating Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647

Stefan aus der Wiesche

16 Natural Convection in Rotating Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

Peter Vadasz

17 Visualization of Convective Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759

Pradipta K. Panigrahi and K. Muralidhar

Volume 2

Part III Single-Phase Heat Transfer in Porous and Particulate

Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805

18 Applications of Flow-Induced Vibration in Porous Media . . . . . . . 807

Khalil Khanafer, Mohamed Gaith, and Abdalla AlAmiri

19 Imaging the Mechanical Properties of Porous Biological

Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
John J. Pitre Jr. and Joseph L. Bull

20 Nanoparticles and Metal Foam in Thermal Control and Storage

by Phase Change Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Bernardo Buonomo, Davide Ercole, Oronzio Manca, and
Sergio Nardini

21 Modeling of Heat and Moisture Transfer in Porous Textile

Medium Subject to External Wind: Improving Clothing
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Nesreen Ghaddar and Kamel Ghali
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Contents xi

Part IV Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer .................... 917

22 A Prelude to the Fundamentals and Applications of Radiation

Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
M. Pinar Mengüç
23 Radiative Transfer Equation and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Junming M. Zhao and Linhua H. Liu
24 Near-Field Thermal Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
Mathieu Francoeur
25 Design of Optical and Radiative Properties of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . 1023
Bo Zhao and Zhuomin M. Zhang
26 Radiative Properties of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Vladimir P. Solovjov, Brent W. Webb, and Frederic Andre
27 Radiative Properties of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
Rodolphe Vaillon
28 Radiative Transfer in Combustion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
Pedro J. Coelho
29 Monte Carlo Methods for Radiative Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
Hakan Ertürk and John R. Howell
30 Inverse Problems in Radiative Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243
Kyle J. Daun

Part V Heat Transfer Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293

31 Introduction and Classification of Heat Transfer Equipment . . . . 1295

Yaroslav Chudnovsky and Dusan P. Sekulic
32 Heat Exchanger Fundamentals: Analysis and Theory
of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315
Ahmad Fakheri
33 Heat Transfer Media and Their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
Igor L. Pioro, Mohammed Mahdi, and Roman Popov
34 Single-Phase Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
Sunil S. Mehendale
35 Two-Phase Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1473
Vladimir V. Kuznetsov
36 Compact Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1501
Dusan P. Sekulic
xii Contents

37 Evaporative Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1521

Takahiko Miyazaki
38 Process Intensification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1535
Anna Lee Tonkovich and Eric Daymo
39 Energy Efficiency and Advanced Heat Recovery Technologies . . . 1593
Helen Skop and Yaroslav Chudnovsky
40 Heat Exchangers Fouling, Cleaning, and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . 1609
Thomas Lestina

Volume 3

Part VI Heat Transfer with Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1643

41 Nucleate Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645

Vijay K. Dhir
42 Transition and Film Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695
S. Mostafa Ghiaasiaan
43 Boiling on Enhanced Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
Dion S. Antao, Yangying Zhu, and Evelyn N. Wang
44 Mixture Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
Mark A. Kedzierski
45 Boiling in Reagent and Polymeric Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
Raj M. Manglik
46 Fundamental Equations for Two-Phase Flow in Tubes . . . . . . . . . 1849
Masahiro Kawaji
47 Flow Boiling in Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907
Yang Liu and Nam Dinh
48 Boiling and Two-Phase Flow in Narrow Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1951
Satish G. Kandlikar
49 Single- and Multiphase Flow for Electronic Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . 1973
Yogendra Joshi and Zhimin Wan
50 Film and Dropwise Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2031
John W. Rose
51 Internal Annular Flow Condensation and Flow Boiling:
Context, Results, and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075
Amitabh Narain, Hrishikesh Prasad Ranga Prasad, and Aliihsan Koca
Contents xiii

52 Heat Pipes and Thermosyphons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2163

Amir Faghri
53 Phase Change Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2213
Navin Kumar and Debjyoti Banerjee

Volume 4

Part VII Heat Transfer in Biology and Biological Systems . . . . . . . 2277

54 Thermal Properties of Porcine and Human Biological Systems . . . 2279

Shaunak Phatak, Harishankar Natesan, Jeunghwan Choi,
Robert Sweet, and John Bischof
55 Microsensors for Determination of Thermal Conductivity of
Biomaterials and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2305
Xin M. Liang, Praveen K. Sekar, and Dayong Gao
56 Heat Transfer In Vivo: Phenomena and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2333
Alexander I. Zhmakin
57 Heat and Mass Transfer Processes in the Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2381
Arunn Narasimhan
58 Heat and Mass Transfer Models and Measurements for
Low-Temperature Storage of Biological Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2417
Shahensha M. Shaik and Ram Devireddy
59 Gold Nanoparticle-Based Laser Photothermal Therapy . . . . . . . . 2455
Navid Manuchehrabadi and Liang Zhu
60 Thermal Considerations with Tissue Electroporation . . . . . . . . . . 2489
Timothy J. O’Brien, Christopher B. Arena, and Rafael V. Davalos

Part VIII Heat Transfer in Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2521

61 Heat Transfer in DC and RF Plasma Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2523

Javad Mostaghimi, Larry Pershin, and Subramaniam Yugeswaran
62 Radiative Plasma Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2599
Alain Gleizes
63 Heat Transfer in Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2657
Anthony B. Murphy and John J. Lowke
64 Heat Transfer in Plasma Arc Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2729
Valerian Nemchinsky
xiv Contents

65 Synthesis of Nanosize Particles in Thermal Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . 2791

Yasunori Tanaka
66 Plasma Waste Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2829
Milan Hrabovsky and Izak Jacobus van der Walt
67 Plasma-Particle Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2885
Pierre Proulx
68 Heat Transfer in Suspension Plasma Spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2923
Mehdi Jadidi, Armelle Vardelle, Ali Dolatabadi, and Christian Moreau
69 Droplet Impact and Solidification in Plasma Spraying . . . . . . . . . 2967
Javad Mostaghimi and Sanjeev Chandra
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3009
About the Editor

Dr. Francis A. Kulacki is Professor of Mechanical

Engineering at the University of Minnesota. He received
his education in mechanical engineering at the Illinois
Institute of Technology and the University of Minne-
sota. His research and scholarly interests include
coupled heat and mass transfer in porous media,
two-phase flow in micro-channels and micro-gaps, boil-
ing of dilute emulsions, natural convection heat transfer,
heat transfer in metal foams, hybrid renewable energy
systems, thermal energy storage technology, energy pol-
icy, and management of technology. He is widely rec-
ognized for his development of fundamental knowledge
of the natural convection in heat-generating fluids, and a
wide range of fundamental experiments on convection
in saturated porous media. His advisees include 20, 47
master’s degree students, and 14 undergraduate research
scholars. He is Editor of the SpringerBriefs in Thermal
Engineering and Applied Science, and the Springer
Mechanical Engineering Series.
His administrative work includes appointments as
department Chair at the University of Delaware, Dean
of engineering at the Colorado State University, and
Dean of the Institute of Technology (now the College
of Science and Engineering) at the University of Min-
nesota. In each of these positions, he was instrumental in
initiating and expanding computer-aided engineering
and technology-based instructional activities, increasing
research funding, and establishing new multi-
disciplinary degree programs, research initiatives, cen-
ters, and specialized research facilities. He had served as
Chair of the Heat Transfer Division of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers and was member of
the ASME Board on Professional Development, Board

xv
xvi About the Editor

on Engineering Education, and Board of the Center for

Education. He chaired an ASME Task Force on Gradu-
ate Education and was a member of the ASME Vision
2030 project, which addressed the body of knowledge
for mechanical engineers in the twenty-first century. He
also chaired the Education Advisory Group of the
National Society for Professional Engineers and was a
member of the NSPE Task Force on Education and
Registration.
Dr. Kulacki has served on the advisory boards of
engineering programs at Swarthmore College, the Uni-
versity of Kentucky, the University of Maryland Balti-
more County, and Florida International University. In
1996, he was a member of the DOE Peer Review Panel
on Thermal and Hydrological Impacts of the Yucca
Mountain Repository. From 1998 to 2001, he was an
ASME Distinguished Lecturer. From 1996 to 1998, he
served as the Executive Director of the Technology-
Based Engineering Education Consortium, an initiative
of the William C. Norris Institute. In 2002, he served as
the Director of graduate studies for the MS in Manage-
ment of Technology program at Minnesota and has
lectured on energy policy and related issues in the
MOT program and at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute
for Public Affairs.
Dr. Kulacki is a Fellow of ASME and the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. He has
received the ASME Distinguished Service Award and
the George Taylor Distinguished Service Award of the
Institute of Technology at the University of Minnesota.
In 2015, he received the ASME’s Heat Transfer Memo-
rial Award. In 2017, he received ASME’s E. F. Church
Award, which recognized his scholarly and administra-
tive achievements in engineering education.
Section Editors

