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As you have read earlier, oxygen (O2

) is utilised by the organisms to
indirectly break down simple molecules like glucose, amino
acids, fatty
acids, etc., to derive energy to perform various activities.
Carbon dioxide
(CO2
) which is harmful is also released during the above
catabolic
reactions. It is, therefore, evident that O2
has to be continuously provided
to the cells and CO2 produced by the cells have to be
released out. This
process of exchange of O2
from the atmosphere with CO2
produced by the
cells is called breathing, commonly known as respiration.
Place your
hands on your chest; you can feel the chest moving up and
down. You
know that it is due to breathing. How do we breathe? The
respiratory
organs and the mechanism of breathing are described in
the following
sections of this chapter.
14.1 RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of
animals
depending mainly on their habitats and levels of
organisation. Lower
invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc.,
exchange O2
with CO2
by simple diffusion over their entire body surface.
Earthworms
use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes
(tracheal
tubes) to transport atmospheric air within the body. Special
vascularised

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structures called gills (branchial respiration) are used by
most of the
aquatic arthropods and molluscs whereas vascularised
bags called lungs
(pulmonary respiration) are used by the terrestrial forms
for the exchange
of gases. Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas
amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals respire through lungs. Amphibians like
frogs can
respire through their moist skin (cutaneous respiration)
also.
14.1.1 Human Respiratory System
We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the
upper lips.
It leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage. The
nasal
chamber opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is the
common
passage for food and air. The pharynx opens through the
larynx region
into the trachea. Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps
in sound
production and hence called the sound box. During
swallowing glottis
can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called
epiglottis to
prevent the entry of food into the larynx. Trachea is a
straight tube
extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity, which divides at
the level of
5th thoracic vertebra into a right and left primary bronchi.
Each bronchi
undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and
tertiary bronchi
and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal
bronchioles. The
tracheae, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and
initial
bronchioles are supported by incomplete cartilaginous
rings. Each
terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin,

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irregular-walled
and vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli. The
branching
network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the
lungs (Figure
14.1). We have two lungs which are covered by a double
layered pleura,
with pleural fluid between them. It reduces friction on the
lung-surface.
The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the
thoracic lining whereas the inner pleural membrane is in
contact with the lung
surface. The part starting with the external nostrils up to
the terminal
bronchioles constitute the conducting part whereas the
alveoli and their
ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the
respiratory system.
The conducting part transports the atmospheric air to the
alveoli, clears
it from foreign particles, humidifies and also brings the air
to body
temperature. Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of
O2
and CO2
between blood and atmospheric air.
The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is
anatomically
an air-tight chamber. The thoracic chamber is formed
dorsally by the
vertebral column, ventrally by the sternum, laterally by the
ribs and on
the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm. The
anatomical setup of
lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the
thoracic
cavity will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity. Such
an
arrangement is essential for breathing, as we cannot
directly alter the
pulmonary volume.
Respiration involves the following steps:

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(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which
atmospheric air
is drawn in and CO2
rich alveolar air is released out.
(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2
and CO2
) across alveolar membrane.
(iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2
and CO2
between blood and tissues.
(v) Utilisation of O2
by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant
release of CO2
(cellular respiration as dealt in the Chapter 12).
14.2 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Breathing involves two stages : inspiration during which
atmospheric
air is drawn in and expiration by which the alveolar air is
released out.
The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out
by creating a
pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
Inspiration
can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary
pressure) is
less than the atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a negative
pressure in
the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure. Similarly,
expiration takes
place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the
atmospheric
pressure. The diaphragm and a specialised set of muscles –
external and
internal intercostals between the ribs, help in generation of
such gradients.
Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of diaphragm
which increases
the volume of thoracic chamber in the antero-posterior
axis. The
contraction of external inter-costal muscles lifts up the ribs
and the sternum causing an increase in the volume of

