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NANOSTRUCTURED
ENERGY DEVICES
Foundations of Carrier Transport
NANOSTRUCTURED
ENERGY DEVICES
Foundations of Carrier Transport
Juan Bisquert
Universitat Jaume I, Castelló, Spain
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Bisquert, Juan.

Title: Nanostructured energy devices : foundations of carrier transport / Juan Bisquert.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017011271 | ISBN 9781466587991 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Microelectronics. | Nanostructured materials. | Thin-film circuits. | Thin film
transistors. | Thin film devices.
Classification: LCC TK7874 .B588 2017 | DDC 621.381--dc23
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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
About the Author.......................................................................................................ix
Chapter 1 Carrier Injection and Drift Transport....................................................1

1.1 Transport by Drift in the Electrical Field...................................1
1.2 Injection at Contacts...................................................................4
1.3 The Metal-Insulator-Metal Model............................................ 10
1.4 The Time-of-Flight Method .................................................... 14
General References............................................................................. 17
References........................................................................................... 17
Chapter 2 Diffusion Transport............................................................................. 21

2.1 Diffusion in the Random Walk Model..................................... 21
2.2 Macroscopic Diffusion Equation..............................................26
2.3 The Diffusion Length............................................................... 27
2.4 Chemical Diffusion Coefficient
and the Thermodynamic Factor............................................... 29
References........................................................................................... 33
Chapter 3 Drift-Diffusion Transport.................................................................... 35

3.1 General Transport Equation in Terms of Electrochemical
Potential.................................................................................... 35
3.2 The Transport Resistance......................................................... 36
3.3 The Einstein Relation...............................................................40
3.4 Drift-Diffusion Equations........................................................ 41
3.5 Ambipolar Diffusion Transport................................................ 43
3.6 Relaxation of Injected Charge.................................................. 45
3.7 Transient Current in Insulator Layers...................................... 48
3.8 Modeling Transport Problems.................................................. 50
References........................................................................................... 55
Chapter 4 Transport in Disordered Media........................................................... 59

4.1 Multiple Trapping and Hopping Transport............................... 59
4.2 Transport by Hopping in a Single Level .................................. 63
4.3 Trapping Factors in the Kinetic Constants............................... 65
4.4 Two-Level (Single-Trap) Model ............................................... 69
v
vi Contents
4.5 Multiple Trapping in Exponential DOS................................... 71

4.6 Activated Transport in a Gaussian DOS.................................. 74
4.7 Multiple Trapping in the Time Domain................................... 77
4.8 Hopping Conductivity.............................................................. 81
4.9 The Transport Energy............................................................... 82
4.10 Variable Range Hopping .........................................................84
References........................................................................................... 88
Chapter 5 Thin Film Transistors.......................................................................... 93

5.1 Organic Thin Film Transistors................................................. 93
5.2 Carrier Density in the Channel ...............................................97
5.3 Determination of the DOS in Thin Film Transistor
Configuration............................................................................ 98
5.4 Current-Voltage Characteristics............................................. 103
5.5 The Mobility in Disordered Semiconductors......................... 108
5.6 Electrochemical Transistor..................................................... 110
General References........................................................................... 112
References......................................................................................... 112
Chapter 6 Space-Charge-Limited Transport..................................................... 117

6.1 Space-Charge-Limited Current.............................................. 117
6.2 Injected Carrier Capacitance in SCLC................................... 121
6.3 Space Charge in Double Injection.......................................... 126
References......................................................................................... 129
Chapter 7 Impedance and Capacitance Spectroscopies.................................... 131

7.1 Frequency Domain Measurements......................................... 131
7.2 Dielectric Relaxation Functions............................................. 134
7.3 Resistance and Capacitance in Equivalent Circuit Models.... 138
7.4 Relaxation in Time Domain................................................... 144
7.5 Universal Properties of the Frequency-Dependent
Conductivity .......................................................................... 149
7.6 Electrode Polarization ........................................................... 152
References......................................................................................... 155
Appendix A............................................................................................................ 159
A.1 Physical Constants and Conversion Factors........................... 159
A.2 General List of Acronyms...................................................... 160
A.3 Acronyms for Materials.......................................................... 161
Index....................................................................................................................... 163
Preface
This series of books analyses the fundamental concepts, main properties, and key
applications of energy devices that are made using organic and inorganic solution-
processed thin film and nanostructured materials, including hybrid and organic solar
cells, electrochemical batteries, diodes, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic
light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), transistors, and the direct conversion of solar radia-
tion to chemical fuels. The primary goal of the books is to explain of the operation
of photovoltaic devices from a broad perspective that covers a range of topics from
the nanostructured and highly disordered materials, to the highly efficient devices of
lead halide perovskite solar cells that emerged during the time of writing.
The treatise has been divided in three volumes:
1. Nanostructured Energy Devices: Equilibrium Concepts and Kinetics (ECK)

2. Nanostructured Energy Devices: Foundations of Carrier Transport (FCT)
3. The Physics of Solar Cells: Perovskites, Organics, and Photovoltaics
Fundamentals (PSC)
Although each volume is independent, they have cross citations (indicated by

the acronym) and they converge into the PSC volume, which explains the structure,
principles, and applications of the solar cells.
The first volume, Equilibrium Concepts and Kinetics (ECK), examines funda-
mental principles of semiconductors energetics, interfacial charge transfer, basic
concepts and methods of measurement and the properties of important classes of
materials such as metal oxide and organic semiconductors and solid ionic con-
ductors. This second volume, Foundations of Carrier Transport (FCT), presents
a catalog of the physics of carrier transport and semiconductor device modeling,
including the central issue of injection and mechanisms of contacts, an emphasis
on the utilization of disordered materials such as organic materials, and excursions
into important side topics such as the transistor configuration and the frequency
domain characterization.
I am very grateful to several colleagues who provided comments and pointed
out improvements on parts of this book: Volodia Kytin, José A. Manzanares, Kim
Puigdollers, and Truls Norby. I am especially grateful to Mehdi Ansari-Rad and
Pilar López-Varo, who commented on the preliminary manuscript, and Sandheep
Ravishankar, did a general reading and editing. Any remaining mistakes are solely
my fault.
vii
About the Author
Juan Bisquert (MSc in physics 1985, PhD
1992, Universitat de València) is a profes-
sor of applied physics at Universitat Jaume
I de Castelló and the funding director of the
Institute of Advanced Materials at UJI. His
research work is in perovskite solar cells, nano-
structured solar cells (including dye-sensitized
solar cells, organic solar cells, quantum-dot
sensitized solar cells), and water splitting with
visible light and semiconductors (solar fuel
converters). His most well-known work is
about the mechanisms governing the opera-
tion of nanostructured and solution-processed
thin film solar cells. He has developed insights
in the electronic processes in hybrid organic–
inorganic solar cells, combining novel theories of semiconductor nanostructures,
photoelectrochemistry, and systematic experimental demonstration. His contribu-
tions produced a broad range of concepts and characterization methods to analyze
the operation of photovoltaic and optoelectronic devices. He is a Senior Editor of the
Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. He has been distinguished several times in
the list of ISI Highly Cited Researchers. Bisquert created the nanoGe conferences
and is the president of the Fundació Scito del País Valencià.
ix
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1 Carrier Injection
and Drift Transport
We begin the analysis of transport of carriers in a material layer, focusing on the
drift of carriers in a local electrical field. We start with the formulation of the main
relationships that provide the current density as a function of conductivity and elec-
trical field. Another significant factor that determines the total electrical current is
the injection of carriers at the contact, which leads us to discuss effects related to
injection in organic conductors. We then analyze in detail the metal-insulator-metal
model, in which the transport is driven by a constant field governed by the applied
voltage. It is a simple device model, but nonetheless illustrative of many device fea-
tures including contact formation properties.
1.1 TRANSPORT BY DRIFT IN THE ELECTRICAL FIELD

The electrical current density has two basic components, the conduction current and
the displacement current:
jtot = jcond + jdisp . (1.1)
The displacement current was discussed in Section ECK.3.10 and it is associated

with the time variation of the electrical field E:
∂E
jdisp = ε . (1.2)
∂t
Normally, the displacement current is a transient effect associated with the charg-
ing of dielectric capacitances in the system.
The conduction current density (hereafter denoted j) is related to the transport
of carriers by the application of some driving force. The current density at a cross
section of the layer is a combination of the current carried by the different charge
carriers in the system:
j= ∑j . i (1.3)
i
The electrical current is a continuous magnitude that has the same value at all points
of the x-axis. In the absence of recombination, the current is conserved:
∂j
=0. (1.4)
∂x
1
2 Nanostructured Energy Devices: Foundations of Carrier Transport
The total electrical current across the device is
I = Aj = A ∑j , i (1.5)
i
where A is the area of the electrode.