Sumanta Acharya received his Ph.D. from the Univer-

sity of Minnesota and his Bachelor’s degree from the
Indian Institute of Technology in Mechanical Engineer-
ing. He is currently Professor and Department Chair of
Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering at
the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago. From
2010 to 2014, he served as the Program Director of
the Thermal Transport Program in the Directorate of
Engineering at the National Science Foundation (NSF).
From 2014 to 2016, he was the Ring Companies Chair
and Department Chair of the Mechanical Engineering
Department at the Herff College of Engineering. His
academic career prior to 2014 was at Louisiana State
University (LSU) where he was the L. R. Daniel Pro-
fessor and the Fritz & Francis Blumer Professor in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering. He was the
Founding Director in 2003 of the Center for Turbine
Innovation and Energy Research (TIER), which
focused on energy generation and propulsion research.
His scholarly contributions include mentoring nearly
85 postdoctoral researchers and graduate students, and
publishing nearly 200 refereed journal articles and book
chapters and over 230 refereed conference/proceedings
papers. Professor Acharya was awarded the 2015 AIAA
Thermophysics Award, the 2014 AIChE Donald
Q. Kern Award, the 75th ASME Heat Transfer Division
Medal in 2013, and the 2011 ASME Heat Transfer
Memorial Award in the Science category. He served as
the Chair of the Heat Transfer Division (HTD) at ASME
in 2016–2017 and currently serves in the HTD’s Exec-
utive Committee. He has served as the Associate Tech-
nical Editor (ATE) of the ASME Journal of Heat

xvii
xviii Section Editors

Transfer, ASME Journal of Energy Resources Technol-

ogy, and currently is the ATE of the ASME Journal of
Validation, Verification and Uncertainty Quantifica-
tion.

Yaroslav Chudnovsky is a senior member of the R&D

Staff at the Gas Technology Institute (GTI), an indepen-
dent not-for-profit R&D organization serving research,
development, and training needs of industrial and energy
markets since 1941. For over three decades, he success-
fully developed and led comprehensive R&D programs
combined with teaching in enhanced heat transfer, process
heating and cooling, power generation and energy
harvesting, waste heat recovery and energy efficiency,
wastewater reuse, advanced clean combustion, and prod-
uct quality improvement, related to cost-effective indus-
trial and commercial innovations and advanced technical
solutions. He has been working for GTI Energy Utiliza-
tion Group since 1995 and has a diversified practical
experience in thermal-fluid and energy systems, energy
efficiency, and clean environmental and industrial tech-
nologies. Prior to joining GTI Dr. Chudnovsky was a
Director of Heat and Mass Transfer Research laboratory
at Moscow Bauman Technical University. During his
professional career, he has earned an extensive record of
federal, state, and private industry funded high-risk inno-
vative research, early-stage development, pre-commercial
demonstration, cost-effective deployment, and successful
commercialization of a wide spectrum of technologies.
Dr. Chudnovsky earned a Ph.D. in Thermal Sciences
(1990), an M.S. in Cryogenic Engineering (1982), and a
B.S. in Mechanical Engineering (1980) from the Bauman
Technical University. He is an Editorial Board member of
a number of professional journals, Fellow of ASME,
Member of ASTFE, ABS, AIChE, AIAA, and AFRC,
as well as author/coauthor of over 200 professional pub-
lications including books, archival articles, conference
proceedings, technical reports, and patents.
Section Editors xix

Renato Machado Cotta received his B.Sc. in Mechan-

ical/Nuclear Engineering from the Federal University of
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1981, and the Ph.D. in
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, from the
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, in 1985. He
joined the Mechanical Engineering Department at the
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro in 1987. He has
authored 500 technical papers, 9 books, and supervised
80 Ph.D. and M.Sc. theses. Dr. Cotta is a member of the
Honorary Advisory Board of International Journal of
Heat and Mass Transfer, International Communications
in Heat and Mass Transfer, International Journal of
Thermal Sciences, International Journal of Numerical
Methods in Heat and Fluid Flow, and Computational
Thermal Sciences. He is a Regional Editor of High
Temperatures - High Pressures and Associate Editor of
the Annals of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences. He
served as President of Brazilian Association of Mechan-
ical Sciences, ABCM, 2000–2001, Member of Scien-
tific Council of the International Centre for Heat and
Mass Transfer, since 1993, Executive Committee of
ICHMT since 2006, presently Chairman of the Execu-
tive Committee of ICHMT, Congress Committee mem-
ber of the International Union of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics (IUTAM) since 2010, and Execu-
tive Committee member of the Brazilian Academy of
Sciences from 2012 to 2015. Dr. Cotta received the
ICHMT Hartnett-Irvine Award in 2009 and 2015 and
was elected member of the National Order of Scientific
Merit, Brazil, 2009. He is an elected member of the
Brazilian Academy of Sciences, 2009, National Engi-
neering Academy of Brazil, 2011, and the World Acad-
emy of Sciences, Trieste, Italy, 2012. Dr. Cotta served as
the President of the National Commission of Nuclear
Energy, CNEN/Brazil, 2015–2017, and presently is
Technical Counselor to the General Directorate for
Nuclear and Technological Development of the
Brazilian Navy.
xx Section Editors

Ram Devireddy is the DeSoto Parish Chapter Univer-

sity Alumni Professor and the Louisiana Land and
Exploration Company Endowed Chair Professor of
Mechanical Engineering at Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge. Dr. Devireddy received his Ph.D. from
the University of Minnesota, M.S. from the University
of Colorado, Boulder, and his bachelor’s degree from
the University of Madras, India, in Mechanical Engi-
neering. He is interested in a wide variety of biological
phenomena at low temperatures with emphasis on
phase-change phenomena with particular emphasis on
conservation of endangered species, rational design of
ovarian tissue cryopreservation protocols, adult stem
cell bio-preservation, tissue engineering, macro- and
micro-scale simulation of bio-membrane-cryoprotec-
tive agent interactions, and nano- and macroscale heat
transfer phenomena. Dr. Devireddy has coauthored sev-
eral book chapters, over 80 archival journal publica-
tions, and 80 conference proceedings and abstracts. The
quality of his publications has been recognized by best
paper awards from the ASME Journal of Heat Transfer,
Mid-West Thermal Analysis Forum, the Society of
Cryobiology, and the Material Research Society. He
has served as Co-chair (2008–2010) and Chair
(2010–2012) of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineering (ASME) Biotransport Committee, as well
as the Technical Program Chair for the 2013 ASME
Summer Bioengineering Conference. In 2011, he was
inducted as a Fellow of the ASME. Dr. Devireddy has
received numerous honors and awards including a
Brains (back) to Brussels Fellowship to visit Université
Catholique de Louvain, Brussels (2009), and a Japan
Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS) Fellowship to
visit the Yokohama National University, Tokyo (2016).
Dr. Devireddy is also the recipient of the Louisiana
Alumni Association Faculty Excellence Award (2013)
for outstanding teaching, research, and service.
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Section Editors xxi

