Introduction to physics. Course structure.

Units, dimensions, dimensional analysis.

Basic math operations.
Measurement & uncertainty

Course: Medical and biological physics

Lecturer: Associate prof. Andrianov A.A.
Contact e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Obninsk 1
 COURSE REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENT
1. Lecture Notes (Impacting Course Score)
Students are required to prepare comprehensive lecture notes for each session, utilizing the provided
presentations and any supplementary materials (8 lectures during each term). Notes may be handwritten
or typed using software like Microsoft Word. At the end of the term, students must submit their complete
set of lecture notes via Google Classroom. Note quality will be factored into the final course grade.
2. Practical Classes (Seminars) and Home Assignments (Impacting Course Score)
Active engagement with seminars and home assignments is crucial and directly influences course grades
(8 seminars and home assignments during each term).
3. Control Tests (Impacting Course Score)
Two control tests will be administered to assess the understanding of course material. Performance on
these tests directly impacts final course grades.
4. Lab Works (Impacting Course Score)
Each student is required to complete 5 lab works throughout the each term. These lab works directly
impact the final course grade.
5. Intermediate Individual Assignments (Extra Credit Opportunity)
Intermediate individual assignments, such as simple problem sets or tests, will be offered to provide
opportunities for earning extra credit.
6. Self-Study Topics (Significant Grade Enhancement Potential)
Engaging with self-study topics, whether teacher-assigned or independently chosen, is highly
encouraged. Demonstrating initiative and depth of understanding through self-study can significantly
boost the final course grade.
7. Auto Pass Eligibility
Students demonstrating exceptional participation and engagement throughout the term may be eligible for
an "auto pass." This exempts them from the final exam and grants automatic progression to the next
2
course level.
GOOGLE CLASSROOM

Please upload
photocopies of
lecture notes or other
materials in the
dedicated pre-
prepared section. The
materials should be
in PDF or JPG format.

Class code:
5ceazs5

3
 CONTENT

1. What is physics?
2. The nature of science: models, theories and laws
3. Branches of physics
4. Course structure
5. Units, dimensions, dimensional analysisSelf-study section
6. Basic math operations: vectors, calculus
7. Measurement & uncertainty. Uncertainty treatment
Self-study section

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PHYSICS
• Physics: The “Parent” of all sciences! The most basic of
all sciences!
• Physics = The study of the behavior of and the structure of
matter and energy and of the interaction between matter
and energy.

PHYSICS & ITS RELATION TO OTHER FIELDS

• The foundation for and is connected to ALL branches of
science and engineering.
• Also useful in everyday life and in MANY professions
• Chemistry
• Life Sciences (Medicine also!!)
• Architecture
• Engineering
• Various technological fields
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PHYSICS: GENERAL DISCUSSION
• The Goal of Physics (& all of science): To
quantitatively and qualitatively describe the “world
around us”.
• Physics IS NOT merely a collection of facts &
formulas!
• Physics IS a creative activity!
• Physics Observation Explanation.
• Requires IMAGINATION!!

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THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
• Physics is an EXPERIMENTAL science!
• Experiments & Observations:
• Important first steps toward scientific theory.
• It requires imagination to tell what is important
• Theories:
• Created to explain experiments/observations, to make predictions
• Experiments & Observations:
• Will tell if predictions are accurate.
• No theory can be absolutely verified
• But a theory CAN be proven false!!!

Theory
• Quantitative (mathematical) description of experimental observations.
• Not just WHAT is observed but WHY it is observed as it is and HOW it
works the way it does.
• Tests of theories:
• Experimental observations: More experiments, more observation.
• Predictions: Made before observations & experiments. 7
MODEL, THEORY, LAW
• Model: An analogy of a physical phenomenon to something
we are familiar with.
• Theory: More detailed than a model. Puts the model into
mathematical language.
• Law: Concise & general statement about how nature
behaves. Must be verified by many, many experiments!
Only a few laws.