The average velocity of a species is vi , and is determined by the product of the
particle mechanical mobility Bi and the force Fi . The velocity can be given as
vi = Bi Fi . (1.6)
We consider the transport of a charge carrier with concentration ci (cm−3) and a

charge number zi , so that its electrical charge is Qi = zi q in terms of the elementary
charge q. For ionic species, we can have zi = ±1, ±2, …. The electrical force on a
particle is
Fi = qzi E . (1.7)
For electronic carriers, the holes drift in the direction of the electrical field and the
electrons against the field. The direction of the flux of each electronic carrier is indi-
cated in Figure 1.1. Equation 1.6 leads to
vi = Bi qzi E . (1.8)
The carrier mobility ui (cm2 V−1 s−1) is defined as the velocity in a unit electrical field
zi
vi = ui E . (1.9)
zi
Comparing Equation 1.8, we observe that
ui = zi qBi . (1.10)
In general, mobility is a function of the electrical field or charge density and

the dependence becomes strongly nonlinear in large fields, as discussed in
Chapters FCT.4 and FCT.5. We may state the definition of mobility in terms of the
average carrier velocity 〈v(E)〉 at low field values as
zi d vi (E) . (1.11)
ui =
zi dE
E =0
In the case of hopping transport, mobility can be defined on the basis of the dif-
ference of effective charge carrier jump probability in the direction along and against
the electric field (Fishchuk et al., 2003).
Carrier Injection and Drift Transport 3
Electrical field E
Electron flux Jn
Electron current jn
Ec
ΦB,n
Electron energy –qV

EFn
Ev
Hole flux Jp
Hole current jp
FIGURE 1.1 Energy diagram of an electron-conducting layer material with applied bias
potential. q is the elementary charge, V is the voltage applied at the left terminal, Ec is the
energy of the conduction band, Ev is the energy of the valence band, and EFn is the Fermi
level. All labeled quantities are represented with respect to the electron energy scale shown
on the left side. The arrows at the top and bottom show the vector direction of the indi-
cated magnitudes.
The electronic carrier mobility in semiconductors is strongly dependent on scat-

tering processes. Mobility is almost constant for low doping concentrations and is
basically affected by phonon scattering. At higher doping concentrations, mobil-
ity decreases due to scattering by ionized impurities. Values of electron mobility
in crystalline semiconductors can be as large as 104 cm2 V−1 s−1. The mobility in
organic layers is often found to depend on the value of the electric field and it is well
described by an expression of the type
u(E) = u0 exp γ E .( ) (1.12)
Here u 0 is a constant, the mobility of electrons or holes at zero field, and γ is the
parameter describing the field dependence (Pai, 1970; Davids et al., 1997).
The carrier flux density J is defined as the number of carriers crossing a unit area
per second
Ji = ci vi . (1.13)
The flux can originate from drift, diffusion, or other mechanisms such as convec-
tion. The motion of the carrier due to the direct action of the electrical field is normally
denoted as drift transport. The flux density associated with drift transport is given by
zi
Ji = ciui E . (1.14)
zi
The electrical current density j carried by species i is
ji = zi qJi = q zi ci ui E . (1.15)
In a situation of transport by drift in an electrical field, the electrical conductivity

σi of one specific carrier is defined by the relationship
ji = σ i E . (1.16)
From Equation 1.11, we find that the conductivity of carrier i has the expression
σ i = zi qci ui . (1.17)
The total electrical conductivity is henceforth given by
σ= ∑σ = ∑ z i i qci ui . (1.18)
i i
1.2 INJECTION AT CONTACTS
We consider a simple device formed by a single material and two contacts as shown
in Figure 1.1. We examine the factors that determine whether there will be a substan-
tial current flow in such a device when a voltage is applied between the contacts and
the magnitude of such current. To obtain steady current flow, two effects must occur
efficiently: (1) carrier injection and extraction at the contacts and (2) conductivity
at all points of the internal material. In this section, we discuss the first of the two
aspects with a particular emphasis on the contact with organic materials.
Carrier injection, discussed in Chapters ECK.4 and ECK.6, concerns the inter-
faces of the device and particularly the contact between the metal and the active
material. Figure 1.2 shows the injection of either electrons or holes at electrochemical
contacts, previously described in Figure ECK.6.27. In general, the current flow may
be due to carriers that flow across the device, are injected at one contact and extracted
at the opposite one, or the current may be established by injection of electrons and
holes at opposite contacts that recombine inside the active layer. This last case forms
the basis of the recombination diode that will be discussed in Chapter PSC.4. In this
E E
e– d
+ >> 105 Vcm–1
dx
EA
Red Valence
Conduction band
Gap band
Ox+
EA d
h+ – >> 105 Vcm–1
dx
W(E) x W(E) x
electrolyte Insulator electrolyte Insulator
electron injection hole injection
FIGURE 1.2 Energy scheme for electron or hole injection into insulators from redox spe-
cies and for the transport of the injected charge carriers through the insulator by strong elec-
tric fields. Reproduced with permission from (Gerischer, 1990).
section, we focus on a discussion of transport features neglecting recombination. If

only one contact injects and the other one blocks the carriers, the carriers can be
accumulated in the material and there is a transient current until the active material
is fully charged.
As the applied voltage in a device increases, the driving force for transport
increases, and the current across the device normally increases. However, the amount
of current that flows through the sample can be limited by the carrier flow provided
by injection at the contacts. This is depicted with the dashed line in Figure 1.3. The
current achieves a lower magnitude than that of the bulk-limited current and is called
an injection-limited current, jinj . Its functional dependence is determined by the
mechanism of injection as discussed in Section ECK.6.7.
Log j
jSCL
V0
jOHM
jINJ
Log V
FIGURE 1.3 Bulk-limited (solid line) and injection-limited (dashed line) current density
versus voltage characteristics for a trap-free semiconductor. The threshold voltage V0 when
the bulk-limited current turns from ohmic to space-charge-limited current is indicated.
Reproduced with permission from (Shen et al., 2004).
100 Carbon
Au (111)/mica
filled
Au/Ti (fillers vary)
Pt/glass
Au (111)
Al2O3 polish Pt(111)
(105 Vcm–1)
10–1 Au/Cr
-
Glassy Evaporated Au (poly)
η carbon overcoat
Ag (111) Diamond polish

(105 Vcm–1)
10–2
Freshly coated
Cr
Aged in ambient
10–3
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
Energy Step/eV
FIGURE 1.4 Hole injection efficiency versus energy barrier at the contact for substrate
contacts of varying work function. Reproduced with permission from (Abkowitz et al., 1998).
The main rule for a facile injection of carriers is to have a small injection barrier
at the contact, as already mentioned in Section ECK.4.6. A contact is ohmic if the
resistance across the interface is independent of the voltage. However, the low resis-
tance value is to be taken relative to the impediments to current flow in other parts
of the device, i.e., the impedances due to bulk-limited current. Normally, the actual
current-potential characteristics of the ohmic contact are not measured or analyzed.
If the resistance is negligible, it is generally referred to as ohmic. An ohmic contact
also has the property that it discharges to the metal, the current of the specific carrier
that it receives from the semiconductor side, i.e., it transmits the current from the
internal surface of the device to the metal contact, without impediment. The degree
of ohmicity of a hole-injection contact is often well correlated with the injection bar-
rier as shown in Figure 1.4. One useful definition of the ohmic contact is with respect
to the exchange current density, j0, which is the current flowing in equilibrium in
both senses, across the interface; see Section ECK.6.6. If the demand of current is
of the order ≈ j0, then little voltage is required to drive the current and the contact
is ohmic. It is usually suggested that if the barrier at a metal–organic interface is
greater than 0.3 eV at zero electric field, then the current is limited by injection. If
the barrier is less than 0.3 eV, then charges can be injected efficiently into the device
and the current will be controlled by transport (Lopez Varo et al., 2012).
In devices using organic semiconductors, such as organic light-emitting diodes
(OLEDs) and solar cells, a low barrier for electron injection/extraction should result
whenever the Fermi energy of the cathode closely matches the lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital (LUMO) energy of the organic electron conductor. Metals with a
low work function also have a small electron affinity and will tend to release elec-
trons to the contacting material. These materials form low injection barriers to the
conduction band of a semiconductor and are therefore appropriate for injecting or
extracting electrons, especially in the case of organic semiconductors, which usually
show low electron affinities as well. In OLEDs, low work function metals such as
magnesium and calcium or their alloys with silver are the most commonly used cath-
ode materials. However, due to the strong tendency of Ba, Ca, and low work function
metals in general to release electrons, they are strongly reactive and prone to oxida-
tion. The devices require robust encapsulation to avoid contact with air, moisture, or
oxygen (Jørgensen et al., 2008), which cause oxidation and consequent degradation of
the metal contact by modification of both its energy levels and conductivity (Bröms
et al., 1997). Wide bandgap metal oxides, such as TiO2 and ZnO, serve as excellent
electron acceptors with good electron-conducting and hole-blocking properties.
Contact engineering allows one to tune the device for hole or electron trans-
port, as shown for quantum dot (QD) films in the scheme of Figure 1.5 (Oh et al.,
2014). Furthermore, the rate of bulk transport can be tuned, and hence switch the
device between bulk- or injection-limited conduction, by modifying the length of
CB
h+
Electron
transpo e–
+ VB rt
h e– limit
Au Hole tra Al
nsport
limit
Au Al
(a) (b)
Electron
injection
limit e–
h+
h+ e– Hole
injection
limit
Au Al
Au Al
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.5 Band diagram depicting charge injection and transport in PbSe nanocrystal
thin films with long organic ligands for field-effect transistors (FETs) fabricated with (a) high
work function Au contacts and (b) low work function Al contacts and with short inorganic
ligands for FETs fabricated with (c) Au and (d) Al contacts. Reproduced with permission from
(Oh et al., 2014).
Work function Measured position