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the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.
The overall increase in the thoracic volume
causes a similar increase in pulmonary
volume. An increase in pulmonary volume
decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less
than the atmospheric pressure which forces
the air from outside to move into the lungs,
i.e., inspiration (Figure 14.2a). Relaxation of
the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles
returns the diaphragm and sternum to their
normal positions and reduce the thoracic
volume and thereby the pulmonary volume.
This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary
pressure to slightly above the atmospheric
pressure causing the expulsion of air from the
lungs, i.e., expiration (Figure 14.2b). We have
the ability to increase the strength of
inspiration and expiration with the help of
additional muscles in the abdomen. On an
average, a healthy human breathes 12-16
times/minute. The volume of air involved in
breathing movements can be estimated by
using a spirometer which helps in clinical
assessment of pulmonary functions.
14.2.1 Respiratory Volumes and
Capacities
Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or
expired during a normal respiration. It is
approx. 500 mL., i.e., a healthy man can
inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000
mL of air per minute.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):
Additional volume of air, a person can inspire
by a forcible inspiration. This averages 2500
mL to 3000 mL.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):
Additional volume of air, a person can expire
by a forcible expiration. This averages 1000
mL to 1100 mL. Residual Volume (RV): Volume of air
remaining in the lungs even after a
forcible expiration. This averages 1100 mL to 1200 mL.
By adding up a few respiratory volumes described above,

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one can
derive various pulmonary capacities, which can be used in
clinical
diagnosis.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): Total volume of air a person can
inspire
after a normal expiration. This includes tidal volume and
inspiratory
reserve volume ( TV+IRV).
Expiratory Capacity (EC): Total volume of air a person can
expire after
a normal inspiration. This includes tidal volume and
expiratory reserve
volume (TV+ERV).
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Volume of air that will
remain in
the lungs after a normal expiration. This includes ERV+RV.
Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum volume of air a person
can breathe in
after a forced expiration. This includes ERV, TV and IRV or
the maximum
volume of air a person can breathe out after a forced
inspiration.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Total volume of air
accommodated in the
lungs at the end of a forced inspiration. This includes RV,
ERV, TV and
IRV or vital capacity + residual volume.
14.3 EXCHANGE OF GASES
Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.
Exchange of gases also
occur between blood and tissues. O2
and CO2
are exchanged in these
sites by simple diffusion mainly based on
pressure/concentration
gradient. Solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of
the membranes
involved in diffusion are also some important factors that
can affect the
rate of diffusion.
Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of

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gases is
called partial pressure and is represented as pO2
for oxygen and pCO2
for
carbon dioxide. Partial pressures of these two gases in the
atmospheric
air and the two sites of diffusion are given in Table 14.1 and
in
Figure 14.3. The data given in the table clearly indicates a
concentration
gradient for oxygen from alveoli to blood and blood to
tissues. Similarly, a gradient is present for CO2
in the opposite direction, i.e., from tissues to
blood and blood to alveoli. As the solubility of CO2
is 20-25 times higher
than that of O2
, the amount of CO2
that can diffuse through the diffusion
membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much
higher compared
to that of O2
. The diffusion membrane
is made up of three major layers
(Figure 14.4) namely, the thin squamous
epithelium of alveoli, the endothelium of
alveolar capillaries and the basement
substance (composed of a thin basement
membrane supporting the squamous
epithelium and the basement membrane
surrounding the single layer endothelial
cells of capillaries) in between them.
However, its total thickness is much less
than a millimetre. Therefore, all the factors
in our body are favourable for diffusion of
O2
from alveoli to tissues and that of CO2
from tissues to alveoli. 14.4 TRANSPORT OF GASES
Blood is the medium of transport for O2
and CO2
. About 97 per cent of O2
is
transported by RBCs in the blood. The remaining 3 per cent

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of O2
is carried
in a dissolved state through the plasma. Nearly 20-25 per
cent of CO2
is
transported by RBCs whereas 70 per cent of it is carried as
bicarbonate.
About 7 per cent of CO2
is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
14.4.1 Transport of Oxygen
Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment
present in the
RBCs. O2
can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form
oxyhaemoglobin. Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a
maximum of
four molecules of O2
. Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily
related to partial pressure of O2
. Partial pressure of CO2
, hydrogen ion
concentration and temperature are the other factors which
can interfere
with this binding. A sigmoid curve is obtained when
percentage saturation
of haemoglobin with O2
is plotted against the
pO2
. This curve is called the Oxygen
dissociation curve (Figure 14.5) and is highly
useful in studying the effect of factors like
pCO2
, H+
concentration, etc., on binding of O2
with haemoglobin. In the alveoli, where there
is high pO2
, low pCO2
, lesser H+
concentration
and lower temperature, the factors are
all favourable for the formation of
oxyhaemoglobin, whereas in the tissues,