How does a new theory get accepted?

• Predictions agree better with data than old theory
• Explains a greater range of phenomena than old theory
• Example:
• Aristotle believed that objects would return to a state of rest once
put in motion.
• Galileo realized that an object put in motion would stay in motion
until some force stopped it. 8
SUB AREAS OF PHYSICS
Low Speed High Speed
v << c v<~c
Large size Classical Mechanics Special Relativity
>> atomic size (Newton, Hamilton, (Einstein)
Lagrange)
Small size Quantum Mechanics Relativistic Quantum
< ~ atomic size (Schrodinger, Mechanics
Heisenberg) (Dirac)

Atomic Physics Quantum Field Theory

(Feynman, Schwinger)
Molecular
Physics Quantum Electrodynamics
(Photons, Weak Nuclear Force)
Solid State
Physics Quantum Chromodynamics
(Gluons, Quarks, Leptons
Nuclear & Particle Physics Strong Nuclear Force)

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SUB AREAS OF PHYSICS

“Classical” Physics: “Classical”   Before the 20th

Century. The foundation of pure & applied macroscopic
physics & engineering!
Newton’s Laws + Boltzmann’s Statistical Mechanics (&
Thermodynamics):  Describe most of macroscopic world!
However, at high speeds (v ~ c) we need
Special Relativity: (Early 20th Century: 1905)
Also, for small sizes (atomic & smaller) we need
Quantum Mechanics: (1900 through ~ 1930)
“Classical” Mechanics: (17th & 18th Centuries) Still useful
today!

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COURSE STRUCTURE

• This course (the Physics of the 16th & 17th Centuries):

• Mechanics & Oscillations
• Molecular physics
• Next course (the Physics of the 18th & 19th & 20th Centuries):
• Electricity & magnetism
• Light & optics
• Atomic/quantum physics

+ Practice works/seminars
+ Laboratory works

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 CONTENT OF THE LECTURE COURSE (1st term)
INTRODUCTION
- Course structure. Brief history of physics
- Basic math operations. Uncertainty treatment
MECHANICS AND OSCILLATIONS
1. Kinematics
2. Dynamics. Newtonian laws
3. Momentum. Work end energy
4. Rigid body
5. Oscillations and waves
The first control point/test
MOLECULAR PHYSICS
6. Gases laws
7. Maxwell distributions
8. Thermodynamics The second control point/test

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CONTENT OF THE LECTURE COURSE (2nd term)
ELECTROMAGNETISM
1. Electrostatics. Electric Fields. Gauss's Law. Electric Potential
2. Magnetostatics. Magnetic Fields. Biot-Savart, Ampere and Lorentz forces
3. Electrodynamics. Lenz's and Faraday's Laws. Maxwell's Equations
OPTICS The first control point/test
4. Geometrical optics. Wave Theory of Light
5. Quantum optics.
ATOMIC/QUANTUM PHYSICS
6. Atomic spectra and models of the atom. Wave-particle duality
7. Wave function. Schrödinger equations.
8. Hydrogen atom. Spin. Periodic table.
The second control point/test

Exam

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Units, dimensions, dimensional
analysis

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Self-study section
SI or MKS System
• Defined in terms of standards for length, mass, and time.
• Length unit: Meter (m) (kilometer = km = 1000 m)
• Standard Meter.
Newest definition in terms of speed of light  Length of path traveled by light
in vacuum in (1/299,792,458) of a second!
• Time unit: Second (s)
• Standard Second.
Newest definition  time required for 9,192,631,770 oscillations of radiation
emitted by cesium atoms!
• Mass unit: Kilogram (kg)
• Standard Kilogram
Mass of a specific platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept at Intl Bureau of
Weights & Measures in France

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Larger & Smaller Units are
Defined from SI standards by
Powers of 10 & Greek Prefixes

These are the standard SI prefixes for

indicating powers of 10.
Many (k, c, m, μ) are familiar;
Others (Y, Z, E, h, da, a, z, y) are rarely
used.