Sm 2.7 Ec 3.0
Ca 2.9
Mg 3.6 Ca, Sm, Mg 3.6
Al 4.2 Al 4.0
Cu 4.6 Alq3 Cu 4.6
Au 5.2 Au 5.2
Pt 5.6 EV 6.0 Pt 5.6
FIGURE 1.6 Metal work functions and electron energy diagram for metal contacts with Alq3
derived from the internal photoemission and built-in potential measurements. Reproduced
with permission from (Campbell and Smith, 1999).
the ligands between QDs, which determine the tunneling distance as explained in
Section PSC.3.4.
It is also frequently observed that the injection barrier does not correlate with the
metal work function. This situation was discussed in Chapters ECK.2 and ECK.4; an
interfacial dipole is formed by the deposition of a very thin organic layer on a metal
and changes the vacuum level (VL) at the interface. The insensitivity of the bar-
rier to the metal work function is called the pinning of the Fermi level; see Section
ECK.4.6. For example, for the Alq3 barrier, a widely investigated small molecule for
OLED applications, the Fermi level is pinned at about 3.6 eV for low work function
materials, whereas a normal Schottky barrier is formed for higher work function
metals as shown in Figure 1.6. Tuning the energy level of the cathode to the organic
material can be achieved by interfacial dipole layers that reduce the effective work
function of a metal such as Al (Hung et al., 1997; Ding and Gao, 2007). Inserting
a very thin layer of a wide bandgap material between the conducting cathode and
the active organic material is often an effective approach. Specifically, inorganic
insulators such as LiF, Li2O, MgF2, and MgO under aluminum metal have been
widely used to reduce the effective work function. As an example, Figure 1.7 shows
the effect of a LiF layer at the Alq3–Al interface. The ultraviolet photoelectron spec-
troscopy (UPS) measurement shows that the LiF interlayer produces a large (0.6-eV)
interfacial dipole that considerably reduces the barrier to electron injection from Al
to Alq3.
On the other hand, contact materials with a large work function provide an effi-
cient contact to holes. PEDOT:PSS, a conjugated polymer formed by a mixture of
two ionomers, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and poly(styrenesulfonate), is a
good hole conductor that is often deposited on a transparent conducting oxide (TCO)
such as indium-doped tin oxide (ITO) to form a hole injection contact. PEDOT and
similar materials also serve to control the wettability and compatibility of the organic
active layer with the contact layer. The work function of ITO is 4.8 eV, whereas that
of PEDOT:PSS is 5.1 eV. These two materials readily form an ohmic contact, and
PEDOT matches well with the ordinary values of the Fermi level of holes in organic
devices. It was found that the higher work function of PEDOT:PSS compared to ITO
facilitates hole injection into poly(2-methoxy-5-(2′-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylene
vinylene (MEH-PPV; with ionization energy at 5.1 eV) (Cao et al., 1997; Brown
et al., 1999). Transition metal oxides, such as molybdenum oxide (MoO3), tungsten
Cutoff
Sample Bias = –10 V
Alq3/Al
1.0 eV
Intensity (arb. units)
Alq3/LiF/Al
1.6 eV
LiF/Al 1.6 eV
Al
1 2 3 4 5 6
Kinetic Energy (eV)
Evac 1.0 eV Evac

1.6 eV 1.6 eV
Evac Evac
LUMO LUMO
0.5 eV 0.1 eV
EF EF
2.3 eV
2.7 eV
HOMO
HOMO
Al Alq3 Vacuum Al LiF Alq3 Vacuum
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.7 Top: UPS spectra (low kinetic energy region) measured immediately after
each layer deposited in Alq3/LiF/Al and Alq3/Al multilayers. Bottom: Energy diagrams of the
Alq3–Al interface and the Alq3–LiF–Al interface. Reproduced with permission from (Mori
et al., 1998).
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LUMO or HOMO
E=0
Potential Energy
DOS
Tra E
Fermi nsp
ort
level ene
rgy
Metal
Organic Semiconductor
FIGURE 1.8 Potential energy distribution at the metal–organic contact in Arkhipov’s

model considering charge carrier injection into a Gaussian DOS. The small lines in Gaussian
curves represent the distribution of available energy states in the semiconductor. Solid lines
show the barrier potential energy of a charge carrier after considering the Coulombic field of
the image charge and in the external electric field. Dotted lines represent the energy of the
transport level for the regime of upward carrier jumps.
oxide (WO3), and vanadium oxide (V2O5), easily exchange charges with several
organic semiconductors and produce efficient hole injection layers in OLEDs and
organic solar cells as discussed further in Section PSC.4.5.
Injection models have been developed to consider the essential physical mecha-
nisms that take part in the charge injection from a metal into a disordered organic
semiconductor viewed as a random hopping system. One detailed model was pro-
posed by Arkhipov and collaborators that describes the injection as follows; see
Figure 1.8 (Arkhipov et al., 1998; Arkhipov et al., 1999; Arkhipov et al., 2003).
First, carriers jump from the Fermi level of the metal contact into localized states
of a Gaussian density of states (DOS) that forms a distribution of hopping sites that
are sufficiently close to the metal–organic interface. Every injected carrier creates
an image charge of the opposite sign at the contact. The superposition of the external
electric field at the contact and the Coulomb field of the image charge form the poten-
tial barrier at the metal–organic interface, which will restrict the charge injection.
In this way, the injection is described in terms of thermally and field-assisted charge
transfer from the metal to the organic semiconductor. Part of this injected charge is
followed by a return to the metallic contact. At this point, the model evaluates the
probability of crossing the potential barrier for a carrier that has made an initial jump
at a distance x close to the metal–organic interface. This probability is formulated
by the one-dimensional Onsager theory to avoid geminate recombination for a pair
of a carrier in the organic and its image twin at the metal. Further discussion of this
approach is given in Figure ECK.6.22 and Figure ECK.6.23.
1.3 THE METAL-INSULATOR-METAL MODEL

Let us consider a material slab with electronic contacts on both sides. If the mate-
rial has intrinsic carriers, at low applied voltage, conduction current flows steadily,
governed by drift transport, according to Equation 1.15. If the number of carriers is

low, at large applied voltage, the injected carriers must develop a space charge that
contributes to maintaining the electrical field, as discussed later in Chapter 6 of this
volume. Both the ohmic and space-charge limited current are indicated in Figure 1.3.
In the metal-insulator-metal (MIM) model, an insulator layer is contacted by two
metals of very different work function. As a result, the bands of the insulator obtain
a slope in equilibrium due to the built-in potential. This model with simplified char-
acteristics of drift transport offers us a good example to introduce many aspects of
electrical device operation (Simmons, 1971). We will discuss the general physical
properties and implications of this model, considering first the energetic picture at
equilibrium and then the effect of applied voltage. This approach has been amply
applied in OLEDs and also as a primitive model for organic solar cells. The low-
voltage regime of this device has been studied by Kim et al, (2011).
In Figure 1.9, we consider the physical basis for the equilibrium distribution of the
MIM model. Figure 1.9a shows the separate components of the device. The central
layer is an insulator with electron energy level Ec (conduction band) and hole energy
level Ev (valence band). The corresponding levels in organic semiconductors are the
LUMO and the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), respectively. The layer
is contacted by two metals, one of low work function Φc (cathode) and another one
of high work function Φa (anode). When the system comes to equilibrium, the Fermi
level must be homogeneous. Equalizing the Fermi levels of the metals requires
the construction of a difference of potential, which is described by the slant of the
bands. Under the vacuum level alignment (VLA) rule at the contacts, the situation
of Figure 1.9b is obtained. Because we assumed a low charge quantity, we neglect
any space-charge formation, and therefore the electrical field in the insulating layer,
which we call the drift field, is constant and has the value
E dr = −∆ϕ dr /d , (1.19)
where Δφ is defined as the difference of potentials across the insulator
∆ dr ϕ = ϕ(d ) − ϕ(0) . (1.20)
It is important to remark that even in the presence of an electric field, the carriers
are in equilibrium and no conduction takes place. The built-in potential between the
metals Vbia,c coincides with the contact potential difference of the metals
Φ a − Φc
Vbia ,c = ∆ dr ϕ eq = ϕ eq (d ) − ϕ eq (0) = . (1.21)
q
The application of the VLA rule in Figure 1.9b has the consequence that the injec-
tion barrier for electrons is fixed at the value given by Equation ECK.4.18, ΦB,n =
Φc – χn, and the value for holes by Equation ECK.4.19, ΦB,p = χp – Φa. Thus, the
Reference Eo
level
Evac –q (x)
Evac
Ec Φc –q∆dr
Ec
Electron energy
Φa Φa
Φc
EF0 ΦB,n
Ev
Ev
x=0
(a) (c)
Reference Eo
level x=d
–q
Evac
–q∆dr
Ec
∆d
Φa
Φc
EF0 ΦB,n
Ev
x=0
(b) x=d
FIGURE 1.9 Energy diagram of an insulator layer that is contacted by two metals of dis-
similar work function. (a) The energies of the separate materials. (b) The equilibrium condi-
tion with equilibrium Fermi level EF0 under vacuum level alignment. (c) The equilibrium
condition with formation of the dipole layer at the cathode, which reduces the drift field Δdrφ.
density of the respective carrier is fixed at the boundary at the equilibrium value as
follows (Haney, 2011):
p(0) = p0 (1.22)
n( L ) = n0 . (1.23)
This type of model contact has been used in the past in the discussion of photocon-
ductivity in insulators (Goodman and Rose, 1971). The model of Sokel and Hughes
(1982) sets all carrier densities to zero at the boundary.
The VLA property need not be generally satisfied. When the contact forms a
dipole, as mentioned in the previous section, the built-in voltage is not invested fully
in the drift field. As a result, the barrier for electron injection increases and the drift
field decreases as shown in Figure 1.9c.
In Figure 1.10, we observe different situations caused by an applied voltage Vapp
in the MIM model with straight bands. The drift field changes according to the fol-
lowing expression
∆ dr ϕ = Vbia ,c + Vapp . (1.24)
The drift field vanishes when the applied voltage equals the built-in potential, i.e.,
at Vapp = –Vbia,c, the flat-band condition. Under forward bias, injected carriers drift
in the electrical field and current increases with the voltage. Under reverse bias, the
field also increases but the large injection barrier prevents current flow. Thus, the
model shows diode characteristics. The diagrams of Figure 1.10 constitute only a
first approximation, since they neglect Schottky barriers and band bending produced
by space charge.
Equilibrium Forward voltage