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where low pO2
, high pCO2
, high H+
concentration and higher temperature exist,
the conditions are favourable for dissociation
of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin. This
clearly indicates that O2
gets bound to
haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets
dissociated at the tissues. Every 100 ml of
oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of
O2
to the tissues under normal physiological
conditions.
14.4.2 Transport of Carbon dioxide
CO2
is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin
(about
20-25 per cent). This binding is related to the partial
pressure of CO2
.
pO2
is a major factor which could affect this binding. When
pCO2
is high
and pO2
is low as in the tissues, more binding of carbon dioxide
occurs
whereas, when the pCO2
is low and pO2
is high as in the alveoli, dissociation of CO2
from carbamino-haemoglobin takes place, i.e., CO2
which is bound
to haemoglobin from the tissues is delivered at the alveoli.
RBCs contain
a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic
anhydrase and minute
quantities of the same is present in the plasma too. This
enzyme facilitates
the following reaction in both directions.
CO H O H CO
Carbonic

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anhydrase
Carbonic
anhydra
22+← → 23
se
← → HCO H+
−+
3
At the tissue site where partial pressure of CO2
is high due to
catabolism, CO2
diffuses into blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms HCO3
–
and H+,. At the alveolar site where pCO2
is low, the reaction proceeds in
the opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2
and H2O. Thus,
CO2
trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported
to the
alveoli is released out as CO2 (Figure 14.4). Every 100 ml of
deoxygenated
blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2
to the alveoli.
14.5 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Human beings have a significant ability to maintain and
moderate the
respiratory rhythm to suit the demands of the body tissues.
This is done
by the neural system. A specialised centre present in the
medulla region
of the brain called respiratory rhythm centre is primarily
responsible for
this regulation. Another centre present in the pons region
of the brain
called pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of
the respiratory
rhythm centre. Neural signal from this centre can reduce
the duration of
inspiration and thereby alter the respiratory rate. A
chemosensitive area
is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly

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 sensitive to CO2
and hydrogen ions. Increase in these substances can
activate this centre,
which in turn can signal the rhythm centre to make
necessary adjustments
in the respiratory process by which these substances can be
eliminated.
Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery
also can recognise
changes in CO2
and H+
concentration and send necessary signals to the
rhythm centre for remedial actions. The role of oxygen in
the regulation of
respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.
14.6 DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Asthma is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to
inflammation
of bronchi and bronchioles.
Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are
damaged
due to which respiratory surface is decreased. One of the
major causes of
this is cigarette smoking. Occupational Respiratory
Disorders: In certain industries, especially
those involving grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is
produced
that the defense mechanism of the body cannot fully cope
with the
situation. Long exposure can give rise to inflammation
leading to fibrosis
(proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus causing serious
lung damage.
Workers in such industries should wear protective masks.

The passage you provided offers an in-depth overview of the human respiratory system and
its functioning. It describes the various stages of respiration, the structure of the respiratory
organs, the mechanics of breathing, and the transport and exchange of gases. Here's a brief
summary of the key concepts mentioned:

1. Respiratory Organs:

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 Organisms like sponges, coelenterates, and flatworms rely on simple diffusion for
gas exchange, while more complex organisms, like mammals, have specialized
respiratory organs (e.g., lungs).

Human respiration involves a series of organs: the nostrils, nasal passages, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli, which together make up the
respiratory system.

The lungs are the primary organs for gas exchange in humans, housed within the
thoracic cavity, which is sealed by the diaphragm and ribcage.

2. Mechanism of Breathing:

Breathing consists of inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation), driven by

pressure changes in the lungs compared to the outside atmosphere.

The diaphragm and intercostal muscles control the expansion and contraction of the
thoracic cavity to create pressure gradients that facilitate airflow into and out of the
lungs.

3. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:

Various volumes are involved in breathing, including tidal volume (TV), inspiratory
reserve volume (IRV), and expiratory reserve volume (ERV).

These volumes contribute to different respiratory capacities, such as vital capacity

(VC) and total lung capacity (TLC).

4. Exchange of Gases:

Gas exchange occurs primarily in the alveoli, where oxygen (O2) diffuses into the
blood and carbon dioxide (CO2) diffuses out, driven by differences in partial
pressures.

The diffusion rate is also influenced by factors like gas solubility and membrane
thickness.

5. Transport of Gases:

O2 is transported mainly bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming

oxyhemoglobin. Similarly, CO2 is transported in various forms, including as
bicarbonate ions and bound to hemoglobin.

The binding of O2 to hemoglobin is influenced by factors like partial pressure of

oxygen and carbon dioxide, pH, and temperature.