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Typical Lengths (approx.)

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Typical Times (approx.)

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Typical Masses (approx.)

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Units, Standards, and the SI System
We will work (almost) exclusively
in the SI System,
where the basic units are
kilograms, meters, & seconds.

Other Systems of Units

CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system
Centimeter = 0.01 meter
Gram = 0.001 kilogram
British (Engineering) System
(foot-pound-second; or US Customary system)
“Everyday life” system of units only used by USA
& some third world countries. Rest of world uses
SI system.

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Basic & Derived Quantities

• Basic Quantity  Must be defined in terms of a

standard (meter, kilogram, second).

• Derived Quantity  Defined in terms of

combinations of basic quantities
• Unit of speed (v = distance/time) = meter/second = m/s
• Unit of density (ρ = m/V) = kg/m3

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Units and Equations

• In dealing with equations, remember that the

units must be the same on both sides of an
equation (otherwise, it is not an equation)!
• Example: You go 90 km/hr for 40 minutes.
• How far did you go?
• x = vt, v = 90 km/hr, t = 40 min.
• To use this equation, first convert t to hours:
t = (⅔)hr so, x = (90 km/hr)  [(⅔)hr] = 60 km
The hour unit (hr) has (literally) cancelled out in the
numerator & denominator!

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Converting Units

• As in the example, units in the numerator & the denominator can

cancel out (as in algebra)
• Illustration: Convert 80 km/hr to m/s
Conversions: 1 km = 1000 m; 1hr = 3600 s
 80 km/hr =
(80 km/hr) (1000 m/km) (1hr/3600 s)
(Cancel units!)
80 km/hr  22 m/s (22.222…m/s)
• Useful conversions:
1 m/s  3.6 km/hr; 1 km/hr  (1/3.6) m/s

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Dimensions & Dimensional Analysis

The dimension of a physical quantity specifies what sort of

quantity it is—space, time, energy, etc.
The dimensions of a quantity are the base units that make it
up; generally written using square brackets.
We find that the dimensions of all physical quantities can be
expressed as combinations of a few fundamental dimensions:
length [L], mass [M], time [T], and either electric charge [Q] or
electrical current [A].

Example: Speed = distance/time

Dimensions of speed: [L/T]
Quantities that are being added or subtracted must have the same dimensions. In addition, a quantity
calculated as the solution to a problem should have the correct dimensions.
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Dimensions & Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is the checking of dimensions of all quantities in an equation
to ensure that those which are added, subtracted, or equated have the same
dimensions.

• If the formula for a physical quantity is known

 The correct units can easily be found!
• Examples: Volume: V = L3  Volume unit = m3
Cube with L =1 mm  V = 1 mm3 = 10-9 m3
Density: ρ = m/V Density unit = kg/m3
ρ = 5.3 kg/m3 = 5.3 10-6 g/mm3
• If the units of a physical quantity are known
 The correct formula can be “guessed”!
• Examples: Velocity: Car velocity is 60 km/h
Velocity unit = km/h
 Formula: v = d/t (d = distance, t = time)
Acceleration: Car acceleration is 5 m/s2
Acceleration unit = m/s2
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 Formula: a = v/t (v = velocity, t = time)
Example: Is this the correct equation for velocity?

Check the dimensions:

Wrong!

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Basic math operations: vectors,
calculus

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Systems of coordinate, points, vectors

If two vectors have the same direction, they are parallel. If they
have the same magnitude and the same direction, they are
equal, no matter where they are located in space.
Negative of a vector defined as a vector having the same
magnitude as the original vector but the opposite direction. 28
Vector Addition and Subtraction

R  A B C

Addition
Subtraction

To construct the vector difference you can

place the two vectors head to head.