Evac
–qVbi
Ec
Evac
Ec
EF0 –qVapp
Ev
Ev
(a) (c)
Reverse voltage
Flatband voltage Evac
Evac Ec
Ec
–qVapp
–qVapp
Ev
Ev
(b) (d)
FIGURE 1.10 Energy diagram of an insulator layer that is contacted by two metals of dis-
similar work function, under different cases of applied voltage as indicated.
In practice, the built-in voltage Vbia,c can be estimated from the current-voltage
measurements or from the onset of photocurrent under illumination. The rationale
for this method is that the drift force on carriers is zero at the flat-band condition
and the drift current starts only when the voltage causes the bands to be sloped.
Therefore, it is common in the literature to represent the voltage scale as (V – V0),
where V0 is the compensation voltage at the point where the current changes sign
in the current-voltage curve, identified as the built-in voltage Vbia,c. Another method
to determine the built-in voltage is the electro-absorption measurement (Campbell
et al., 1996). This technique involves the measurement of the modulation of the
reflection coefficient for monochromatic light, resulting from the modulated ac
voltage imposed over the steady-state voltage. The detection of the field is possible
because the optical absorption coefficient α changes with the square of the electric
field due to a Stark shift in the allowed optical transition. The energy levels of PPV
and the built-in voltage obtained in devices with different metal contacts are shown
in Figure 1.11. The presence of some native carrier density explains the divergence
observed between the built-in voltage determined by electroabsorption and current-
voltage curves (de Vries et al., 2010).
Let us describe more realistically the distribution of carriers in the MIM model
including space-charge formation (Simmons, 1971). Figure 1.12 shows the forma-
tion of an ohmic contact with the insulator. The electron charge is injected into the
insulator to achieve equilibration of Fermi levels and produces a bending of the con-
duction band in the insulator by establishing an accumulation region. The amount
of space charge fixes the width of the accumulation region λ. The relationship of the
size of band bending to the size of the insulator layer gives rise to different situations.
In Figure 1.13b, the two contacts are separately equilibrated and a field-free region
of the flat conduction band is obtained in the central region. If the amount of space
charge decreases, the width λ increases until the accumulation regions overlap; see
Figure 1.13c. But if the amount of space charge is negligible, no significant band
bending occurs, and equilibration of the Fermi levels produces a tilted straight band,
corresponding to Figure 1.9b. Finally, we describe another situation, which is the
equilibration between a p-type semiconductor and two metal contacts. If the work
functions of the metals are lower than those of the semiconductor, the contacts form
depletion layers, consisting of Schottky barriers. It should therefore be noted that
the model of Figure 1.9b, in which the built-in potential translates into a constant
drift field, is restricted to situations in which the intrinsic density of carriers of the
semiconductor is very low.
1.4 THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT METHOD

The time-of-flight (TOF) is a widely used experimental method to measure mobil-
ity in organic semiconductors. It has its origin in the xerographic copying process.
In the TOF setup, as shown in Figure 1.14a, the sample is contacted by at least one
transparent electrode and is biased to a large extent with applied voltage in reverse
mode, so that only a photogenerated charge can conduct electrical current. A short
pulse of strongly absorbed light generates electrons and holes close to the transparent
contact and one species is extracted while the other drifts to the opposite contact. In
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that he had given the racoun to paint to two masters, but both had
mistaken the beast; but however (he said) though the pictures were
not well designed, they did nevertheless serve to grace the booth
and bring him custom.
St. Laurence (or St. Laurent).—So called from its situation near St.
Laurence’s Church. It is so ancient that no date can be even
approximately fixed for its origin. Its chief traders were goldsmiths
and mercers, picture-painters, sempstresses, lemonade-sellers,
toymen, earthenware people, gingerbread bakers, &c. &c. To it came
people from Amiens, Beauvais, Rheims, and other places of Picardy
and Champagne, with light fabrics, both plain and striped, and
camlets of all sorts.
The fair seems originally to have lasted but one day; but the
period gradually became extended to two months, commencing the
day after St. James’s day and ending at Michaelmas. It was
proclaimed by sound of trumpet.
These two rival fairs had this peculiarity: they were always open
as bazaars. They were not fairs in the usual sense of the term for
more than three months in the year. The St. Germain fair was held in
the winter, and the St. Laurent in the early part of the summer. The
former never recovered its popularity after the fire which destroyed
the wooden constructions used during the fair (1763), though by the
erection of new galleries, more elegant than the old ones, there was
added to the attractions of a fair a dancing-saloon, the Winter
Wauxhall, which was well attended for a time.
The St. Laurent fair was held in the upper part of the faubourg of
that name, was larger and more elaborately decorated than the St.
Germain fair, but it had no Wauxhall, and the only amusements for
the frequenters of its Chinese Redoubt were swings and other
foreign games.
The St. Ovide Fair.—This was established in August, 1764, and was
held in the very centre of Paris, upon the Place Vendôme, then
bounded on one side by the church and convent of the Capucines. It
was held there for some years, and then transferred to the Place
Louis XV., where it did not last long, although it had originally been
made fashionable as the Gingerbread Fair. It was at this fair that
Nicolet, previous to establishing his theatre des grands danseurs du
Roi, displayed the wonderful strength and agility which gave rise to
the proverb “de plus fort en plus fort, comme chez Nicolet.”—
Lacroix, “The Eighteenth Century,” p. 356.
Onion Fair of Notre Dame.—This fair is held in September,
commencing with the feast of Notre Dame, and continuing till the
end of the month. It is held on the Isle of Notre Dame, along the
Quai Bourbon. A prodigious quantity of black and red onions are
brought into the city at this period, the citizens laying in a stock for
the whole year.
Pork or Bacon Fair.—This “fair for gammons” is held on the
Tuesday in Passion Week in the street of Notre Dame, lasting but the
one day only. There is sold at it immense quantities of hams, flitches
of bacon, and other salted pork. Many amusing articles have been
written concerning it.
Horse and Cattle Fairs.