6. Regulation of Respiration:

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 The medulla in the brain controls the rhythm of breathing, while the pons helps
moderate the rate and depth of breathing.

Chemoreceptors in the body detect changes in CO2 and pH levels, influencing the
respiratory rate to maintain homeostasis.

7. Respiratory Disorders:

Diseases like asthma, emphysema, and occupational respiratory disorders (e.g.,

those caused by dust inhalation) can damage the respiratory system.

Emphysema, in particular, is often linked to smoking and results in decreased

surface area for gas exchange.

This passage emphasizes the complex processes involved in human respiration, including
how gases are exchanged, transported, and regulated in the body. It also highlights the
vulnerability of the respiratory system to various disorders.

Please make a beautiful table on Respiratory organ for long

term memory and the importance point is that don't add
extra information outside the given text

Here’s a simple and clear table based on the provided text that can help in long-term
retention of the respiratory organs and their functions:

Respiratory Type of
Organism Type Organ Respiration Important Points

Lower Invertebrates Body surface Diffusion Exchange of gases through the

entire body surface (e.g., sponges,
coelenterates).

Earthworm Moist cuticle Diffusion Gases exchange across the moist

skin surface.

Insects Tracheal tubes Diffusion Network of tubes to transport

atmospheric air within the body.

Aquatic Gills Branchial Vascularised structures for gas

Arthropods/Molluscs respiration exchange in water.

Terrestrial Forms Lungs Pulmonary Vascularised bags for gas exchange

respiration in air (e.g., amphibians, reptiles,
birds, mammals).

Amphibians (e.g., Skin (in Cutaneous Can respire through their moist
Frogs) addition to respiration skin as well as lungs.

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 Respiratory Type of
Organism Type Organ Respiration Important Points

lungs)

Vertebrates (excluding Lungs Pulmonary Specialized for gas exchange

fishes) respiration through the lungs.

Fishes Gills Branchial Gills used for gas exchange in

respiration water.

This table highlights the main respiratory organs used by different groups of organisms as
described in your text and includes the key type of respiration each group uses.

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Please make a beautiful table on HUMAN RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM TOPIC for long term memory and the importance
point is that don't add extra information outside the given
text

Here’s a table on the Human Respiratory System based strictly on the provided text for easy
long-term memory retention:

Structure/Part Description/Function

External Nostrils Openings above the upper lips; lead to the nasal chamber.

Nasal Chamber Air is filtered, humidified, and brought to body temperature before entering
the pharynx.

Pharynx Common passage for food and air.

Larynx (Sound Box) Cartilaginous box involved in sound production; contains the glottis which
can be covered by the epiglottis during swallowing.

Epiglottis Thin elastic cartilage flap that prevents food from entering the larynx during
swallowing.

Trachea A straight tube that extends into the thoracic cavity and divides into the
primary bronchi.

Primary Bronchi Branches of the trachea that lead to each lung; further divide into secondary
and tertiary bronchi.

Secondary and Branches of the primary bronchi that further divide and lead to smaller
Tertiary Bronchi bronchioles.

Bronchioles Smaller branches of bronchi that end in terminal bronchioles.

Terminal Bronchioles Final branches of bronchioles that lead to the alveolar sacs.

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 Structure/Part Description/Function

Alveoli Thin-walled, vascularised structures where the exchange of gases (O₂ and
CO₂) occurs between the blood and air.

Lungs Pair of organs where gas exchange takes place, located in the thoracic
cavity.

Pleura Double-layered membrane that covers the lungs. The outer pleura is in
contact with the thoracic lining, and the inner pleura is in contact with the
lung surface.

Pleural Fluid Fluid between the pleura that reduces friction during lung movement.

Thoracic Chamber Air-tight chamber formed by the vertebral column, sternum, ribs, and
diaphragm that houses the lungs.

Diaphragm Dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal
cavity and aids in breathing.

This table covers the key structures of the human respiratory system and their respective
roles, as outlined in your provided text, in a succinct and organized manner for easy
memorization.

Please make a beautiful table on Step of respiration for

long term memory and the importance point is that don't
add extra information outside the given text

Here’s a table summarizing the Steps of Respiration based strictly on the given text for long-
term memory retention:

Step Description/Function

1. Breathing Atmospheric air is drawn into the lungs and CO₂-rich air is expelled out.
(Pulmonary
Ventilation)

2. Diffusion of Gases Oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) diffuse across the alveolar
membrane.

3. Transport of Gases Oxygen is transported by red blood cells, and carbon dioxide is carried in
by Blood various forms (e.g., bicarbonate, carbaminohemoglobin) through the
bloodstream.