Vijay K. Dhir is Distinguished Professor of Mechanical

and Aerospace Engineering and served as Dean of
UCLA’s Henry Samueli School of Engineering and
Applied Science from 2003 to 2016. He received his
Bachelor of Science degree from Punjab Engineering Col-
lege in Chandigarh, India, and his Master of Technology
degree from the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur,
India. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Ken-
tucky and joined the faculty at UCLA in 1974. In 2006, he
was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for
his work in boiling heat transfer and nuclear reactor ther-
mal hydraulics and safety. He received the 2004 Max
Jakob Memorial Award of ASME and AIChE and was
delivered the 2008 ASME Thurston Lecture. He is a
Fellow of ASME and the American Nuclear Society. In
2004, he was selected as an inductee into the University of
Kentucky’s Engineering Hall of Distinction. He has also
received the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) Heat Transfer Memorial Award in the Science
category and the Donald Q. Kern Award from the Amer-
ican Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). He is recip-
ient of the Technical Achievement Award of the Thermal
Hydraulics Division of the American Nuclear Society and
twice has received the Best Paper Award for papers
published in ASME Journal of Heat Transfer. He received
an honorary Ph.D. in Engineering from University of
Kentucky and a Lifetime Achievement Award at the
ICCES conference. He is also an honorary member of
ASME and received the 75th Anniversary Medal from
the Heat Transfer Division of ASME. He was recognized
in 2013 as Educator of the Year by the Engineering Coun-
cil. Dr. Dhir leads the Boiling Heat Transfer Laboratory at
UCLA, which conducts research on boiling including flow
boiling, micro-gravity boiling, and nuclear reactor
thermal hydraulics. More than 45 Ph.D. students and
40 M.S. students have graduated under Dhir’s supervision.
He is author or coauthor of over 350 papers published in
archival journals and proceedings of conferences.
xxii Section Editors

M. Pinar Mengüç completed his B.S. and M.S. degrees

at the Middle East Technical University in Ankara,
Turkey. He received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineer-
ing from Purdue University in 1985 and joined the
faculty at the University of Kentucky the same year.
He was promoted to the rank of Professor in 1993, and
in 2008 was named as the Engineering Alumni Associ-
ation Chair Professor. He was a Visiting Professor at the
Universita degli Studi “Federico II,” in Napoli, Italy, in
1991, and at the Massachusetts General Hospital/Har-
vard University in Boston during 1998–1999. He served
as an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Heat
Transfer and is currently the Editor-in-Chief of the
Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative
Transfer. He was the Chair of five International Sympo-
sia on Radiation Transfer, organized by the International
Center for Heat and Mass Transfer. Dr. Mengüç has
authored/coauthored more than 125 refereed journal
articles and more than 180 conference papers, book
chapters, and two books, including the Sixth Edition of
Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, with Jack Howell and
Robert Siegel, which appeared in 2016. He has five
patents and has guided more than 65 M.S. and Ph.D.
students and postdoctoral fellows. Dr. Mengüç served as
the Founding Director of the Nano-Scale Engineering
Certificate Program at the University of Kentucky. Since
early 2009, he is at Ozyegin University in Istanbul as the
Founding Director of Center for Energy, Environment,
and Economy (CEEE-EÇEM) and the Founding Head
of Mechanical Engineering Program. He is a Fellow of
ASME and ICHMT, a Senior Member of OSA, and an
elected member of the Science Academy of Turkey.

Javad Mostaghimi is the Distinguished Professor in

Plasma Engineering in the Department of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering at the University of Toronto
and the Director of Centre for Advanced Coating Tech-
nologies (CACT). He received a B.Sc. degree from
Sharif University, Iran, in 1974, and M.Sc. and Ph.D.
degrees in Mechanical Engineering from the University
of Minnesota in 1978 and 1982, respectively. Before
joining University of Toronto in 1990, he held positions
at Pratt & Whitney Canada, Longueil, Quebec, and the
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of
Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec. His main research
Section Editors xxiii

interests are the study of thermal spray coatings, and

transport phenomena and electromagnetics in thermal
plasma sources, in particular, the flow, temperature,
and electromagnetic fields within arcs and RF induc-
tively coupled plasmas. He has also done extensive
simulation of the dynamics of droplet impact and solid-
ification in thermal spray processes. He is a Fellow of
the Royal Society of Canada, ASME, ASM, CSME,
EIC, CAE, AAAS, and IUPAC. He is a recipient of the
75th Anniversary Medal of the ASME Heat Transfer
Division, 2013 Robert W. Angus Medal of the CSME,
2012 Heat Transfer Memorial Award of the ASME,
2011 Jules Stachiewicz Medal of the CSME, 2010
NSERC Brockhouse Canada Prize, and 2009 Engineer-
ing Medal in R&D from the Professional Engineers of
Ontario. He is a member of the Editorial Board of
Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing and a mem-
ber of the International Review Board of the Journal of
Thermal Spray.

Kambiz Vafai received his B.S. in Mechanical Engi-

neering from the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of
California, Berkeley. He is a Fellow of ASME, AAAS,
and WIF and Associate Fellow of AIAA. He has one of
the highest number of citations and h indices in several
of the research areas that he has worked on in both ISI
and Google Scholar metrics. He has authored over
350 journal publications, book chapters, and sympo-
sium volumes. He is currently a Distinguished Professor
at the University of California, Riverside, where he
started as the Presidential Chair in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering. While he was at the Ohio State
University, he won the Outstanding Research Awards in
the assistant, associate, and full professor categories. He
is the recipient of the ASME Classic Paper Award and
received the ASME Memorial Award for Outstanding
Contributions to and Leadership in Research on convec-
tion in porous media, convection in enclosed fluids, and
flat-shaped heat pipes. He was given the International
Society of Porous Media (InterPore) Highest Award in
recognition of outstanding and extraordinary contribu-
tions to porous media science. He is also the recipient of
the 75th Anniversary Medal of ASME Heat Transfer
Division. He holds 13 US patents associated with
xxiv Section Editors

electronic cooling and medical applications. Dr. Vafai

has worked in many technical and scientific areas
including multiphase transport, porous media, innova-
tive heat pipes, electronics cooling, innovative micro-
channels, innovative biosensors, aircraft braking
systems, innovative nano-fluid applications, biomedical
advances, polymerase chain reaction, land mine detec-
tion, innovative high heat flux, thermal/fluid flow regu-
lation and control, and discovery of a new set of fluid
flow instabilities.
Contributors

Sumanta Acharya Armour College of Engineering, Department of Mechanical,

Materials and Aerospace Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago,
IL, USA
Abdalla AlAmiri Mechanical Engineering Department, United Arab Emirates
University, Al-Ain, UAE
Forrest E. Ames Mechanical Engineering Deptartment, University of North
Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, USA
Frederic Andre Centre de Thermique et d’Energétique de Lyon, INSA de Lyon,
Villeurbanne, France
Dion S. Antao Device Research Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
Christopher B. Arena Laboratory for Therapeutic Directed Energy, Department of
Physics, Elon University, Elon, NC, USA
Bantwal R. Baliga Department of Mechanical Engineering, Heat Transfer Labo-
ratory, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
Debjyoti Banerjee Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
A. Bejan Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke
University, Durham, NC, USA
John Bischof Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, MN, USA
Joseph L. Bull Biomedical Engineering Department, Tulane University, New
Orleans, LA, USA
Bernardo Buonomo Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale e dell’Informazione,
Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Aversa (CE), Italy
Sanjeev Chandra Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Univer-
sity of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