The horse and cattle fairs of France were and are very numerous.
I shall give but a brief outline of the chief or more remarkable.
Those of Chénerailles (a great town of Auvergne) are chiefly famous
for their fat cattle, brought for the most part to Paris. The fairs are
held the last Tuesday in every month. The fairs of Guibray and Caen
are amongst the chief for horses. That of Fontenay, in Poictou, for
the horses bred in that province. It is held 24th June, and is one of
the most noted in France. The fair at Niort, on 1st December, is
chiefly for foals. At Nogent-sur-Seine, is a considerable horse fair, the
11th August. There are three annual cattle fairs at Braisne-le-Comte,
near Soissons, viz. on 6th May, 14th September, and 14th December.
The greater part of the sales are for Paris. The fairs of Nangis and
Crecy in Brie, on 4th July and 29th September respectively, are very
considerable, and from these the graziers and butchers in the Isle of
France are supplied. Montely is a fair chiefly for cows, great numbers
of which are brought by the farmers and peasants about Paris and
all the Isle of France. It is held 9th September. There are also
several fairs for pigs held in the villages around Paris, and
innumerable other cattle and horse fairs of lesser note, not calling
for any particular mention.
FAIRS OF RUSSIA.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE SMALLER RUSSIAN FAIRS.
The modern growth of Russia is greater than that of any other
European country. Its fairs have done much to facilitate that growth.
It seems as if its people were passing through those stages of
commercial building up which the other nationalities have long left in
the dim vista of the past. The greatest fair held in Europe at the
present time is that of Nijni Novgorod; yet that is not greater,
relatively, than was Sturbridge in England, or those of Lyons, or of
Bari (Italy), or of Bruges, in Flanders. There are several other large
fairs, of which I shall also give the best details available. They are
chiefly in southern Russia. The fair of Riga is an exception. The fair
of Kiakhta is in Asiatic Russia, as are also those of Irbit and
Yekaterinburg. I shall first notice the smaller fairs, and finally that of
Nijni.
Berdicheff (in the government of Volhynia, southern Russia).—This
town has long been famous for its fairs. King Stanislaus Augustus
permitted the holding of ten in the year. Five either now are or
recently were held, viz. in January, March, June, August, and
November. Those of June and August are the most considerable.
These fairs have given rise to the commercial importance of the
town. The chief trade of the fairs is in grain, wine, honey, wax,
leather, and horses and cattle; while cotton and silk goods, glass-
ware, hardware, salt, fish, and beetroot sugar are becoming of
increasing importance. The value of the goods sold is estimated at
£800,000; the Jews are the chief purchasers. At the principal horse
fair there is sometimes a show of 40,000 horses. The nobles of the
country with their families attend the fairs, and remain encamped in
the neighbourhood of the town during the three weeks they last. At
the January fair, 1883, a circus was burned, and about three
hundred lives were lost.
Elizavetgrad (southern Russia).—This town, formerly designated
“Fortress of St. Elizabeth,” with its “Great Perspective,” and
boulevard of white acacias, has four annual fairs, the most important
of which is that of St. George, held on 23rd April (old style). The
value of the goods brought into the fair in 1863 was over £300,000.
The chief commodities of the district are tallow and grain. The goods
brought into it are those manufactured at Odessa, Wilna, and
Berdicheff. There is also a daily market held here, with transactions
of considerable magnitude, especially after harvest.
Jitomir (or Zytomiers), chief town in the province of Volhynia,
western Russia, has two annual fairs—one in July, the other in
August. Apart from the trade at these, which is considerable, the
ordinary commerce of the town is small. There are three markets
weekly.
Karkoff.—This town, situate in the administrative province of the
same name in southern Russia, is a place of very considerable
importance. It has four fairs, the “Krestchenskaya” or Epiphany fair,
opened 6th January, being one of the most important in the empire.
In 1863 goods to the amount of from two and a half to three
millions sterling in value were brought to that fair, the textile fabrics
alone representing a value of about one million sterling. Cattle and
wool constitute the local produce. The wool sales take place
exclusively at the Trinity fair in June. Bazaars and markets are also
held on Sundays, Wednesdays and Fridays. These are particularly
active immediately before Christmas and Easter. This is one of the
most pleasant districts of Russia. The vine and the mulberry, with
other fruits, thrive here.
Kasan (Kazan).—This, while an independent state, had a
considerable fair, one of the greatest in Europe; but John the Terrible
prevented Russian merchants from attending it. In 1552 Kasan was
conquered by this same Ivan, and annexed to Russia. See Makariev
and Nijni Novgorod.
Korennaya, southern Russia, twenty-seven versts from Kursk.—Two
very large fairs are held, viz. on the ninth Friday after Easter, and on
the 8th Sept. in each year. The cathedral within the famous
monastery of Bogoroditsky-Znamensky (Apparition of the Virgin)
contains a holy image held in great veneration—that of the
apparition of said Holy Virgin, after whom the monastery is named.
Immense crowds follow the procession of the holy image every year,
at a period coincident with the first fair. The monastery was founded
in 1597.
Kremenchuk.—An important town in southern Russia on the Dnieper,
in which fairs are held at end of January for fourteen days, on 24th
June for eleven days, and on 1st September (all old style) for ten
days. The business transacted is not large, particularly having regard
to the favourable situation. In 1862 the sales of these fairs
amounted to £85,000, and the value of the goods brought to about
£110,000.
Kursk.—A town in southern Russia, on the river Tuskor. Two fairs
are held here—one in April, the other in the tenth week after Easter.
There are also two weekly markets—Mondays and Fridays. See also
Korennaya.
Makariev.—The monks of the monastery of St. Macarius (after
which the town seems to be named) by virtue of their charter
established a fair here in 1641, after which annually in the month of
July for a space of three weeks the few wretched huts, built on a
sandy desert, were replaced by thousands of shops erected with a
promptitude peculiar to the Russians. Taverns, coffee-houses, a
theatre, ball rooms, a crowd of wooden buildings painted and
adorned with taste, sprung up. People from many nations thronged
here in great multitudes: Russians from all the provinces of the
empire, Tartars, Tchuvaches, Teheremisses, Calmuks, Bucharians,
Georgians, Armenians, Persians and Hindus; and in addition Poles,
Germans, French, and English. Notwithstanding the confusion of
costumes and languages, the most perfect order prevailed: all were
there for the purposes of commerce. The riches which were
gathered there within the space of two leagues were said to be
incalculable. The silks of Lyons and Asia, the furs of Siberia, the
pearls of the East, the wines of France and Greece, the merchandise
of China and Persia. These were brought in contrast with the most
ordinary articles of everyday life, in true Eastern fashion. This fair
was in truth one of the developments of Nijni Novgorod, which see.
Orel.—An important town in south-western Russia founded by
John the Terrible, about 1565, for the defence of the Grand Duchy of
Moscow against the Tartars. The town has a large trade in tallow
and hemp, also in linseed oil, wheat, cattle, timber and salt. This
commerce has two outlets—the one by land; the other by water
down the Oka, to Kaluga, Serpukhof, Kolomna, Murom, Nijni-
Novgorod, Rybinsk, and St. Petersburg. There are three fairs
annually—between 6th and 20th January, during the fifth and sixth
weeks after Easter, and from 8th to 31st Sept. (O.S.) The first is the
least considerable of these. The market or bazaar days are Fridays
and Sundays. After harvest as many as 10,000 carts enter the town
daily, laden with wheat and other produce.
Poltava, southern Russia, on the river Vorskla, long famous for the
leeches found in its pools and morasses, and which are largely and
widely exported. The importance of the trade of the town is chiefly
due to its fair (Ilyinskaya) held on 10th July, and lasting a month.
The average value of the goods carried to this great commercial
gathering is estimated at about three and a half millions sterling.
The number of carts engaged in bringing the produce from Moscow,
Odessa, Kharkoff, Kursk and Voronej is upwards of 20,000. Russian
manufactures are much sold, but wool is the great staple of trade.
Horses, cattle, and sheep are likewise bought and sold in great
numbers. There are two other fairs—one on the feast of the
Ascension.
Riga (the capital of Livonia, Baltic Provinces) had several centuries
since, two considerable fairs, one held in May, the other in
September, very much frequented by English, French, Dutch, and
other merchants. At the period of these fairs the town wore a very
commercial aspect, and the port was thronged with ships. The local
customs were peculiar, and gave rise to difficulties. The townsmen
had priority in the selection of warehouses, and in the sale of
commodities, and as a result the vessels of foreigners were unduly
detained, and the selection of the produce made in advance of their
opportunities. Hence it was recorded in the middle of the last
century that these fairs were on the decline.
Rostof, on the river Don, near its mouth in the sea of Azof (Lake
Nero), and famous for its manufactures of white lead, vermilion, and
other mineral and chemical substances; also for its linen
manufacture. Large fairs are held twice a year, when very
considerable numbers of cattle and horses change ownership.
Voronej, on the Voronej river, near its confluence with the Don;
one of the most flourishing towns in southern Russia. Its trade is in
grain, linseed, tallow. Four fairs are held annually, the larger being
those of 9th May and 29th August (O.S.). Markets are held three
times a week.
CHAPTER XXIII.
NIJNI-NOVGOROD.[10]
This may now be pronounced the great mercantile fair of the world.
It probably bears a greater resemblance (but on a larger scale) to
that of Sturbridge in its best days, than any other of past or present
times. It is almost the last remaining type (in Europe) of the
mediæval form of commerce. The origin and early history of this fair
are somewhat obscure. Authentic records attest that mercantile
gatherings were held at Nijni so early as 1366; and tradition points
to a still earlier origin. Before Kasan was conquered by Ivan the
Terrible in 1552, Russian merchants were prohibited from attending
fairs in that province. A considerable fair then held was the precursor
of the present.
The Russians held a fair at another place on the Volga. In 1641
the monks of the monastery of St. Macarius, by virtue of their
charter, founded a fair at Makariev, seventy-one miles below Nijni.
Of this fair I have already given some account. “The monks of the
monastery (says Michell) very cleverly made Nijni a place of religious
as well as commercial resort, and levied taxes on the trade which
they fostered.” Up to 1751 the tolls had still been collected by these
monks; but in that year the fair became the property of the State. In
1824 it definitely fixed at Nijni-Novgorod. It was probably removed
here temporarily in 1816, when the town of Makariev was destroyed
by fire.
The situation of the town opposite the confluence of the Volga
(having a course of 2,320 miles) and Oka (with 900 miles of
navigation) rivers, is pre-eminently suitable for the purpose of
commerce, of which these rivers indeed, prior to the introduction of
railways, constituted the great arteries. The town of Lower Novgorod
was founded as early as 1222, and was in 1237 occupied by the
Tartars. When it was taken from them, they declared perpetual
warfare against it, and sacked it more than once. By means of the
two large rivers named—which extend, with their contributory
streams and canal communication with the Baltic, over a
considerable portion of northern, eastern and southern Russia—an
easy communication is maintained with the richest agricultural and
manufacturing provinces. The Kamma, a tributary of the Volga, also
affords water communication with the remote provinces of Ural and
parts of Siberia. The productions of China are carried during the
month of September over the Baikal Lake, and in spring reach the
Volga along with the Siberian caravans. The productions of
Astrakhan, Persia and Bokhara ascend that river, while those of
Petersburg, Germany, England, and France descend it: so that the
merchandise of the east and the west meet as in a common centre
here. And this line of commerce dates back into far distant ages,
promoted and shared in by those trading monks who took so leading
a part in founding the great Hanseatic League.
It is an interesting historical fact that the first vessel of war ever
built in Russia was launched at Nijni by a company of merchants
from Holstein, who obtained permission in the seventeenth century
to open a trade with Persia and India by way of the Caspian sea.
The vessel was called the Friedrich. The travels of Olearius were in
connection with this undertaking, of which there is a great history, to
be recounted on some other occasion.
The town has many fine modern buildings. In the ordinary way,
the best view to be had of it and the surrounding country is from the
“Otkos” or terrace built by order of the Emperor Nicholas.[11] It is
said to be one of the best views in Europe. As far as the eye can
reach extends the vast alluvial plain, rich with culture, and
occasionally dotted with forests; whilst the Volga, flowing down from
Tver, looks like a broad blue ribbon stretched over the country from
one extremity of the horizon to the other. Much of the plain below is
inundated in spring by the overflowing of the river, leaving a fertile
deposit which considerably enhances the value of the land. The
stationary population of the town does not exceed 30,000 or 40,000,
but during the fair the inhabitants swell up to considerably over
200,000; and this quite irrespective of prodigious numbers of casual
visitors. The ancient Kremlin, with its low arched gates, whitewashed
towers, and crenellated walls, is one of the sights of the place. The
thick green foliage of the gardens and the gay residences of the
inhabitants all blend into a very picturesque whole.
Site of the Fair.—We must next take a glance at the site of the fair,
which is outside the town, and can hardly be seen from the gates.
Turn then from the Volga, or Asiatic direction, and there, across the
Oka (here about a quarter of a mile broad), is a low, almost
inundated flat, of triangular shape, between the two rivers. This was
regarded as the most convenient site. Great difficulties were
presented by the swampy nature of the soil. Deep sewers vaulted
over were constructed through the morass; these being connected
by canals with the rivers. The buildings for the bazaars were raised
on piles, and the whole boggy surface of the plain was covered to
the depth of some feet with gravel and clean sand. Through this the
ordinary surface water and the inundated flow percolates, and
leaves clean passages or roads. In the midst of the plain is the great
bazaar—an immense rectangular market-place—divided by lanes or
passages, intersecting at right angles into sixty-four square groups
of warehouses, or blocks of stone-built buildings, two storeys high,
with projecting verandahs, so as to shelter goods and passengers
from the sun or rain; containing, besides some public offices in the
centre, 2,522 large stores for merchandise, to each of which is a
small chamber for the merchant.
The connecting streets are some thirty or forty yards wide; and
the centre avenue is yet much wider, and planted with trees. These
streets much resemble those of Cairo, Smyrna, and other oriental
towns. In the centre of that block of permanent buildings is located
the official residence of the governor during the fair, as also all the
business offices for the administration. It was in this official
residence that the Duke of Edinburgh stayed during his visit to the
fair a few years since. It is equivalent to the royal pavilion of some of
the early English fairs. The principal avenues of the fair are
connected with some ten miles of wharves or river frontage; and
during the fair bridges are erected so as to give easy access from
the town to the fair. The cost of preparing the site and the principal
buildings was forty millions of roubles—£1,670,000 sterling. The fair,
however, has long outgrown the original limits, and miles of
temporary structures spring into existence for the occasion. It
extends over some seven or eight square miles!
Unloading.—As the period of the fair approaches, the ordinary
desolation of the location passes rapidly away. The rivers, busy
indeed at all times when navigation is possible, now become almost
blocked by traffic. A perfect forest of masts is visible. All distinct
trace of the ordinary bridge of boats seems lost. The 400 or 500
steamers, built mainly in England and Belgium, which in the ordinary
way are trading on the 1,600 miles from this to the Caspian sea, all
seem concentrated here. They dart about like straws on these
mighty rivers. But more striking-looking are the quaint mediæval-
looking barges, coming as they do from the most distant parts of the
empire, piloted through canals and rivers in order to find their
appointed place here. These are all being rapidly discharged of their
cargoes by an army of ragged Tartar labourers. Here will be found
merchandise from every quarter of the globe; merchandise which
has in some cases been several years on its way hither; merchandise
which comes from localities so remote as not to be brought into
voluntary association with this fair. Centuries ago, we are told by the
historian of Genoa, the Genoese merchants built larger ships than
were required for their regular trading operations, ships calculated to
withstand the terrors of the Bay of Biscay, and the storms of the
German Ocean, in order to make voyages to the Hanseatic towns, to
Wisburg and Gotland, as also to the coast of Russia in order to
participate in this great fair (Bent’s “Genoa,” 1881, p. 107).
The Fair.—And now we arrive at the fair itself. Round the public
offices in the centre are ranged the European wares, the French
millinery, and English broadcloth. Next follow the Armenians, a
numerous and distinguished class in every commercial assemblage
throughout the East. Near these the Bokharians usually range
themselves, and they are easily distinguishable from other Asiatics
by their squat corpulent figures and dark complexions. Nearly a
whole side of the bazaar is occupied by the Chinese market, in which
the shops are all laid out in Chinese fashion. Tea is the chief article
of the Chinese trade; and on this portion of the fair I shall speak
later. Beyond the stone buildings of the bazaar commence the rows
of wooden booths in which the motley Siberian and Tartar tribes
establish themselves with their furs and peltry; the most remarkable
to a European eye, though not the least common of their wares,
being the dark mouse-coloured hide of the wild horse, with black
mane and streak along the back, much prized by the Bashkirs and
other tribes for its warmth as well as beauty.
The wine trade has never constituted a great feature of the fair,
although wine skins from the Caucasus may be seen; and many of
the brands of southern Russia may be found on application.
Most of the streets of the fair have elegant light arcades on each
side, supported in front by cast-iron columns, where purchasers can
walk about, well sheltered in all kinds of weather. The stalls are
generally very handsome, and in some instances extend from street
to street, so as to leave two fronts. They present nothing of the
confusion of an ordinary fair; the goods of every kind are as neatly
ranged as in the shops of a city. To facilitate business there is a
separate quarter set apart for each different and important class of
goods. One quarter contains groceries, of which the value sold is
very great. In another, dried fish and caviar are exposed in most
fragrant variety, of which great quantities are sold, amounting to
about £60,000 in value. I may here remark that the annual value of
the sturgeon alone taken in the Volga is estimated at two and half
millions of roubles; and above 30,000 barrels of caviar have been
dispatched from Astrakhan in a single year. A third quarter contains
leather articles of every kind, which may be bought exceedingly
cheap; boots and shoes are disposed of in very large quantities.
Morocco leather is also sold wholesale to a very large amount. A
great deal of it comes from Astrakhan, where, as in other parts of
European Russia, goats are kept for the use of their hides to make
this leather, more than for their milk or flesh. The pleasant soap of
Kasan is sold in large quantities. One is glad to find that it is in such
demand.
The iron and iron-ware stored in the mile of shops where nothing
but this metal is sold, has been brought at immense expense from
Siberia; yet much of it in its original crude state probably came from
Tula, not a great distance from where it is now, in its highly finished
form, exposed for sale. Weapons and glittering arms of all kinds
occupy conspicuous places in the hardware stores. There is, as a
set-off, a very considerable supply of holy images and priestly
vestments!
The cloth range is large and well stocked. One quarter contains
ready-made clothes of all descriptions. The cloaks alike for men and
women are made from stuffs with most singular patterns. Some of
the figured works from Asia are really beautiful. The value of the
woollen goods (Russian and foreign) sold annually is seldom less
than three millions of roubles—£375,000. The quarter for fancy
articles—gloves, handkerchiefs, ribbons, &c.,—is always crowded
with purchasers, attracted by the graces of the fair occupants from
Rue St. Honoré. The division for cotton goods is fully stocked. The
mills of England are largely drawn upon for these; but they are not
in the hands of Englishmen at this fair. The value of cotton goods
sold here averages about twenty-two million roubles—£2,750,000! A
grand display is made by the silks and shawls, chiefly of oriental
manufacture, and hence in very brilliant colours. The manufactured
silks disposed of here yearly are estimated at ten and half millions of
roubles, or £1,312,000; while of raw silk there is sold over 300,000
lbs. The furniture shops constitute a great feature of the fair; and
one can but be surprised to see costly carved tables, chairs, sofas,
and still more large and valuable mirrors from France and St.
Petersburg. Glass and crystal articles, mainly from Bohemia,
constitute a very attractive display, while the jewellery alike of
Europe and of Asia is always a source of considerable attraction, and
the means of creating a large expenditure of cash. The precious
stones from Bokhara and other parts of Central Asia are placed in
the most tempting prominence and profusion. But beware of
talismans and turquoises that appear to be cheap; they will probably
be found equally cheap and much more satisfactory nearer home.
The malachite and lapis-lazuli ornaments and other stones from
Siberia are sometimes good investments; but some expert
knowledge is required. Curious belts of silver may be purchased, but
not without long bargaining. The hall-mark is represented by the
number 84. There is a stall for the sale of ornaments in gold and
silver, set with Siberian and Persian stones. Beware! But it is
impossible to recount in any detail all that may be purchased or
seen.
The Tea Quarter.—One of the most singular sights of the fair is the
tea quarter, which occupies the greater portion of an immense
division standing by itself, and distinguishable by its Chinese
architecture. The Chinese superintend this business themselves, or
rather formerly did so. Along the wharves enormous pyramids of
chests of tea are heaped upon the ground, covered only with
matting made from the inner bark of the birch tree. These chests of
tea, called “tsibiki,” are so packed as to be impervious to rain or
damp. Outside the ordinary wooden chest is a covering of
wickerwork of cane or bamboo, round which, at Kiakhta, raw bull-
hides are tightly stretched, with the hair inwards. These chests arrive
at Nijni from China, having been received in barter, at Kiakhta or
Maimatchin, on the Chinese border of Russia. The Russians, who are
great tea drinkers, are accustomed to the higher qualities of tea
grown in North China; but these are now quite as easily obtained
from Canton as from Kiakhta (which see), and it is said (contrary to
former belief) that the sea carriage has no deteriorating effect
whatever. Here may be seen some kinds of tea which scarcely ever
enter into the English trade, viz. yellow and brick, the former of a
delicious fragrance and very pale, but injurious to the nerves if taken
very frequently; it is handed round after dinner, in lieu of coffee, in
Russia. The brick tea is consumed by the Kalmucks and Kirghizes of
the Steppe. The best yellow tea sells for about 35s. per pound. The
tea trade of the fair has shown a tendency to decrease.
Outskirts of the Fair.—To the casual visitor the outskirts of the fair
are almost more interesting than its centre, for observation and
study. The constant succession of carts in long strings; the crowds of
labourers; the knots of earnest-looking traders with long beards; the
itinerant vendors of liquid refreshments and white rabbit-skins; the
greasy slovenly monk collecting kopecks of those who fear to
withhold their charity lest their transactions be influenced by the Evil
One; the frequent beggars, pleading for the most part that they
have been burned out, and showing the most dreadful-looking sores
as evidence of their veracity; all these go to make up the great
assemblage, the unique tout ensemble of the great fair of Nijni-
Novgorod as it has been, and is to-day. How long will it remain?
Administration of Fair.—The administration of the fair is carried on
under the supervision of the Governor of the Province; the
arrangement of all commercial matters and adjustment of difficulties
being entrusted to a committee of gentlemen called the “Fair
Committee,” chosen from among the assembled merchants. This
committee consists of a president, three aldermen, and three
committee-men, besides the manager of the fair-office and the
mayor of the town of Nijni. The management of all Government
property is in the hands of this committee. The letting of shops and
store-houses and the erection of bridges and all temporary works
comes also within their province. The conditions on which the shops
and stores built by Government are let to merchants and dealers are
exceedingly liberal, and this rent is the sole profit made by
Government on the transactions of the fair. No imposts of any kind
are levied in the shape of licences or duties. Shops are let to the first
applicant, the sole reservation being that the occupier of the
previous year has a prior claim. In order to promote competition,
each row of buildings is devoted to a certain kind of merchandise,
thus obliging the merchants to endeavour to undersell one another.
To prevent monopolies or over-speculation, no merchant is allowed
to hire more than three consecutive shops, nor is he allowed to
occupy more than one shop unless they adjoin each other. The
number of shops let in 1874 was 6,086, and their total rent
amounted to something over £28,000.
The fair lasts six weeks—the really busy period being from the
18th to 27th August, when the height is reached. Some fifteen days
beyond are allowed for the settlement of accounts. The usance of
the fair is twelve months credit, i.e. from one great fair to the
following; but sometimes, in dull times, and under special
circumstances, as much as two years credit is given. This was
particularly the case in 1849.
Trade of the Fair.—The annual trade of the fair has been the
subject of various conjectures; but I believe the Government of the
Province has caused careful estimates to be made from time to time.
In 1697 the trade of the fair was estimated at £12,000 per annum—
evidently far too low. In 1790 it was stated to be £4,500,000!
The following are the details of the principal branches of the fair in
1849, which were understood to be less than the transactions of the
preceding year: money being scarce, and there was a stagnation in
the grain trade. The total estimate of the Russian produce offered
for sale was £7,916,016, of which there were sold raw produce
£1,917,940; provisions £858,684; home manufactures £3,981,716—
total £6,758,340, leaving £1,157,675 unsold. The value of the
foreign goods and produce was estimated at £2,430,191; of these
Asiatic articles sold to the extent of £1,329,131; European raw
materials £493,955, and manufactured goods £204,888—leaving
£402,217 unsold. So that the total merchandise at the fair was
estimated at the value of 10½ millions sterling, of which about nine
millions were sold.
In Murray’s “Handbook of Russia,” written by Mr. Michell, the then
well-known British Consul, and published in 1868, it is stated that
the aggregate sale and purchases at the fair represented about
sixteen millions sterling; which dealings were conducted by from
150,000 to 200,000 traders from the various countries of Europe and
Asia.
Mr. Doria, secretary of the British Embassy at St. Petersburg,
reported that the trade of the fair had increased from about six
millions sterling in 1847 to over £20,000,000 in 1874 (165 millions of
roubles), when upwards of 6,000 shops were let. The iron sold in
various forms amounted to 5,557,800 pouds of 36 lbs.—the value
being £2,193,812. Tea of the value of about £1,200,000 was sold.
At the fair of 1879 the iron trade figured largely, and the following
facts were obtained regarding the supplies. The Russian ironmasters
sent 15,130,498 pouds (1 poud = 36 lbs.) of wrought iron, steel,
and metal work, of the value of 7,528,350 roubles. A considerable
amount was also imported into the iron ports of the Volga, viz. at
Laïchev, 1,337,541 pouds; Kasan, 16,474; Simbirsk, 22,066; Saratov,
92,361; Rostov, on the Don, 67,762. Cast iron was not in great force,
there being only 530,488 pouds, of the value of 412,475 roubles.
One of the largest contributions was sent from the works of Count
Strogonof, being 6,725,588 pouds.
Revenue of the Fair.—The fair constitutes a source of State
revenue. When in 1751 the fair first became the property of the
State, its tolls or revenues were farmed at about £150 per annum.
In the reign of the Emperor Paul (end of last century) the farmer of
the tolls engaged to build a new bazaar, and to pay £4,500 a year
into the exchequer. In 1824 a new governor’s house, bazaar, and
shops were erected, already described, and an annual sum of
£8,000, part of the rental of these, was appropriated to pay the cost
of these buildings. The rental, as we have seen, is now
approximating to £30,000.
A “charity dormitory” was fitted up by Count Ignatieff, with
accommodation for some 250 houseless vagrants; but if all of this
class who are present were to apply for admission, probably
accommodation for 20,000 would be needed!
The mode of estimating the number of persons attending the fair
is peculiarly ingenious. The bakers are required to make daily returns
of the quantity of bread they sell, and in this manner an
approximation is arrived at. Of those present at the fair, only about
one in a hundred are female.
It may be remarked that there is an excellent restaurant under the
governor’s house in the fair. Some of the refreshment booths in the
fair present a remarkable sight, and, we may fairly add, smell! The
“Armenian kitchen” is one of the sights. Excellent horse-flesh may be
had at the Tartar restaurants!
The passport system has been abolished as to persons attending
the fair, the governor finding it impossible to examine, or indeed
even to open the 40,000 documents per day that were formerly sent
in. Besides, identification is out of the question; and the pick-pocket
fraternity use to purchase, or more appropriately steal, the
authorization they required under the old system.
Sanitary Arrangements.—The sanitary arrangements of the fair
constitute by no means an unimportant feature. To a sometimes
tropical heat there is the usual accompaniment of clouds of finely
pulverised dust. The Easterns assembled are not proverbial for
habits of personal cleanliness. There is indeed an aroma
unmistakable. The sewers are flushed several times a day by means
of water drawn from Lake Mestcherski, giving a fall of six yards into
the river Oka. Round the central bazaar is a small canal, provided in
case of outbreak of fire, and found valuable on many occasions.
Smoking is prohibited within the limits of the fair under a fine of
twenty-five roubles. The fair is guarded by a special service of
Cossacks and police.
Amongst the amusements are a theatre with a very good ballet,
for which latter Russia is famous.
There is a belief that the glory of the fair is departing. Wallace, in
his “Russia,” 1877 (ii. 196-7), says:—“I went to the great fair—and
was disappointed. All the descriptions of it which I have read are
much too highly coloured. ‘The motley crowds of Orientals,
representing every country in the East,’ is not visible to the naked
eye of a prosaic observer. A few Georgians, Persians, and Bokhariots
may be seen sitting at their booths or strolling about; but they are
neither very picturesque nor very interesting in any way. There is a
‘Chinese Row’ where tea is sold, and where the roofs of the booths
show traces of the influence of pagoda architecture; but I find there
no children of the Celestial Empire. As to the various kinds of
merchandise, they may all be seen to much better advantage in the
shops and bazaars of Moscow. Altogether, I should advise the
traveller not to go very far out of his way to visit this great annual
gathering, which is commonly spoken of by Russians—especially by
those of them who have never seen it—as if it were one of the seven
wonders of the world.” This is in conformity with the general
depreciatory style of the entire work.
I ought not to omit mention of a little privately-printed book, “The
Great Fair of Nijni Novogorod, and How we got there.” By William
Forsyth, Q.C. (1865.) He too was disappointed with the fair.
Two smaller Fairs.—Beyond the great fair which I have now
described as fully as space would permit, there are two other fairs at
Nijni, which, however, are little visited by foreigners. The one held in
January on the ice, at the mouth of the Oka, is devoted to the
selling of wooden wares, such as boxes and toys. Great numbers of
people come to this fair from the neighbouring villages. In January,
1864, the ice on which the booths and inns were constructed gave
way, and a considerable number of men, women, children, and
horses miserably perished by drowning. Since then this winter fair
can hardly be said to have revived.
The other fair held on 6th July (N. S.) is for the sale of horses.
CHAPTER XXIV.
FAIRS OF ASIATIC RUSSIA.
Irbit, in the government of Perm, in Asiatic Russia.—The town is
small, with a population of little more than 1,000. It is enclosed with
palisades, and contains two churches and a market-place
surrounded with shops. Here in past times a noted fair was held
annually, attended by Russian merchants on their way to Kiakhta. In
more recent times it has been superseded by the fairs of
Yekaterinburg and Nijni.
Kiakhta (sometimes designated Maimatchin, the depot for
commerce).—This town is situated in Asiatic Russia, in the
government of Irkutsk, on the Chinese frontier. The fair appears to
have been established by treaty between China and Russia towards
the latter part of the sixteenth century. The mode of business is after
the fashion of those early barter marts, which fairs originally were.
The reason for this state of things here is that the Russians are
prohibited from exporting their coin, and there is no rate of
exchange or other facilities for bills of exchange between the two
countries. The Russian commodities are transported by land from St.
Petersburg and Moscow to Tobolsk. From thence the merchants and
merchandise may embark upon the Irtish down to its junction with
the Oby; they can then work up the last-named river as far as
Narym, where they enter the Ket, which they ascend to Makoffskoi-
Osteog. At that place the merchandise is conveyed about ninety
versts on land to the Yenisie. It is then necessary to ascend that
river, the Tunguska, and Angara to Irkutsk, cross the Baikal Lake,
and go up the river Selenga almost to Kiakhta. On account of the
labour of working up so many rapid rivers, and of the incessant
transhipments—which can hardly be accomplished in one summer—
many prefer to go overland altogether. They make as a general
rendezvous the town of Irbit, where a considerable fair was formerly
held. From thence the progress is in sledges during the winter to
Kiakhta, which is usually reached in February—the season in which
the chief commerce is carried on with the Chinese. The Russian
merchants purchase on their way all the furs they can find in the
small towns, where they are brought from the adjacent countries.
When they return in the spring with the Chinese goods, chiefly tea,
occupying great bulk, the water route is preferred. Formerly the
woollen cloths of Prussia were conveyed to this fair in large
quantities—to the value of some £1,500,000—by the Russian
merchants. The manufactories of Poland and Russia now furnish the
cloth taken to China.
The mode of procedure in the dealings is this: The Chinese
merchant comes and examines the goods he requires in the
warehouse of the Russian trader. When the price is settled, the
goods are sealed in the presence of the Chinese. Both parties then
repair to the Mai-ma-tshin, where the Russian chooses his
commodities, and leaves behind him a person of confidence, who
remains in the warehouse until the Russian goods are delivered.
About 8,000,000 lbs. of tea, of which two-thirds are of superior
quality, were formerly taken into Russia as the proceeds of this
barter. There is a small duty levied on the produce of each country.
The trade has fallen off since sea-borne tea became prevalent. Much
of this now goes to Odessa through the Suez Canal.
Yekaterinburg (or Ekaterinburg or Jekaterinburg), in the
government of Perm in Asiatic Russia, forming the capital of the
mining districts of the Ural. It is a modern place, and a considerable
fair has sprung up, superseding that formerly held at Irbit.
FOOTNOTES
[1] We shall find that at a later period the sale of slaves was
introduced into the fairs and markets of England and the north of
Europe generally.
[2] Suetonius records that Claudius Cæsar made suit unto the
Consuls for a licence to hold fairs and markets for his own private
manors and lands.—Sueton., ch. xxii.
[3] The protection from “evil tolls” was also a matter of great
consequence. It was to be regarded as a security from paying so
large a custom or imposition upon any goods that the fair profit is
lost therein, and the trade thereby prevented. The original term
expressive of this is Mala Tolneta, the word toll or tolt being
derived from the Saxon Tholl, Low Latin Tolnetum, or
Theolonium, which signifies a payment in markets, towns, and
fairs, for goods and cattle bought and sold. It also stands for any
manner of custom, subsidy, imposition, or sum of money taken of
the buyer for the importing or exporting of any wares; and it may
be assumed that the words in Magna Charta were used in their
evident sense. The compound word Mala-tolneta, which appears
in the original text, signifies bad or evil tolls, or unjust exactions.
In the later statutes it is rendered into French by the ancient term
Maletout (Vide R. Thomson’s “Notes on the Great Charters,”
1829).
[4] In illustration of the early custom of holding foreigners
living or trading in England responsible for the offences and
crimes of other foreigners, the following instance may be given.
In 1301 a person belonging to the house of the Spini, of Florence,
was killed in a squabble with some other people belonging to the
same house in England, and the guilty person having absconded,
the officers of justice seized the bodies and goods of other
persons belonging to the company, and also (luckily for the
merchants), a sum of money collected by them in Ireland for the
Pope, and some merchandise purchased on his account. He (the
Pope) immediately sent a Bull to England requiring the liberation
of the people and property arrested (“Fœdera,” v. ii., p. 891).
[5] This practice remained in force in France from the age of
Charlemagne down to our own times.
[6] It had before this time been quite customary to hold fairs in
churchyards.
[7] In the days of slavery in the United States of America, there
was in frequent use the following couplet:
“The Lord him knows the nigger well,