4. Diffusion Between Oxygen diffuses from blood to tissues, and carbon dioxide diffuses from
Blood and Tissues tissues to blood.

5. Utilization of O₂ by Cells utilize oxygen for catabolic reactions, producing energy, and release
Cells carbon dioxide as a byproduct (cellular respiration).

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This table summarizes the sequential steps involved in the process of respiration, directly
reflecting the information from the provided text.

Please make a beautiful table on EXCHANGE OF GASES

TPOIC for long term memory and the importance point is
that don't add extra information outside the given text

Here is a table summarizing the Exchange of Gases based strictly on the provided text for
long-term memory retention:

Aspect Description

Site of Exchange Alveoli (primary site of gas exchange); also occurs between blood and tissues.

Mechanism of Diffusion of gases (O₂ and CO₂) occurs across the alveolar membrane based on
Exchange pressure/concentration gradients.

Partial Pressure The pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture of gases. pO₂ for oxygen
and pCO₂ for carbon dioxide.

Concentration O₂ moves from alveoli (high concentration) to blood (low concentration). CO₂
Gradient moves from tissues (high concentration) to blood (low concentration).

Solubility of CO₂ is 20-25 times more soluble than O₂, allowing CO₂ to diffuse more easily
Gases through membranes than O₂.

Diffusion Composed of three layers: 1) squamous epithelium of alveoli, 2) endothelium of

Membrane alveolar capillaries, and 3) basement substance. The total thickness is less than
a millimeter.

This table captures the essential details on gas exchange in the lungs and between blood
and tissues, as outlined in your provided text.

Please make a beautiful table on TRANSPORT OF GASES,

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN, TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
for long term memory and the importance point is that
don't add extra information outside the given text

Here’s a table summarizing the Transport of Gases, Transport of Oxygen, and Transport of
Carbon Dioxide based strictly on the provided text for long-term memory retention:

Aspect Description

Transport of Gases Blood serves as the medium for transporting O₂ and CO₂.

Transport of Oxygen - 97% of O₂ is transported by RBCs as oxyhemoglobin.

- The remaining 3% is dissolved in the plasma.

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 Aspect Description

Transport of Carbon Dioxide - 20-25% of CO₂ is transported by RBCs as carbaminohemoglobin.

- 70% of CO₂ is carried as bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻).
- 7% is dissolved in the plasma.

This table succinctly captures the key points regarding the transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood, as mentioned in the text.

Please make a beautiful table on REGULATION OF

RESPIRATION for long term memory and the importance
point is that don't add extra information outside the given
text

Here’s a table summarizing the Regulation of Respiration based strictly on the provided text
for long-term memory retention:

Aspect Description

Respiratory Rhythm Located in the medulla of the brain; primarily responsible for
Centre regulating the rhythm of respiration.

Pneumotaxic Centre Located in the pons of the brain; modulates the respiratory rhythm
centre by reducing the duration of inspiration, thus adjusting the
respiratory rate.

Chemosensitive Area Adjacent to the rhythm centre, sensitive to CO₂ and H⁺ concentrations.
High levels of these substances activate the chemosensitive area to
adjust respiration.

Receptors in Aortic Arch These receptors detect changes in CO₂ and H⁺ levels in the blood and
and Carotid Artery send signals to the respiratory rhythm centre for necessary
adjustments.

Role of Oxygen Oxygen plays a minimal role in regulating the respiratory rhythm, as
the primary regulation is based on CO₂ and H⁺ levels.

This table clearly summarizes how respiration is regulated in the human body based on the
provided text, with no extra information added.

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM for long term memory and the
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outside the given text

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Here’s a table summarizing the Disorders of the Respiratory System based strictly on the
provided text for long-term memory retention:

Disorder Description

Asthma Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi

and bronchioles.

Emphysema A chronic disorder where alveolar walls are damaged, reducing the
respiratory surface. Cigarette smoking is a major cause.

Occupational Caused by prolonged exposure to dust in certain industries (e.g.,

Respiratory Disorders grinding or stone-breaking). Can lead to fibrosis and lung damage.

This table highlights the key respiratory disorders as described in the text, aiding in long-
term retention.

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