xxv
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a putrid fish to satisfy the cravings of their hunger. While the meat
lasts, life is a long dinner. The child just able to crawl is seen with
one hand holding the end of a piece of meat, the other end of which
is held between the teeth; while the right hand wields a knife a foot
in length, with which it saws steadily, between lips and fingers, until
the mouthful is detached. How the nose escapes amputation is a
mystery I have never heard explained.
A few tents of Chipewyans were pitched along the shores of the
Athabasca River, when we descended that stream. They had long
been expecting the return of my companion, to whose arrival they
looked as the means of supplying them with percussion gun-caps,
that article having been almost exhausted among them.
Knowing the hours at which he was wont to travel they had
marked their camping-places on the wooded shores, by planting a
line of branches in the snow across the river from one side to the
other. Thus even at night it would have been impossible to pass their
tents without noticing the line of marks. The tents inside or out
always presented the same spectacle. Battered-looking dogs of all
ages surrounded the dwelling-place. In the trees or on a stage,
meat, snow-shoes, and dog sleds, lay safe from canine ravage.
Inside, some ten or twelve people congregated around a bright fire
burning in the centre. The lodge was usually large, requiring a dozen
moose skins in its construction. Quantities of moose or buffalo meat,
cut into slices, hung to dry in the upper smoke. The inevitable puppy
dog playing with a stick; the fat, greasy child pinching the puppy
dog, drinking on all fours out of a tin pan, or sawing away at a bit of
meat; and the women, old or young, cooking or nursing with a
naïveté which Rubens would have delighted in. All these made up a
Chipewyan “Interior,” such as it appeared wherever we halted in our
march, and leaving our dogs upon the river, went up into the tree-
covered shore to where the tents stood pitched.
Anxious to learn the amount of game destroyed by a good
hunter in a season, I caused one of the men to ask Chripo what he
had killed. Chripo counted for a time on his fingers, and then
informed us that since the snow fell he had killed ten wood buffalo
and twenty-five moose; in other words, about seventeen thousand
pounds of meat, during four months. But of this a large quantity
went to the Hudson’s Bay Fort, at the Forks of the Athabasca.
The night of the 4th of March found us camped in a high wood,
at a point where a “cache” of provisions had been made for
ourselves and our dogs. More than a fortnight earlier these
provisions had been sent from Fort Chipewyan, on Lake Athabasca,
and had been deposited in the “cache” to await my companion’s
arrival. A bag of fish for the dogs, a small packet of letters, and a
bag of good things for the master swung from a large tripod close to
the shore. Some of these things were very necessary, all were
welcome, and after a choice supper we turned in for the night.
At four o’clock next morning we were off. My friend led the
march, and the day was to be a long one. For four hours we held on,
and by an hour after sunrise we had reached a hut, where dwelt a
Chipewyan named Echo. The house was deserted, and if anybody
had felt inclined to ask, Where had Echo gone to? Echo was not
there to answer where. Nobody, however, felt disposed to ask the
question, but in lieu thereof dinner was being hastily got ready in
Echo’s abandoned fireplace. Dinner? Yes, our first dinner took place
usually between seven and eight o’clock a.m. Nor were appetites
ever wanting at that hour either.
Various mishaps, of broken snow-shoe and broken-down dog,
had retarded my progress on this morning, and by the time the
leading train had reached Echo’s I was far behind. One of my dogs
had totally given out, not Cerf-vola, but the Ile à la Crosse dog
“Major.” Poor brute! he had suddenly lain down, and refused to
move. He was a willing, good hauler, generally barking vociferously
whenever any impediment in front detained the trains. I saw at once
it was useless to coerce him after his first break-down, so there was
nothing for it but to take him from the harness and hurry on with
the other three dogs as best I could. Of the old train which had
shared my fortunes ever since that now distant day in the storm, on
the Red River steamboat, two yet remained to me.
Pony had succumbed at the Rivière la Loche, and had been left
behind at that station, to revel in an abundance of white fish. The
last sight I got of him was suggestive of his character. He was
careering wildly across the river with a huge stolen white fish in his
mouth, pursued by two men and half-a-dozen dogs, vainly
attempting to recapture the purloined property. Another dog, named
“Sans Pareil,” had taken his place, and thus far we had “marched on
into the bowels of the land without impediment.”
From the day after my departure from Ile à la Crosse I had
regularly used snow-shoes, and now I seldom sought the respite of
the sled, but trudged along behind the dogs. I well knew that it was
only by sparing my dogs thus that I could hope to carry them the
immense distance I purposed to travel; and I was also aware that a
time might come when, in the many vicissitudes of snow travel, I
would be unable to walk, and have to depend altogether on my train
for means of movement. So, as day by day the snow-shoe became
easier, I had tramped along, until now, on this 5th of March, I could
look back at nigh three hundred miles of steady walking.
Our meal at Echo’s over we set out again. Another four hours
passed without a halt, and another sixteen or seventeen miles lay
behind us. Then came the second dinner—cakes, tea, and sweet
pemmican; and away we went once more upon the river. The day
was cold, but fine; the dogs trotted well, and the pace was faster
than before. Two Indians had started ahead to hurry on to a spot,
indicated by my companion, where they were to make ready the
camp, and await our arrival.
Night fell, and found us still upon the river. A bright moon
silvered the snow; we pushed along, but the dogs were now tired,
all, save my train, which having only blankets, guns, and a few
articles to carry, went still as gamely as ever. At sun-down our
baggage sleds were far to the rear. My companion driving a well-
loaded sled led the way, while I kept close behind him.
 For four hours after dark we held steadily on; the night was still,
but very cold; the moon showed us the track; dogs and men seemed
to go forward from the mere impulse of progression. I had been
tired hours before, and had got over it; not half-tired, but regularly
weary; and yet somehow or other the feeling of weariness had
passed away, and one stepped forward upon the snow-shoe by a
mechanical effort that seemed destitute of sense or feeling.
At last we left the river, and ascended a steep bank to the left,
passing into the shadow of gigantic pines. Between their giant
trunks the moonlight slanted; and the snow, piled high on forest
wreck, glowed lustrous in the fretted light. A couple of miles more
brought us suddenly to the welcome glare of firelight, and at ten
o’clock at night we reached the blazing camp. Eighteen hours earlier
we had started for the day’s march, and only during two hours had
we halted on the road. We had, in fact, marched steadily during
sixteen hours, twelve of which had been at rapid pace. The distance
run that day is unmeasured, and is likely to remain so for many a
day; but at the most moderate estimate it would not have been less
than fifty-six miles. It was the longest day’s march I ever made, and
I had cause long to remember it, for on arising at daybreak next
morning I was stiff with Mal de Raquette.
In the North, Mal de Raquette or no Mal de Raquette, one must
march; sick or sore, or blistered, the traveller must frequently still
push on. Where all is a wilderness, progression frequently means
preservation; and delay is tantamount to death.
In our case, however, no such necessity existed; but as we were
only some twenty-five miles distant from the great central
distributing point of the Northern Fur Trade, it was advisable to
reach it without delay. Once again we set out: debouching from the
forest we entered a large marsh. Soon a lake, with low-lying shores,
spread before us. Another marsh, another frozen river, and at last, a
vast lake opened out upon our gaze. Islands, rocky, and clothed with
pine-trees, rose from the snowy surface. To the east, nothing but a
vast expanse of ice-covered sea, with a blue, cold sky-line; to the
north, a shore of rocks and hills, wind-swept, and part covered with
dwarf firs, and on the rising shore, the clustered buildings of a large
fort, with a red flag flying above them in the cold north blast.
The “lake” was Athabasca, the “clustered buildings” Fort
Chipewyan, and the Flag—well; we all know it; but it is only when
the wanderer’s eye meets it in some lone spot like this that he turns
to it, as the emblem of a Home which distance has shrined deeper in
his heart.
 CHAPTER XIII.
Lake Athabasca.—Northern Lights.—Chipewyan.—The real
Workers of the World.