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Scalar

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Components of Vectors
We can represent any vector lying in the xy-plane as the sum of a vector parallel to the
x-axis and a vector parallel to the y-axis. They are called the component vectors of
vector and their vector sum is equal to

Vector length (module of the vector) can be defined as:

R = R x2 + R y2 + Rz2 31
Unit vector
A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1, with no units. In an x-y coordinate
system we can define a unit vector i that points in the direction of the positive x-axis and
a unit vector j that points in the direction of the positive y-axis. Then we can express the
relationship between component vectors and components.

Scalar product

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A vector product

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Derivation

The graph of a function, drawn in black, and a tangent line to

that function, drawn in red. The slope of the tangent line is
equal to the derivative of the function at the marked point.

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Integral calculus

A definite integral of a function can be represented as

the signed area of the region bounded by its graph.

35
Measurement & uncertainty.
Uncertainty treatment
• Types of uncertainties
• Confidence interval and level of confidence
• Uncertainties propagation
• Examples

36
Self-study section
Measurement & Uncertainty. Significant Figures

No measurement is exact; there is always some uncertainty due to limited

instrument accuracy and difficulty reading results.
Why are uncertainties important?
Uncertainties absolutely central to the scientific method.
Uncertainty on a measurement at least as important as measurement itself!

Consider a simple measurement of the

width of a board. Find 23.2 cm.
However, measurement is only accurate to
0.1 cm (estimated).
 Write width as (23.2  0.1) cm
 0.1 cm 
Experimental uncertainty
Percent Uncertainty:
 (0.1/23.2)  100   0.4%
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Significant Figures
Significant figures (“sig figs”):
The number of significant figures is the number of reliably known digits in a number.
It is usually possible to tell the number of significant figures by
the way the number is written:
23.21 cm has 4 significant figures
0.062 cm has 2 significant figures (initial zeroes don’t count)
80 km is ambiguous: it could have 1 or 2 significant figures. If it has 3, it should be
written 80.0 km.

Calculations Involving Several Numbers

When multiplying or dividing numbers:
The number of sig figs in the result  the same
number of sig figs as the number used in the
calculation with the fewest sig figs.
When adding or subtracting numbers:
The answer is no more accurate than the least
accurate number used in the calculation. 38
• Example:
(Not to scale!)
• Area of board, dimensions 11.3 cm  6.8 cm
• Area = (11.3)  (6.8) = 76.84 cm2
11.3 has 3 sig figs , 6.8 has 2 sig figs
 76.84 has too many sig figs!
• Proper number of sig figs in answer = 2
 Round off 76.84 & keep only 2 sig figs
 Reliable answer for area = 77 cm2

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Accuracy vs. Precision

Accuracy vs. Precision

• Accuracy is how close a measurement comes to
the accepted (true) value.
• Precision is the repeatability of the measurement
using the same instrument & getting the same
result!
It is possible to be accurate without being
precise and to be precise without being
accurate!

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Types of uncertainties

Random (Statistical) Uncertainties: result from the randomness of measuring

instruments. They can be dealt with by making repeated measurements and averaging.
One can calculate the standard deviation of the data to estimate the uncertainty.
Systematic Uncertainties: result from a flaw or limitation in the instrument or
measurement technique. Systematic uncertainties will always have the same sign. For
example, if a meter stick is too short, it will always produce results that are too long.

Random (Statistical) Uncertainties:

• Quantify random errors in measurements between repeated experiments
• Mean of measurements from large number of experiments gives correct value for measured
quantity
• Measurements often approximately gaussian-distributed
Systematic Uncertainties:
• Quantify systematic shift in measurements away from ‘true’ value
• Mean of measurements is also shifted  ‘bias’

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Examples
Statistical Errors:
• Measurements gaussian-distributed
• No systematic error (bias)
• Quantify uncertainty in measurement with standard deviation
• In case of gaussian-distributed measurements std. dev. = s in
formula
• Probability interpretation (gaussian case only): 68% of
measurements will lie within ± 1 s of mean.