He knows the nigger by the smell,” &c.
[8] The Vagrancy and Mendicity Acts were called into aid.
Under these, “homeless beggars” were to be sent to their own
parish. It is probable that the numbers were too great to be dealt
with efficiently.
[9] James VI. of Scotland adopted Troy-weight in 1618; but
curiously the Troy-weight (Scots) coincided more nearly with
Avoirdupois.
[10] The name signifies Lower New Town, to distinguish it from
Novgorod the Great on the Volkhof, North-Western Russia.
[11] This terrace is locally known as Mouravieff’s Folly, in
consequence of a tower built by him, upon which he designed to
place a facsimile of the famous Strasburg clock, but on so
gigantic a scale that the hours and minutes, the moon’s phases,
and planets, cycles, &c., should be distinctly visible from every
locality of the town and fair!
INDEX.
Accounts, settling of, at fairs, 9.
Actors at Sturbridge fair, 128, 144.
Aix-la-Chapelle, early fair of, 7.
Alarm bells at fairs, 6.
Ale at fairs, price fixed, 81, 82.
tested, 82.
Alfred the Great, did he introduce fairs? 19.
Amphyctionic fairs, 3.
Anglo-Saxon fairs, 13.
Antwerp, influence of fairs, 10.
“Ara,” the signal of the money-changers, 9.
Armour from Milan sold at Sturbridge fair, 163.
Asia, early fairs in, 19.
Assize of bread, wine, and beer, 63.
Bacon fair of Paris, 282.