Athabasca, or more correctly “Arabascow,” “The Meeting-place of

many Waters,” is a large lake. At this fort of Chipewyan we stand
near its western end. Two hundred miles away to the east, its lonely
waters still lave against the granite rocks.
Whatever may be the work to which he turns hand or brain, an
Indian seldom errs. If he names a lake or fashions a piece of bark to
sail its waters, both will fit the work for which they were intended.
“The meeting-place of many waters” tells the story of Athabasca.
In its bosom many rivers unite their currents; and from its north-
western rim pours the Slave River, the true Mackenzie. Its first
English discoverer called it the “Lake of the Hills;” a more
appropriate title would have been “The Lake of the Winds,” for fierce
and wild the storms sweep over its waves.
Over the Lake Athabasca the Northern Lights hold their highest
revels. They flash, and dance, and stream, and intermingle, and
wave together their many colours like the shapes and hues of a
kaleidoscope. Sometimes the long columns of light seem to rest
upon the silent, frozen shores, stretching out their rose-tipped tops
to touch the zenith; again the lines of light traverse the sky from
east to west as a hand might sweep the chords of some vast harp,
and from its touch would flow light instead of music. So quickly run
the colours along these shafts, that the ear listens instinctively for
sound in the deep stillness of the frozen solitude; but sound I have
never heard. Many a time I have listened breathless to catch the
faintest whisper of these wondrous lightnings; they were mute as
the waste that lay around me.
Figures convey but a poor idea of cold, yet they are the only
means we have, and by a comparison of figures some persons, at
least, will understand the cold of an Athabascan winter. The citadel
of Quebec has the reputation of being a cold winter residence; its
mean temperature for the month of January is 11° 7´ Fahr. The
mean temperature of the month of January, 1844, at Fort
Chipewyan, was 22° 74´, or nearly 30° colder, and during the
preceding month of December the wind blew with a total pressure of
one thousand one hundred and sixty pounds to the square foot.
It is perhaps needless to say more about the rigour of an
Athabascan winter.
As it is the “meeting-place of many waters” so also is it the
meeting-place of many systems. Silurian and Devonian approach it
from the west. Laurentian still holds five-sixths of its waters in the
same grasp as when what is now Athabasca lay a deep fiord along
the ancient ocean shore. The old rock caught it to his rough heart
then, and when in later ages the fickle waves which so long had
kissed his lips left him stern and lonely, he still held the clear, cold
lake to his iron bosom.
Athabasca may be said to mark also the limits of some great
divisions of the animal kingdom. The reindeer and that most curious
relic of an older time, the musk ox, come down near its north-
eastern shores, for there that bleak region known as the “Barren
Grounds” is but a few miles distant. These animals never pass to the
southern end of the lake; the Cariboo, or reindeer of the woods,
being a distinct species from that which inhabits the treeless waste.
The wood buffalo and the moose are yet numerous on the north-
west and south-west shores: but of these things we shall have more
to say anon.
All through the summer, from early May to mid-October, the
shores of the lake swarm with wild geese, and the twilight
midsummer midnight is filled with the harsh sounds of the cries of
the snow goose, or the “wavy” flying low over their favourite waters.
In early days Chipewyan was an important centre of the fur
trade, and in later times it has been made the starting-point of many
of the exploratory parties to the northern coast. From Old Fort
Chipewyan Mackenzie set forth to explore the great northern river,
and to the same place he returned when first of all men north of the
40th parallel he had crossed in the summers of 1792–93 the
continent to the Pacific Ocean.
It was from New Fort Chipewyan that Simpson set out to trace
the coast-line of the Arctic Ocean; and earlier than either, it was
from Fond du Lac, at the eastern end of Fort Athabasca, that Samuel
Hearne wandered forth to reach the Arctic Sea.
To-day it is useful to recall these stray items of adventure from
the past in which they lie buried. It has been said by some one that
a “nation cannot be saved by a calculation;” neither can she be
made by one.
If to-day we are what we are, it is because a thousand men in
bygone times did not stop to count the cost. The decline of a nation
differs from that of an individual in the first symptoms of its decay.
The heart of the nation goes first, the extremities still remain
vigorous. France, with many a gallant soul striking hard for her in
the Carnatic or in Canada, sickens in the pomp and luxury of
Versailles, and has nothing to offer to her heroes but forgetfulness,
debt, or the rack. Her colonial history was one long tissue of
ingratitude.
Biencourt, De Chastes, Varrene de la Verendrie, or Lally might
fight and toil and die, what cared the selfish heart of old France?
The order of St. Louis long denied, and 40,000 livres of debt
rewarded the discovery of the Rocky Mountains. Frenchmen gave to
France a continent. France thought little of the gift, and fate took it
back again. History sometimes repeats itself. There is a younger if
not a greater Britain waiting quietly to reap the harvest of her
mother’s mistakes.
But to Chipewyan. It is emphatically a lonely spot; in summer
the cry of the wild bird keeps time to the lapping of the wave on the
rocky shore, or the pine islands rustle in the western breeze; nothing
else moves over these 8000 square miles of crystal water. Now and
again at long intervals the beautiful canoe of a Chipewyan glides
along the bay-indented shores, or crosses some traverse in the open
lake.
When Samuel Hearne first looked upon the “Arabascow,” buffalo
were very numerous along its southern shore, to-day they are
scarce; all else rests as then in untamed desolation. At times this
west end of the lake has been the scene of strange excitements.
Men came from afar and pitched their tents awhile on these granite
shores, ere they struck deeper into the heart of the great north.
Mackenzie, Franklin, Back, Richardson, Simpson, Rae, rested here;
ere piercing further into unknown wilds, they flew the red-cross flag
o’er seas and isles upon whose shores no human foot had pressed a
sand-print.
Eight hundred thousand pounds sunk in the Arctic Sea! will
exclaim my calculating friend behind the national counter; nearly a
million gone for ever! No, head cash-keeper, you are wrong. That
million of money will bear interest higher than all your little
speculations in times not far remote, and in times lying deep in the
misty future. In hours when life and honour lie at different sides of
the “to do” or “not to do,” men will go back to times when other
men battling with nature or with man, cast their vote on the side of
honour, and by the white light thrown into the future from the great
dead Past, they will read their roads where many paths commingle.
 CHAPTER XIV
A Hudson’s Bay Fort.—It comes at last.—News from the
outside world.—Tame and wild Savages.—Lac Clair.—A
treacherous deed.—Harper.