1   x  x 2 
exp   
2 2
 2 
2

Statistical + Systematic Errors:

• Measurements still gaussian-distributed
• Measurements biased
• Still quantify statistical uncertainty in measurement with standard
deviation
• Probability interpretation (gaussian case only): 68% of measurements
will lie within ± 1 s of mean.
• Need to quantify systematic error (uncertainty) separately  tricky!

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Systematic errors
• How to quantify uncertainty?
• What is the ‘true’ systematic error in any given measurement?
• If we knew that we could correct for it (by addition / subtraction)
• What is the probability distribution of the systematic error?
• Often assume gaussian distributed and quantify with ssyst.
• Best practice: propagate and quote separately

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Gaussian (normal) distribution
In probability theory, a normal (or Gaussian or Gauss or Laplace–
Gauss) distribution is a type of continuous probability distribution for a real-
valued random variable. The general form of its probability density
function is

44
Calculating statistical uncertainty
• Mean and standard deviation of set of independent measurements (unknown
errors, assumed uniform):

1
x0 
N
xi
i  x;

  21
 xi  x 2

N 1 i
• Standard deviation estimates the likely error of any one measurement
• Uncertainty in the mean is what is quoted:

1/ 2
  2
x  
1
  xi  x   .
N  N ( N  1) i 

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Confidence interval and level of confidence

Best Estimate ± Uncertainty

<x> ± Δx

• A point estimate of a parameter is the value of a statistic that estimates the

value of the parameter.
• The sample mean, 𝑥 , is the best point estimate of the population mean, μ.
• A Confidence Interval is a range of values we are fairly sure (for the given
level of confidence) our true value lies in.

Relative Uncertainty – The relative uncertainty

is the ratio of the absolute uncertainty to the
reported value.

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The normal distribution

• Along the X axis you see Z scores, i.e.

standardized deviations from the mean

x
Z

• Just think of Z scores as std. dev.
denominated units.
• A Z score tells us how many std.
deviations a case lies above or
below the mean

Note a property of the Normal distribution

 68% of cases in a Normal distribution fall within 1 std. deviation of the
mean
 95% within 2 std. dev. (actually 1.96)
 99.7% within 3 std. dev.
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The construction of a confidence interval

• The point estimate of the population

• The level of confidence
• The standard deviation of the sample mean
• Sample size
• t-value

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Algorithm for uncertainty evaluation

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Uncertainties propagation
In statistics, the propagation of uncertainty (error) means the process of transferring
uncertainties (random errors) in input variables on the resulting function uncertainty
based on these variables.

50
Propagating uncertainties
• Functions of one variable (general formula):

df
F  X
dx
• Specific cases:

x    2 xx
2
or
 
x2
2
x
2
x x

x    nx
n n 1
x or
 
 xn
n
x
n
x x
sin x   cos x x

ln x   x
1
x 51
Propagating uncertainties

52
Propagating uncertainties

• Functions of >1 variable (general formula):

2
 f   f 
2

f  2
  x    y  .
 x   y 
• Specific cases:

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Uncertainties propagation: examples

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

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General guidelines
Always:
• Calculate uncertainties on measurements and plot them as error bars on your graphs
• Propagate uncertainties correctly through derived quantities
• Quote uncertainties on all measured numerical values
• Quote means and uncertainties to a level of precision consistent with the uncertainty,
e.g: 3.77±0.08 kg, not 3.77547574568±0.08564846795768 kg.
• Quote units on all numerical values

Always:
• Think about the meaning of your results
• A mean which differs from an expected value by more than 1-2 multiples of the uncertainty
is, if the latter is correct, either suffering from a hidden systematic error (bias), or is due to
new physics (maybe you’ve just won the Nobel Prize!)
Never:
• Ignore your possible sources of error: do not just say that any discrepancy is due to
error (these should be accounted for in your uncertainty)
• Quote means to too few significant figures, e.g.: 3.77±0.08 kg not 4±0.08 kg

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