Bailey, Mr., manager of company of comedians, 150.
Bailiffs at Sturbridge fair, 78.
Bakers at fairs, 80, 81, 84, 155.
Barnwell Abbey, history of, 148.
Barnwell (Cambridge) fair, 13, 59, 69, 75.
Bartholomew fair, origin of, 164.
charter, 167.
new charter, 173, 175.
right of holding challenged, 173.
review of during four centuries, 181.
disputation of scholars in, 182.
described by a foreigner, 188.
proclaimed by City of London, 190.
unauthorized proclamation of, 205.
proclamation discontinued, 242.
under the Commonwealth, 201, 204.
described (1641), 199.
visited by a Frenchman, 215.
surveyed by Hone, 236.
threatened, 210, 213, 217, 229, 232, 240.
duration limited, 221, 223, 227, 229, 233.
cash taken by shows, &c., 239.
suppression of, 223.
the end, 240.
new, 241.
Beaucaire (France), fair of, 262.
Bells for giving alarm at fairs, 6.
Beer, sale of, at Sturbridge fair, 155.
Berdicheff (Russia), fair of, 285.
Besançon, fair of, 263.
Bible references to fairs, 5.
Bills of exchange at fairs, 267.
Blackstone on fairs and markets, 15.
Book sale at Sturbridge fair, 126.
Book stalls at Bartholomew fair, 239.
Books at the fairs of Lyons, 269.
Booths in Barnwell fair, 60.
bequests of, 66, 67, 68, 79.
Booths in Sturbridge fair, 102, 103, 112, 118, 132, 141.
Bordeaux, fair of, 264.
Borough laws of Scotland, 27.
Braisne-le-Comte (France), fair of, 283.
Bread, assize of, 191.
Bridewell boys at Bartholomew fair, 231.
Brie (France), fairs of, 8, 245.
Bristol, fair at, 35, 66.
Bruges (Flanders), fair of, 8.
Butchers to sell good meat, 84.
Caen (Normandy), fair of, 264.