The term “Fort” which so frequently occurs in these pages may

perhaps convey an erroneous impression to the reader’s mind. An
imposing array of rampart and bastion, a loop-holed wall or
formidable fortalice may arise before his mind’s eye as he reads the
oft-recurring word. Built generally upon the lower bank of a large
river or lake, but sometimes perched upon the loftier outer bank,
stands the Hudson’s Bay Fort. A square palisade, ten to twenty feet
high, surrounds the buildings; in the prairie region this defence is
stout and lofty, but in the wooded country it is frequently dispensed
with altogether.
Inside the stockade some half-dozen houses are grouped
together in square or oblong form. The house of the Bourgeois and
Clerks, the store wherein are kept the blankets, coloured cloths,
guns, ammunition, bright handkerchiefs, ribbons, beads, &c., the
staple commodities of the Indian trade; another store for furs and
peltries, a building from the beams of which hang myriads of skins
worth many a gold piece in the marts of far-away London city;—
martens and minks, and dark otters, fishers and black foxes, to say
nothing of bears and beavers, and a host of less valuable furs. Then
came the houses of the men.
Lounging at the gate, or on the shore in front, one sees a half-
breed in tasselated cap, or a group of Indians in blanket robes or
dirty-white capôtes; everybody is smoking; the pointed poles of a
wigwam or two rise on either side of the outer palisades, and over
all there is the tapering flag-staff. A horse is in the distant river
meadow. Around the great silent hills stand bare, or fringed with
jagged pine tops, and some few hundred yards away on either side,
a rude cross or wooden railing blown over by the tempest,
discoloured by rain or snow-drift, marks the lonely resting-place of
the dead.
Wild, desolate and remote are these isolated trading spots, yet it
is difficult to describe the feelings with which one beholds them
across some ice-bound lake, or silent river as the dog trains wind
slowly amidst the snow. Coming in from the wilderness, from the
wrack of tempest, and the bitter cold, wearied with long marches,
footsore or frozen, one looks upon the wooden house as some
palace of rest and contentment.
I doubt if it be possible to know more acute comfort, for its
measure is exactly the measure of that other extremity of discomfort
which excessive cold and hardship have carried with them. Nor does
that feeling of home and contentment lose aught for want of a
welcome at the threshold of the lonely resting-place. Nothing is held
too good for the wayfarer; the best bed and the best supper are his.
He has, perhaps, brought letters or messages from long absent
friends, or he comes with news of the outside world; but be he the
bearer of such things, or only the chance carrier of his own fortunes,
he is still a welcome visitor to the Hudson’s Bay Fort.
Three days passed away in rest, peace, and plenty. It was
nearing the time when another start would be necessary, for after
all, this Athabascan Fort was scarce a half-way house in my winter
journey. The question of departure was not of itself of consequence,
but the prospect of leaving for a long sojourn in deeper solitudes,
without one word of news from the outside world, without that
winter packet to which we had all looked so long, was something
more than a mere disappointment.
All this time we had been travelling in advance of the winter
packet, and as our track left a smooth road for whatever might
succeed us, we reckoned upon being overtaken at some point of the
journey by the faster travelling express. Such had not been the case,
and now three days had passed since our arrival without a sign of an
in-coming dog-train darkening the expanse of the frozen lake.
The morning of the 9th of March, however, brought a change.
Far away in the hazy drift and “poudre” which hung low upon the
surface of the lake, the figures of two men and one sled of dogs
became faintly visible. Was it only Antoine Tarungeau, a solitary
“Freeman” from the Quatre Fourche, going like a good Christian to
his prayers at the French Mission? Or was it the much-wished-for
packet?
It soon declared itself; the dogs were steering for the fort, and
not for the mission. Tarungeau might be an indifferent church
member, but had the whole college of cardinals been lodged at
Chipewyan they must have rejoiced that it was not Tarungeau going
to mass, and that it was the winter packet coming to the fort.
What reading we had on that Sunday afternoon! News from the
far-off busy world; letters from the far-off quiet home; tidings of
great men passed away from the earth; glad news and sorry news,
borne through months of toil 1500 miles over the winter waste.
And now came a short busy time at the fort. A redistribution of
the packet had to be made. On to the north went a train of dogs for
the distant Yukon; on to the west went a train of dogs for the head
of the Peace River. In three days more I made ready to resume my
journey up the Peace River. Once more the sleds were packed, once
more the Untiring Cerf-vola took his place in the leading harness,
and the word “march” was given.
This time I was to be alone. My good friend, whose unvarying
kindness had made an acquaintanceship of a few weeks ripen into a
friendship destined I trust to endure for many years, was no longer
to be my companion.
He came, in company with another officer, some miles of the
way, to see me off; and then at the Quatre Fourche we parted, he to
return to his lonely fort, I to follow across the wide-spreading Lake
Mamoway the long trail to the setting sun.
If the life of the wanderer possesses many moments of keen
enjoyment, so also has it its times of intense loneliness; times when
no excitement is near to raise the spirits, no toil to render thought
impossible; nothing but a dreary, hopeless prospect of labour, which
takes day after day some little portion from that realm of space lying
before him, only to cast it to augment that other dim land of
separation which lies behind him.
Honest Joe Gargery never with his blacksmith hand nailed a
sadder truth upon the wheel of time, than when he defined life to be
made up of “partings welded together.” But in civilization generally
when we part we either look forward to meeting again at some not
remote period, or we have so many varied occupations, or so many
friends around us, that if the partings are welded together, so also
are the meetings.
In the lone spaces it is different. The endless landscape, the
monotony of slow travel, the dim vision of what lies before, seen
only in the light of that other dim prospect lying behind; lakes,
rivers, plains, forests, all hushed in the savage sleep of winter;—
these things bring to the wanderer’s mind a sense of loneliness
almost as vast as the waste which lies around him.
On the evening of the 12th of March I camped alone in the
wilderness. Far as eye could reach, on every side, there lay nothing
but hard, drifted snow, and from its surface a few scant willows
raised their dry leafless saplings. True, three or four men were busy
scraping the deep snow from the lee side of some low willow
bushes, but they were alien in every thought and feeling; and we
were separated by a gulf impossible to bridge: so that I was virtually
alone. I will not say on whose side the fault lay, and possibly the
admission may only prove a congeniality of feeling between myself
and my train; but, for all that, I felt a far stronger tie of
companionship with the dogs that drew my load, than for the men
with whom I now found myself in company.
 They were by no means wild; far from it, they were eminently
tame. One of them was a scoundrel of a very low type, as some of
his actions will hereafter show. In him the wild animal had been long
since destroyed, the tame brute had taken its place.
The man who had been my servant from the Saskatchewan was
a French half-breed; strong, active, and handsome, he was still a
sulky, good-for-nothing fellow. One might as well have tried to make
friends with a fish to which one cast a worm, as with this good-
looking, good-for-nothing man. He had depth sufficient to tell a lie
which might wear the semblance of truth for a day; and cunning
enough to cheat without being caught in the actual fact. I think he
was the most impudent liar I have ever met. The motive which had
induced him to accept service in this long journey was, I believe, a
domestic one. He had run away with a young English half-breed girl,
and then ran away from her. If she had only known the object of her
affections as well as I did, she would have regarded the last feat of
activity as a far less serious evil than the first.
The third man was a Swampy Indian of the class one frequently
meets in the English-speaking settlement on Red River. Taken by
himself, he was negatively good; but placed with others worse than
himself, he was positively bad. He was, however, a fair traveller, and
used his dogs with a degree of care and attention seldom seen
amongst the half-breeds.
Small wonder, then, that with these three worthies who, though
strangers, now met upon a base of common rascality, that I should
feel myself more completely alone than if nothing but the waste had
spread around me. Full thirty days of travel must elapse ere the
mountains, that great break to which I looked so long, should raise
their snowy peaks across my pathway.
The lameness of the last day’s travel already gave ominous
symptoms of its presence. The snow was deeper than I had yet seen
it; heretofore, at the longest, the forts lay within five days’ journey
of each other; now there was one gap in which, from one post to
the next, must, at the shortest, be a twelve days’ journey.
 At dawn, on the 13th of March, we quitted our burrow in the
deep drift of the willow bushes, and held our way across what was
seemingly a shoreless sea.
The last sand ridge or island top of Lake Athabasca had sunk
beneath the horizon, and as the sun came up, flashing coldly upon
the level desert of snow, there lay around us nought but the dazzling
surface of the frozen lake.
Lac Clair, the scene of our present day’s journey, is in reality an
arm of the Athabasca. Nothing but a formation of mud and drift,
submerged at high summer water, separated it from the larger lake;
but its shores vary much from those of its neighbour, being
everywhere low and marshy, lined with scant willows and destitute
of larger timber. Of its south-western termination but little is known,
but it is said to extend in that direction from the Athabasca for fully
seventy miles into the Birch Hills. Its breadth from north to south
would be about half that distance. It is subject to violent winter
storms, accompanied by dense drift; and from the scarcity of wood
along its shores, and the absence of distinguishing landmarks, it is
much dreaded by the winter voyageur.
The prevailing north-east wind of the Lake Athabasca has in fact
the full sweep of 250 miles across Lac Clair. To lose one’s way upon
it would appear to be the first rule of travel amongst the trip-men of
Fort Chipewyan. The last adventure of this kind which had taken
place on its dim expanse had nearly a tragic end.
On the southern shore of the lake three moose had been killed.
When the tidings reached the fort, two men and two sleds of dogs
set off for the “cache;” it was safely found, the meat packed upon
the sleds, and all made ready for the return. Then came the usual
storm: dense and dark the fine snow (dry as dust under the biting
cold) swept the surface of the lake. The sun, which on one of these
“poudre” days in the North seems to exert as much influence upon
the war of cold and storm as some good bishop in the Middle Ages
was wont to exercise over the belligerents at Cressy or Poictiers,
when, as it is stated, “He withdrew to a neighbouring eminence, and
there remained during the combat;”—the sun, I say, for a time,
seemed to protest, by his presence, against the whole thing, but
then finding all protests equally disregarded by the wind and cold,
he muffled himself up in the nearest cloud and went fast asleep until
the fight was over.
For a time the men held their way across the lake; then the dogs
became bewildered; the leading driver turned to his companion, and
telling him to drive both trains, he strode on in front of his dogs to
give a “lead” in the storm.
Driving two trains of loaded dogs is hard work; the second driver
could not keep up, and the man in front deliberately increasing his
pace walked steadily away, leaving his comrade to the mercies of
cold and drift. He did this coward act with the knowledge that his
companion had only three matches in his possession, he having
induced him to give up the rest to Indians whom they had fallen in
with.
The man thus abandoned on the dreaded lake was a young
Hudson’s Bay clerk, by no means habituated to the hardships of such
a situation. But it requires little previous experience to know when
one is lost. The dogs soon began to wander, and finally headed for
where their instinct told them lay the shore. When they reached the
shore night had fallen, the wind had gone down, but still the cold
was intense; it was the close of January, the coldest time of the year,
when 80° of frost is no unusual occurrence. At such a time it was no
easy matter to light a fire; the numbed, senseless hands cannot find
strength to strike a match; and many a time had I seen a hardy
voyageur fail in his first attempts with the driest wood, and with full
daylight to assist him.
But what chance had the inexperienced hand, with scant willow
sticks for fuel and darkness to deceive him? His wood was partly
green, and one by one his three matches flashed, flickered, and died
out.
 No fire, no food—alone somewhere on Lac Clair in 40° to 50°
below zero! It was an ugly prospect. Wrapping himself in a blanket,
he got a dog at his feet and lay down. With daylight he was up, and
putting the dogs into harness set out; but he knew not the
landmarks, and he steered heedless of direction. He came at last to
a spring of open water; it was highly charged with sulphur, and
hence its resistance to the cold of winter. Though it was nauseous to
the taste he drank deeply of it; no other spring of water existed in all
the wide circle of the lake.
For four days the wretched man remained at this place; his sole
hope lay in the chance that men would come to look for him from
the fort, but ere that would come about a single night might suffice
to terminate his existence.
These bad nights are bad enough when we have all that food
and fuel can do. Men lose their fingers or their toes sometimes in
the hours of wintry daylight, but here fire there was none, and food
without fire was not to be had. The meat upon the sled had frozen
almost as solid as the stone of a quarry.
He still hoped for relief, but had he known of the conduct of the
ruffian whose desertion had thus brought him to this misery his
hope would have been a faint one.
On the day following his desertion, the deserter appeared at the
Quatre Fourche; he pretended to be astounded that his comrade had
not turned up. On the same evening he reached Fort Chipewyan: he
told a plausible story of having left his companion smoking near a
certain spot on the north side of the lake; on his return to the spot
the sleds were gone, and he at once concluded they had headed for
home. Such was his tale.
A search expedition was at once despatched, but acting under
the direction of the scoundrel Harper no trace of the lost man could
be found.
No wonder! for the scene of his desertion lay many miles away
to the south, but the villain wished to give time for cold and hunger
to do their work; not for any gratification of hatred or revenge
towards his late comrade, but simply because “dead men tell no
tales.” Upon the return of this unsuccessful expedition suspicions
were aroused; the man was besought to tell the truth, all would be
forgiven him if he now confessed where it was he had left his
companion. He still however asserted that he had left him on the
shore of the lake at a spot marked by a single willow. Again a search
party goes out, but this time under experienced leadership, and
totally disregarding the story of the deserter.
Far down, near the south shore of the lake, the quick eye of a
French half-breed caught the faint print of a snow-shoe edge on the
hard drifted surface; he followed the clue—another print—and then
another;—soon the shore was reached, and the impress of a human
form found among the willows.
Never doubting for an instant that the next sight would be the
frozen body of the man they sought for (since the fireless camping-
place showed that he was without the means of making a fire), the
searchers went along. They reached the Sulphur Spring, and there,
cold, hungry, but safe, sat the object of their search. Five days had
passed, yet he had not frozen!
If I wished to learn more of the deserter Harper, I had ample
opportunity of doing so. His villainous face formed a prominent
object at my camp fire. He was now the packet bearer to Fort
Vermilion on the Peace River; he was one of the worthies I have
already spoken of.
We crossed Lac Clair at a rapid pace, and reached at dusk the
north-western shore; of course we had lost ourselves; but the
evening was calm and clear, and the error was set right by a two-
hours’ additional march.
It was piercingly cold when, some time after dark, the shore was
gained; but wood was found by the yellow light of a full moon, and a
good camp made on a swampy island. From here our path lay
through the woods and ridges nearly due west again.
 On the fourth day after leaving Fort Chipewyan we gained a
sandy ridge covered with cypress, and saw beneath us a far-
stretching valley; beyond, in the distance to the north and west, the
blue ridges of the Cariboo Mountains closed the prospect. In the
valley a broad river lay in long sweeping curves from west to east.
We were on the banks of the Peace River.
 CHAPTER XV.
The Peace River.—Volcanos.—M. Jean Batiste St. Cyr.—Half a
loaf is better than no bread.—An oasis in the desert.—
Tecumseh and Black Hawk.