Calendar, alteration of, 47, 230.
Cambridge, fairs of, 35, 55.
Cambridge town, conflict with university, 56, 104.
Cambridge university, rights in Sturbridge fair, 70, 74.
Carter’s account of Sturbridge fair, 144.
Cash receipts of shows, &c., at Bartholomew fair, 239.
Cattle fair at Smithfield, 210, 224.
Champagne, fair of, 8.
Champagne and Brie, fairs of, 245.

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Chapter 1 Carrier Injection and Drift Transport....................................................1

Chapter 2 Diffusion Transport............................................................................. 21

Chapter 3 Drift-­Diffusion Transport.................................................................... 35

Chapter 4 Transport in Disordered Media........................................................... 59

4.5 Multiple Trapping in Exponential DOS................................... 71

Chapter 5 Thin Film Transistors.......................................................................... 93

Chapter 6 Space-­Charge-­Limited Transport..................................................... 117

Chapter 7 Impedance and Capacitance Spectroscopies.................................... 131

1. Nanostructured Energy Devices: Equilibrium Concepts and Kinetics (ECK)

Although each volume is independent, they have cross citations (indicated by

1.1 TRANSPORT BY DRIFT IN THE ELECTRICAL FIELD

jtot = jcond + jdisp . (1.1)

The displacement current was discussed in Section ECK.3.10 and it is associated

The total electrical current across the device is

where A is the area of the electrode.

We consider the transport of a charge carrier with concentration ci (cm−3) and a

Comparing Equation 1.8, we observe that

In general, mobility is a function of the electrical field or charge density and

Electron energy –qV

The electronic carrier mobility in semiconductors is strongly dependent on scat-

u(E) = u0 exp γ E .( ) (1.12)

The electrical current density j carried by species i is

In a situation of transport by drift in an electrical field, the electrical conductivity

The total electrical conductivity is henceforth given by

section, we focus on a discussion of transport features neglecting recombination. If

Ag (111) Diamond polish

Work function Measured position

Evac 1.0 eV Evac

FIGURE 1.8 Potential energy distribution at the metal–­organic contact in Arkhipov’s

1.3 THE METAL-­INSULATOR-­METAL MODEL

governed by drift transport, according to Equation 1.15. If the number of carriers is

where Δφ is defined as the difference of potentials across the insulator

∆ dr ϕ = ϕ(d ) − ϕ(0) . (1.20)

∆ dr ϕ = Vbia ,c + Vapp . (1.24)

Equilibrium Forward voltage

1.4 THE TIME-­OF-­FLIGHT METHOD

Horse and Cattle Fairs.

“The Lord him knows the nigger well,

Chapter 3 Drift-Diffusion Transport.................................................................... 35

Chapter 6 Space-Charge-Limited Transport..................................................... 117

1.1 TRANSPORT BY DRIFT IN THE ELECTRICAL FIELD

FIGURE 1.8 Potential energy distribution at the metal–organic contact in Arkhipov’s

1.3 THE METAL-INSULATOR-METAL MODEL

1.4 THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT METHOD