It is possible that the majority of my readers have never heard of

the Peace River. The British empire is a large one, and Britons can
get on very well without knowing much of any river, excepting
perhaps the Thames, a knowledge of which, until lately, Londoners
easily obtained by the simple process of smelling. Britannia it is well
known rules the waves, and it would be ridiculous to expect rulers to
bother themselves much about the things which they rule.
Perchance, in a score of years or so, when our lively cousins bring
forth their little Alaska Boundary question, as they have already
brought forth their Oregon, Maine, and San Juan boundary
questions, we may pay the Emperor of Morocco, or some equally
enlightened potentate, the compliment of asking him to tell us
whether the Peace River has always been a portion of the British
empire? or whether we knew the meaning of our own language
when we framed the treaty of 1825? Until then, the Peace River may
rest in the limbo of obscurity; and in any case, no matter who should
claim it, its very name must indicate that it was never considered
worth fighting about.
 THE VALLEY OF THE PEACE RIVER.

Nevertheless the Peace River is a large stream of water, and

some time or other may be worth fighting for too. Meantime we will
have something to say about it.
Like most of the streams which form the headwaters of the great
Mackenzie River system, the Peace River has its sources west of the
Chipewyan or Rocky Mountains. Its principal branch springs from a
wild region called the Stickeen, an alpine land almost wholly
unknown. There at a presumed elevation of 6000 feet above the sea
level, amidst a vast variety of mountain peaks, the infant river issues
from a lake to begin its long voyage of 2500 miles to the Arctic Sea.
This region is the birthplace of many rivers, the Yukon, the Liard,
the Peace River, and countless streams issue from this impenetrable
fastness. Situated close to the Pacific shore, at their source, these
rivers nevertheless seek far distant oceans. A huge barrier rises
between them and the nearest coast. The loftiest range of
mountains in North America here finds its culminating point; the
coast or cascade range shoots up its volcanic peaks to nigh 18,000
feet above the neighbouring waves. Mounts Cri-Hon and St. Elias
cast their crimson greeting far over the gloomy sea, and Ilyamna
and Island Corovin catch up the flames to fling them further to
Kamchatka’s fire-bound coast.
The Old World and the New clasp hands of fire across the
gloomy Northern Sea; and amidst ice and flame Asia and America
look upon each other.
Through 300 miles of mountain the Peace River takes its course,
countless creeks and rivers seek its waters; 200 miles from its
source it cleaves the main Rocky Mountain chain through a chasm
whose straight, steep cliffs frown down on the black water through
6000 feet of dizzy verge. Then it curves into the old ocean bed, of
which we have already spoken, and for 500 miles it flows in a deep,
narrow valley, from 700 to 800 feet below the level of the
surrounding plateau. Then it reaches a lower level, the banks
become of moderate elevation, the country is densely wooded, the
large river winds in serpentine bends through an alluvial valley; the
current once so strong becomes sluggish, until at last it pours itself
through a delta of low-lying drift into the Slave River, and its long
course of 1100 miles is ended.
For 900 miles only two interruptions break the even flow of its
waters. A ridge of limestone underlies the whole bed of the river at a
point some 250 miles from its mouth, causing a fall of eight feet with
a short rapid above it. The other obstacle is the mountain cañon on
the outer and lower range of the Rocky Mountains, where a portage
of twelve miles is necessary.
In its course through the main chain of the Rocky Mountains no
break occurs, the current runs silently under the immense precipice
as though it fears to awaken even by a ripple the sleeping giant at
whose feet it creeps.
 Still keeping west, we began to ascend the Peace River; we had
struck its banks more than 100 miles above its delta, by making this
direct line across Lac Clair and the intervening ridges.
Peace River does not debouch into Lake Athabasca, but as we
have said into the Slave River some twenty miles below the lake; at
high water, however, it communicates with Athabasca through the
canal-like channel of the Quatre Fourche, and when water is low in
Peace River, Athabasca repays the gift by sending back through the
same channel a portion of her surplus tide.
Since leaving Lac Clair I had endured no little misery; the effects
of that long day’s travel from the river Athabasca had from the
outset been apparent, and each day now further increased them.
The muscles of ancles and instep had become painfully inflamed, to
raise the snow-shoe from the ground was frequently no easy matter,
and at last every step was taken in pain. I could not lie upon my sled
because the ground was rough and broken, and the sled upset at
every hill side into the soft snow; besides there was the fact that the
hills were short and steep, and dogs could not easily have dragged
me to the summit. There was nothing for me but to tramp on in
spite of aching ancles.
At the camp I tried my remedies, but all were useless. From
pain-killer, moose fat, laudanum and porpoise oil I concocted a
mixture, which I feel convinced contains a vast fortune for any
enterprising professor in the next century, and which even in these
infant ages of “puffing” might still be made to realize some few
millions of dollars; but nevertheless, my poor puffed foot resisted
every attempt to reduce it to symmetry, or what was more
important, to induce it to resume work.
That sixteen-hour day had inflamed its worst passions, and it
had struck for an “eight-hour movement.” One can afford to laugh
over it all now, but then it was gloomy work enough; to make one
step off the old hidden dog-track of the early winter was to sink
instantly into the soft snow to the depth of three or four feet, and
when we camped at night on the wooded shore, our blankets were
laid in a deep furrow between lofty snow walls, which it had taken
us a full hour to scoop out. At last, after six days of weary travel
through ridge and along river reach, we drew near a house.
Where the little stream called the Red River enters from the
south the wide channel of the Peace River, there stands a small
Hudson’s Bay post. Here, on the evening of the 17th of March, we
put in for the night. At this solitary post dwelt M. Jean Batiste St.
Cyr; an old and faithful follower of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
When the powerful North-West Fur Company became merged into
the wealthier but less enterprising corporation of the Hudson’s Bay,
they left behind them in the North a race of faithful servitors—men
drawn in early life from the best rural habitans of Lower Canada—
men worthy of that old France from which they sprung, a race now
almost extinct in the north, as indeed it is almost all the world over.
What we call “the spirit of the age” is against it; faithful service to
powers of earth, or even to those of Heaven, not being included in
the catalogue of virtues taught in the big school of modern
democracy.
From one of this old class of French Canadians, M. Jean Batiste
St. Cyr was descended.
Weary limbs and aching ancles pleaded for delay at this little
post, but advancing spring, and still more the repeated assaults of
my servant and his comrades upon my stock of luxuries, urged
movement as the only means of saving some little portion of those
good things put away for me by my kind host at Chipewyan. It
seems positively ridiculous now, how one could regard the
possession of flour and sugar, of sweet cake and sweet pemmican,
as some of the most essential requisites of life. And yet so it was.
With the grocer in the neighbouring street, and the baker round the
corner, we can afford to look upon flour and sugar as very common-
place articles indeed; but if any person wishes to arrive at a correct
notion of their true value in the philosophy of life let him eliminate
them from his daily bill of fare, and restrict himself solely to moose
meat, grease, and milkless tea. For a day or two he will get on well
enough, then he will begin to ponder long upon bread, cakes, and
other kindred subjects; until day by day he learns to long for bread,
then the Bath buns of his earlier years will float in enchanting visions
before him; and like Clive at the recollection of that treasure-
chamber in the Moorshedabad Palace, he will marvel at the
moderation which left untouched a single cake upon that wondrous
counter.
It is not difficult to understand the feelings which influenced a
distant northern Missionary, when upon his return to semi-
civilization, his friends having prepared a feast to bid him welcome,
he asked them to give him bread and nothing else. He had been
without it for years, and his mind had learned to hunger for it more
than the body.
My servitor, not content with living as his master lived, was
helping the other rascals to the precious fare. English half-breed,
French ditto, and full Christian Swampy had apparently formed an
offensive and defensive alliance upon the basis of a common
rascality, Article I. of the treaty having reference to the furtive
partition of my best white sugar, flour, and Souchong tea; things
which, when they have to be “portaged” far on men’s shoulders in a
savage land, are not usually deemed fitted for savage stomachs too.
One night’s delay, and again we were on the endless trail; on
along the great silent river, between the rigid bordering pines,
amidst the diamond-shaped islands where the snow lay deep and
soft in “shnay” and “batture,” on out into the long reaches where the
wild March winds swept the river bed, and wrapt isle and shore in
clouds of drift.
On the evening of the 19th of March our party drew near a
lonely post, which, from the colour of the waters in the neighbouring
stream, bears the name of Fort Vermilion. The stormy weather had
sunk to calm; the blue sky lay over mingled forest and prairie; far off
to the north and south rose the dark outlines of the Reindeer and
Buffalo Mountains; while coming from the sunset and vanishing into
the east, the great silent river lay prone amidst the wilderness of
snow.
A gladsome sight was the little fort, with smoke curling from its
snow-laden roof, its cattle standing deep in comfortable straw-yard,
and its master at the open gateway, waiting to welcome me to his
home: pleasant to any traveller in the wilderness, but doubly so to
me, whose every step was now taken in the dull toil of unremitting
pain.
Physicians have termed that fellow-feeling which the hand
sometimes evinces for the hand, and the eye for the eye, by the
name of “sympathy.” It is unfortunate that these ebullitions of
affection which the dual members of our bodies manifest towards
each other, should always result in doubling the amount of pain and
inconvenience suffered by the remainder of the human frame. For a
day or two past my right foot had shown symptoms of sharing the
sorrows of its fellow-labourer; and however gratifying this proof of
good feeling should have been, it was nevertheless accompanied by
such an increase of torture that one could not help wishing for more
callous conduct in the presence of Mal de Raquette.
A day’s journey north of the Peace River at Fort Vermilion, a long
line of hills approaching the altitude of a mountain range stretches
from east to west. At the same distance south lies another range of
similar elevation. The northern range bears the name of the
Reindeer; the southern one that of the Buffalo Mountains. These
names nearly mark the two great divisions of the animal kingdom of
Northern America.
It is singular how closely the habits of those two widely differing
animals, the reindeer and the buffalo, approximate to each other.
Each have their treeless prairie, but seek the woods in winter; each
have their woodland species; each separate when the time comes to
bring forth their young; each mass together in their annual
migrations. Upon both the wild man preys in unending hostility.
When the long days of the Arctic summer begin to shine over the
wild region of the Barren Grounds, the reindeer set forth for the low
shores of the Northern Ocean; in the lonely wilds whose shores look
out on the Archipelago where once the ships of England’s explorers
struggled midst floe and pack, and hopeless iceberg, the herds
spend the fleeting summer season, subsisting on the short grass,
which for a few weeks changes these cold, grey shores to softer
green.
With the approach of autumn the bands turn south again, and
uniting upon the borders of the barren grounds, spend the winter in
the forests which fringe the shores of the Bear, Great Slave, and
Athabascan Lakes. Thousands are killed by the Indians on this
homeward journey; waylaid in the passes which they usually follow,
they fall easy prey to Dog-rib and Yellow-knife and Chipewyan
hunter; and in years of plenty the forts of the extreme north count
by thousands the fat sides of Cariboo, piled high in their provision
stores.
But although the hills to the north and south of Vermilion bore
the names of Reindeer and Buffalo, upon neither of these animals
did the fort depend for its subsistence. The Peace River is the land of
the moose; here this ungainly and most wary animal has made his
home, and winter and summer, hunter and trader, along the whole
length of 900 miles, between the Peace and Athabasca, live upon his
delicious venison.
Two days passed away at Fort Vermilion; outside the March wind
blew in bitter storm, and drift piled high around wall and palisade.
But within there was rest and quiet, and many an anecdote of time
long passed in the Wild North Land.
Here, at this post of Vermilion, an old veteran spent the winter
of his life; and from his memory the scenes of earlier days came
forth to interest the chance wanderer, whose footsteps had led him
to this lonely post. Few could tell the story of these solitudes better
than this veteran pensioner. He had come to these wilds while the
century was yet in its teens. He had seen Tecumseh in his glory, and
Black Hawk marshal his Sauk warriors, where now the river shores
of Illinois wave in long lines of yellow corn. He had spoken with men